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Michael Kaufmann
Andreas Meier

SQL and NoSQL

Databases
Modeling, Languages, Security
and Architectures for Big Data
Management
Second Edition
SQL and NoSQL Databases
Michael Kaufmann • Andreas Meier

SQL and NoSQL

Databases
Modeling, Languages, Security
and Architectures for Big Data
Management

Second Edition
Michael Kaufmann Andreas Meier
Informatik Institute of Informatics
Hochschule Luzern Universität Fribourg
Rotkreuz, Switzerland Fribourg, Switzerland

ISBN 978-3-031-27907-2 ISBN 978-3-031-27908-9 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-27908-9

# The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland
AG 2023
The first edition of this book was published by Springer Vieweg in 2019
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or
dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or
the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any
errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Foreword

The term database has long since become part of people’s everyday vocabulary, for
managers and clerks as well as students of most subjects. They use it to describe a
logically organized collection of electronically stored data that can be directly
searched and viewed. However, they are generally more than happy to leave the
whys and hows of its inner workings to the experts.
Users of databases are rarely aware of the immaterial and concrete business
values contained in any individual database. This applies as much to a car importer’s
spare parts inventory as the IT solution containing all customer depots at a bank or
the patient information system of a hospital. Yet failure of these systems, or even
cumulative errors, can threaten the very existence of the respective company or
institution. For that reason, it is important for a much larger audience than just the
“database specialists” to be well-informed about what is going on. Anyone involved
with databases should understand what these tools are effectively able to do and
which conditions must be created and maintained for them to do so.
Probably the most important aspect concerning databases involves (a) the dis-
tinction between their administration and the data stored in them (user data) and
(b) the economic magnitude of these two areas. Database administration consists of
various technical and administrative factors, from computers, database systems, and
additional storage to the experts setting up and maintaining all these components—
the aforementioned database specialists. It is crucial to keep in mind that the
administration is by far the smaller part of standard database operation, constituting
only about a quarter of the entire efforts.
Most of the work and expenses concerning databases lie in gathering,
maintaining, and utilizing the user data. This includes the labor costs for all
employees who enter data into the database, revise it, retrieve information from
the database, or create files using this information. In the above examples, this means
warehouse employees, bank tellers, or hospital personnel in a wide variety of
fields—usually for several years.
In order to be able to properly evaluate the importance of the tasks connected with
data maintenance and utilization on the one hand and database administration on the
other hand, it is vital to understand and internalize this difference in the effort
required for each of them. Database administration starts with the design of the
database, which already touches on many specialized topics such as determining the

v
vi Foreword

consistency checks for data manipulation or regulating data redundancies, which are
as undesirable on the logical level as they are essential on the storage level. The
development of database solutions is always targeted on their later use, so
ill-considered decisions in the development process may have a permanent impact
on everyday operations. Finding ideal solutions, such as the golden mean between
too strict and too flexible when determining consistency conditions, may require
some experience. Unduly strict conditions will interfere with regular operations,
while excessively lax rules will entail a need for repeated expensive data repairs.
To avoid such issues, it is invaluable for anyone concerned with database
development and operation, whether in management or as a database specialist, to
gain systematic insight into this field of computer sciences. The table of contents
gives an overview of the wide variety of topics covered in this book. The title already
shows that, in addition to an in-depth explanation of the field of conventional
databases (relational model, SQL), the book also provides highly educational infor-
mation about current advancements and related fields, the keywords being NoSQL
and Big Data. I am confident that the newest edition of this book will once again be
well-received by both students and professionals—its authors are quite familiar with
both groups.

