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Intelligent Systems Reference Library 242

Richi Nayak
Khanh Luong

Multi-aspect
Learning
Methods and Applications
Intelligent Systems Reference Library

Volume 242

Series Editors
Janusz Kacprzyk, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
Lakhmi C. Jain, KES International, Shoreham-by-Sea, UK
The aim of this series is to publish a Reference Library, including novel advances
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Indexed by SCOPUS, DBLP, zbMATH, SCImago.
All books published in the series are submitted for consideration in Web of Science.
Richi Nayak · Khanh Luong

Multi-aspect Learning
Methods and Applications
Richi Nayak Khanh Luong
Faculty of Science Faculty of Science
School of Computer Science School of Computer Science
Centre for Data Science Centre for Data Science
Queensland University of Technology Queensland University of Technology
Brisbane, Australia Brisbane, Australia

ISSN 1868-4394 ISSN 1868-4408 (electronic)

Intelligent Systems Reference Library
ISBN 978-3-031-33559-4 ISBN 978-3-031-33560-0 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-33560-0

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023

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The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Contents

1 Multi-aspect Data Learning: Overview, Challenges

and Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Multi-type Relational Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.1 Object Type, Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.2 Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.3 Bi-type Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 Multi-view Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.1 Partial Multi-view Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3.2 Consensus and Complementary Information
in Multi-view Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.4 Relationship Between MTRD and Multi-view Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.5 Real-World Multi-aspect Data Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.5.1 Text Mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.5.2 Image Mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.5.3 Bio-informatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.5.4 Social-Network Mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.6 Multi-aspect Data Clustering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.6.1 Why Design Customized Multi-aspect Clustering
Methods? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.6.2 Multi-aspect Data Clustering: Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.7 Chapter Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2 Non-negative Matrix Factorization-Based Multi-aspect Data
Clustering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.2 NMF Framework: Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.3 NMF Framework: Basic Concepts and Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.3.1 NMF Formulation on Traditional Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.3.2 NMF-Based Clustering Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

v
vi Contents

2.3.3 Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.3.4 Benefits of NMF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.4 NMF-Based Clustering Methods on One-Aspect Data . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.5 NMF-Based Clustering Methods on Multi-aspect Data . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.5.1 NMF-Based Clustering Methods on Multi-view Data . . . . . . 37
2.5.2 NMF-Based Clustering Methods on MTRD Data . . . . . . . . . 43
2.6 Chapter Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3 NMF and Manifold Learning for Multi-aspect Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.2 Introduction to Manifold Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.3 NMF and Manifold Learning-Based Clustering Methods
Applied to Traditional One-Aspect Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.3.1 Manifold Learning Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.3.2 Manifold Learning Based NMF Methods
of Traditional One-Aspect Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.3.3 Challenges in Manifold Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.4 NMF and Manifold Learning-Based Clustering Methods
Applied to Multi-aspect Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.4.1 Learning the Manifold on Each Aspect
of the Multi-aspect Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.4.2 Learning the Accurate Manifold on Each Aspect . . . . . . . . . 65
3.4.3 Learning the Intrinsic Consensus Manifold
on Multi-view Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.4.4 Discussion: Manifold Learning Approaches
for Multi-view Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.5 Chapter Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4 Subspace Learning for Multi-aspect Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.2 Subspace Clustering: Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.3 One-Aspect Subspace Clustering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.3.1 Problem Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.3.2 Subspace-Based Clustering Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.4 Multi-aspect Subspace Clustering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.4.1 Multi-view Clustering Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.4.2 Multi-view Subspace Clustering Using Early
Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.4.3 Multi-view Subspace Clustering Using Late
Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.4.4 Multi-view Subspace Clustering Using Intermediate
Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.4.5 Multi-view Subspace Clustering Using a Shared
Unified Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Contents vii

4.5 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
4.6 Chapter Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
5 Spectral Clustering on Multi-aspect Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
5.2 Spectral Clustering on Traditional One-Aspect Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
5.2.1 Fundamental Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
5.2.2 Spectral Clustering Approach on One-Aspect Data . . . . . . . . 108
5.3 Spectral Clustering Methods on Multi-aspect Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
5.3.1 Multi-view Spectral Clustering Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
5.3.2 MTRD Spectral Clustering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
5.4 Chapter Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
6 Learning Consensus and Complementary Information
for Multi-aspect Data Clustering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
6.2 Overview of Learning Consensus and Complementary
Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
6.3 Learning Consensus and Complementary Information Using
NMF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
6.3.1 NMF-Based Methods Focused on Learning
the Consensus Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
6.3.2 NMF-Based Methods Focused on Enhancing
the Complementary Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
6.3.3 NMF-Based Methods Focused on Enhancing
Consensus and Complementary Information Both . . . . . . . . 138
6.4 Learning Consensus and Complementary Information Using
Subspace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
6.4.1 Subspace-Based Methods Learning the Consensus
Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
6.4.2 Subspace-Based Methods Learning
the Complementary Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
6.4.3 Subspace-Based Methods Learning Both Consensus
and Complementary Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
6.5 Learning Consensus and Complementary Information Using
Spectral Clustering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
6.5.1 Spectral Methods Learning Consensus
and Complementary Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
6.6 Summary of Constraints and Regularizations Designed
for Learning the Consensus and Complementary Information . . . . . 146
6.6.1 For Learning the Consensus Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
6.6.2 For Learning the Complementary Information . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
6.7 Chapter Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
viii Contents