Professor Emeritus for Databases Carl August Zehnder

ETH Zürich
Zürich, Switzerland
Preface

It is remarkable how stable some concepts are in the field of databases. Information
technology is generally known to be subject to rapid development, bringing forth
new technologies at an unbelievable pace. However, this is only superficially the
case. Many aspects of computer science do not essentially change. This includes not
only the basics, such as the functional principles of universal computing machines,
processors, compilers, operating systems, databases and information systems, and
distributed systems, but also computer language technologies such as C, TCP/IP, or
HTML that are decades old but in many ways provide a stable fundament of the
global, earth-spanning information system known as the World Wide Web. Like-
wise, the SQL language (Structured Query Language) has been in use for almost five
decades and will remain so in the foreseeable future. The theory of relational
database systems was initiated in the 1970s by Codd (relation model) and
Chamberlin and Boyce (SEQUEL). However, these technologies have a major
impact on the practice of data management today. Especially, with the Big Data
revolution and the widespread use of data science methods for decision support,
relational databases and the use of SQL for data analysis are actually becoming more
important. Even though sophisticated statistics and machine learning are enhancing
the possibilities for knowledge extraction from data, many if not most data analyses
for decision support rely on descriptive statistics using SQL for grouped aggrega-
tion. SQL is also used in the field of Big Data with MapReduce technology. In this
sense, although SQL database technology is quite mature, it is more relevant today
than ever.
Nevertheless, the developments in the Big Data ecosystem brought new
technologies into the world of databases, to which we pay enough attention too.
Non-relational database technologies, which find more and more fields of applica-
tion under the generic term NoSQL, differ not only superficially from the classical
relational databases but also in the underlying principles. Relational databases were
developed in the twentieth century with the purpose of tightly organized, operational
forms of data management, which provided stability but limited flexibility. In
contrast, the NoSQL database movement emerged in the beginning of the new
century, focusing on horizontal partitioning, schema flexibility, and index-free
neighborhood with the goal of solving the Big Data problems of volume, variety,
and velocity, especially in Web-scale data systems. This has far-reaching

vii
viii Preface

consequences and leads to a new approach in data management, which deviate

significantly from the previous theories on the basic concept of databases: the way
data is modeled, how data is queried and manipulated, how data consistency is
handled, and how data is stored and made accessible. That is why in all chapters we
compare these two worlds, SQL and NoSQL databases.
In the first five chapters, we analyze in detail the management, modeling,
languages, security, and architecture of SQL databases, graph databases, and, in
the second English edition, new document databases. In Chaps. 6 and 7, we provide
an overview of other SQL- and NoSQL-based database approaches.
In addition to classic concepts such as the entity and relationship model and its
mapping in SQL or NoSQL database schemas, query languages, or transaction
management, we explain aspects for NoSQL databases such as the MapReduce
procedure, distribution options (fragments, replication), or the CAP theorem (con-
sistency, availability, partition tolerance).
In the second English edition, we offer a new in-depth introduction to document
databases with a method for modeling document structures, an overview of the
database language MQL, as well as security and architecture aspects. The new
edition also takes into account new developments in the Cypher language. The
topic of database security is newly introduced as a separate chapter and analyzed
in detail with regard to data protection, integrity, and transactions. Texts on data
management, database programming, and data warehousing and data lakes have
been updated. In addition, the second English edition explains the concepts of JSON,
JSON Schema, BSON, index-free neighborhood, cloud databases, search engines,
and time series databases.
We have launched a Website called sql-nosql.org, where we share teaching and
tutoring materials such as slides, tutorials for SQL and Cypher, case studies, and a
workbench for MySQL and Neo4j, so that language training can be done either with
SQL or with Cypher, the graph-oriented query language of the NoSQL database
Neo4j.
We thank Alexander Denzler and Marcel Wehrle for the development of the
workbench for relational and graph-oriented databases. For the redesign of the
graphics, we were able to work with Thomas Riediker. We thank him for his tireless
efforts. He has succeeded in giving the pictures a modern style and an individual
touch. In the ninth edition, we have tried to keep his style in our new graphics. For
the further development of the tutorials and case studies, which are available on the
website sql-nosql.org, we thank the computer science students Andreas Waldis,
Bettina Willi, Markus Ineichen, and Simon Studer for their contributions to the
tutorial in Cypher, respectively, to the case study Travelblitz with OpenOffice Base
and with Neo4J. For the feedback on the manuscript, we thank Alexander Denzler,
Daniel Fasel, Konrad Marfurt, Thomas Olnhoff, and Stefan Edlich for their willing-
ness to contribute to the quality of our work with reading our manuscript and with
providing valuable feedback. A heartfelt thank you goes out to Michael Kaufmann’s
wife Melody Reymond for proofreading our manuscript. Special thanks to Andy
Preface ix

Oppel of the University of California, Berkeley, for grammatical and technological

review of the English text. A big thank goes to Leonardo Milla of Springer, who has
supported us with patience and expertise.

Rotkreuz, Switzerland Michael Kaufmann

Fribourg, Switzerland Andreas Meier
October 2022
Contents

1 Database Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Information Systems and Databases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 SQL Databases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.1 Relational Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.2 Structured Query Language SQL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.3 Relational Database Management System . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3 Big Data and NoSQL Databases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3.1 Big Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3.2 NoSQL Database Management System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.4 Graph Databases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.4.1 Graph-Based Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.4.2 Graph Query Language Cypher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.5 Document Databases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.5.1 Document Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.5.2 Document-Oriented Database Language MQL . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.6 Organization of Data Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2 Database Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.1 From Requirements Analysis to Database . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.2 The Entity-Relationship Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.2.1 Entities and Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.2.2 Associations and Association Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.2.3 Generalization and Aggregation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.3 Implementation in the Relational Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.3.1 Dependencies and Normal Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.3.2 Mapping Rules for Relational Databases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.4 Implementation in the Graph Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.4.1 Graph Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.4.2 Mapping Rules for Graph Databases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.5 Implementation in the Document Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.5.1 Document-Oriented Database Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

xi
xii Contents

2.5.2 Mapping Rules for Document Databases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

2.6 Formula for Database Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3 Database Languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.1 Interacting with Databases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.2 Relational Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.2.1 Overview of Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.2.2 Set Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
3.2.3 Relation Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.2.4 Relationally Complete Languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
3.3 Relational Language SQL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.3.1 Creating and Populating the Database Schema . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.3.2 Relational Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
3.3.3 Built-In Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.3.4 Null values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
3.4 Graph-Based Language Cypher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
3.4.1 Creating and Populating the Database Schema . . . . . . . . . . 92
3.4.2 Relation Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
3.4.3 Built-In Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
3.4.4 Graph Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
3.5 Document-Oriented Language MQL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
3.5.1 Creating and Filling the Database Schema . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
3.5.2 Relation Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
3.5.3 Built-In Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
3.5.4 Null Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
3.6 Database Programming with Cursors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
3.6.1 Embedding of SQL in Procedural Languages . . . . . . . . . . . 106
3.6.2 Embedding Graph-Based Languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
3.6.3 Embedding Document Database Languages . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
4 Database Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
4.1 Security Goals and Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
4.2 Access Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
4.2.1 Authentication and Authorization in SQL . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
4.2.2 Authentication in Cypher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
4.2.3 Authentication and Authorization in MQL . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
4.3 Integrity Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
4.3.1 Relational Integrity Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
4.3.2 Integrity Constraints for Graphs in Cypher . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
4.3.3 Integrity Constraints in Document Databases with MQL . . . 132
4.4 Transaction Consistency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
4.4.1 Multi-user Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
4.4.2 ACID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Contents xiii

4.4.3 Serializability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

4.4.4 Pessimistic Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
4.4.5 Optimistic Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
4.4.6 Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
4.5 Soft Consistency in Massive Distributed Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
4.5.1 BASE and the CAP Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
4.5.2 Nuanced Consistency Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
4.5.3 Vector Clocks for the Serialization of Distributed
Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
4.5.4 Comparing ACID and BASE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
4.6 Transaction Control Language Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
4.6.1 Transaction Control in SQL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
4.6.2 Transaction Management in the Graph Database Neo4J
and in the Cypher Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
4.6.3 Transaction Management in MongoDB and MQL . . . . . . . 155
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
5 System Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
5.1 Processing of Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Data . . . . . . . . . . 159
5.2 Storage and Access Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
5.2.1 Indexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
5.2.2 Tree Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
5.2.3 Hashing Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
5.2.4 Consistent Hashing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
5.2.5 Multi-dimensional Data Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
5.2.6 Binary JavaScript Object Notation BSON . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
5.2.7 Index-Free Adjacency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
5.3 Translation and Optimization of Relational Queries . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
5.3.1 Creation of Query Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
5.3.2 Optimization by Algebraic Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
5.3.3 Calculation of Join Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
5.3.4 Cost-Based Optimization of Access Paths . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
5.4 Parallel Processing with MapReduce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
5.5 Layered Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
5.6 Use of Different Storage Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
5.7 Cloud Databases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
6 Post-relational Databases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
6.1 The Limits of SQL and What Lies Beyond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
6.2 Federated Databases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
6.3 Temporal Databases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
6.4 Multi-dimensional Databases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
6.5 Data Warehouse and Data Lake Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
6.6 Object-Relational Databases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
6.7 Knowledge Databases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
xiv Contents

6.8 Fuzzy Databases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
7 NoSQL Databases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
7.1 Development of Non-relational Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
7.2 Key-Value Stores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
7.3 Column-Family Stores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
7.4 Document Databases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
7.5 XML Databases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
7.6 Graph Databases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
7.7 Search Engine Databases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
7.8 Time Series Databases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243

Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Database Management
1

1.1 Information Systems and Databases

The evolution from the industrial society via the service society to the information
and knowledge society is represented by the assessment of information as a factor in
production. The following characteristics distinguish information from material
goods:

• Representation: Information is specified by data (signs, signals, messages, or

language elements).
• Processing: Information can be transmitted, stored, categorized, found, or
converted into other representation formats using algorithms and data structures
(calculation rules).
• Combination: Information can be freely combined. The origin of individual parts
cannot be traced. Manipulation is possible at any point.
• Age: Information is not subject to physical aging processes.
• Original: Information can be copied without limit and does not distinguish
between original and copy.
• Vagueness: Information can be imprecise and of differing validity (quality).
• Medium: Information does not require a fixed medium and is therefore indepen-
dent of location.

These properties clearly show that digital goods (information, software, multime-
dia, etc.), i.e., data, are vastly different from material goods in both handling and
economic or legal evaluation. A good example is the loss in value that physical
products often experience when they are used—the shared use of information, on the
other hand, may increase its value. Another difference lies in the potentially high
production costs for material goods, while information can be multiplied easily and
at significantly lower costs (only computing power and storage medium). This
causes difficulties in determining property rights and ownership, even though digital
watermarks and other privacy and security measures are available.

# The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 1

M. Kaufmann, A. Meier, SQL and NoSQL Databases,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-27908-9_1
2 1 Database Management

Information System

Communication
Database System Application Software network
or WWW

User
 User guidance
Database  Dialog design Request
Management
 Business logic
 Data querying Response
 Data manipulation
Database  Access permissions
Storage  Data protection

Fig. 1.1 Architecture and components of information systems

Considering data as the basis of information as a production factor in a company

has significant consequences:

• Basis for decision-making: Data allows well-informed decisions, making it vital

for all organizational functions.
• Quality level: Data can be available from different sources; information quality
depends on the availability, correctness, and completeness of the data.
• Need for investments: Data gathering, storage, and processing cause work and
expenses.
• Degree of integration: Fields and holders of duties within any organization are
connected by informational relations, meaning that the fulfillment of the said
duties largely depends on the degree of data integration.

Once data is viewed as a factor in production, it must be planned, governed,

monitored, and controlled. This makes it necessary to see data management as a task
for the executive level, inducing a major change within the company. In addition to
the technical function of operating the information and communication infrastructure
(production), planning and design of data flows (application portfolio) is crucial.
As shown in Fig. 1.1, an information system enables users to store and connect
information interactively, to ask questions, and to get answers. Depending on the
type of information system, the acceptable questions may be limited. There are,
however, open information systems and online platforms in the World Wide Web
that use search engines to process arbitrary queries.
The computer-based information system in Fig. 1.1 is connected to a communi-
cation network such as the World Wide Web in order to allow for online interaction
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