7 Deep Learning-Based Methods for Multi-aspect Data

Clustering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
7.2 Autoencoder-Based Multi-view Data Clustering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
7.2.1 Introduction to Autoencoder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
7.2.2 AE-Based Clustering for One-View Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
7.2.3 AE-Based Clustering for Multi-view Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
7.3 GAN-Based Multi-view Data Clustering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
7.3.1 Introduction to GAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
7.3.2 GAN-Based Clustering for One-View Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
7.3.3 GAN-Based Clustering for Multi-view Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
7.4 Deep Matrix Factorization-Based Multi-view Clustering . . . . . . . . . 172
7.4.1 Deep Matrix Factorization (DMF)-Based Framework
Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
7.4.2 DMF-Based Clustering on One-View Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
7.4.3 DMF-Based Clustering on Multi-view Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
7.4.4 Remarks: Deep Semi-NMF and Deep-NMF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
7.5 Chapter Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Chapter 1
Multi-aspect Data Learning: Overview,
Challenges and Approaches

Abstract Multi-aspect data, which represents information from multiple perspec-

tives, is becoming increasingly common and important. This is because such data
has the ability to incorporate diverse information, enabling machine learning algo-
rithms to accurately learn the relationships within the data and provide informative
outcomes. This chapter provides an overview of multi-aspect data and discusses the
various ways these aspects can be represented, such as different types or views. Sev-
eral examples of such datasets are presented. Additionally, the chapter briefly intro-
duces the multi-aspect data clustering problem and explores common approaches for
finding clustering solutions.

Keywords Multi-type relational data · Multi-view data · Multi-type relational

data clustering · Multi-view data clustering

1.1 Introduction

Multi-aspect data represents information about entities/objects (such as customers,

events etc.) from various perspectives, encompassing multiple types of relationships
or features. When a dataset contains multiple types of relationships to represent
information, it is referred to as Multi-type Relational Data (MTRD). On the other
hand, when a dataset represents information through multiple views, it is known
as Multi-view data. This chapter provides an overview of multi-aspect data and the
multi-aspect data clustering problem, with a focus on essential concepts. It analyzes
the relationship between MTRD and multi-view data, highlighting the challenges
associated with each dataset type.
In MTRD, there are various types of objects and multiple relationships among
these interrelated objects. Each object type is defined by a set of features and there
are several instances that consist of different combinations of these features. Each
instance is referred to as an entity or object, such as a customer or an event. Enti-
ties within the same object type exhibit intra-type relationship, while entities of
different object types encode inter-type relationship.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 1

R. Nayak and K. Luong, Multi-aspect Learning, Intelligent Systems Reference
Library 242, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-33560-0_1
2 1 Multi-aspect Data Learning: Overview, Challenges and Approaches

An example of MTRD is information presented on a social network like Twitter. It

involves three types of objects: Users, Tweets and Terms. Objects within the “Users”
type have intra-type relationships based on connections such as retweets, replies and
mentions. Similarly, objects within the “Tweets” type have intra-type relationships
based on representation, such as common topics or mentions of a common location,
and so on. Additionally, objects across these object types share inter-type relation-
ships, such as posting (between Users and Tweets), using (between Users and Terms),
or containing (between Tweets and Terms), as illustrated in Fig. 1.1.
Another example of MTRD is a web search system that includes four object types:
Webpages, Users, Queries and Words, along with different types of relationships.
These relationships include issuing (between Users and Queries), viewing (between
Users and Webpages), referring (between Queries and Webpages) and containing
(between Queries and Words or between Webpages and Words), as illustrated in
Fig. 1.2.
Examples of multi-view data are provided in Fig. 1.3, where data can be sourced
from multiple sources and each source can be considered a view. For example,

Fig. 1.1 An example of multi-type relational data with three object types: Users, Tweets and Terms
and various relationships between them

Users Webpages

a11 a12 a13 a14 viewing 0 0 x 0 x

a21 a22 a23 a24 0 0 0 x 0
issuing containing
a31 a32 a33 a34 referencing x 0 0 x 0
a41 a42 a43 a44 0 0 x 0 x

Relationships between objects of containing Each inter-type relationship

each type will be encoded in each Queries Words between two different objects
affinity matrix, e.g., the pairwise types will be encoded in each
similarity matrix of users. inter-type relationship matrix, e.g.,
the webpages-words co-occurence
matrix.

Fig. 1.2 Another example of multi-type relational data with four object types: Users, Webpages,
Queries and Terms and various relationships between them
1.1 Introduction 3

Image

Text

a. b.
Edge

Fourier

Texture

c. d.

Fig. 1.3 Examples of multi-view data [72]

each newspaper forms a view in Fig. 1.3a (e.g., news from BBC, Yahoo etc.), or
each source can come in different forms such as text, image as in Fig. 1.3b. The
multilingual dataset as shown in Fig. 1.3c is a typical multi-view dataset where each
language type corresponds to a view and each document is represented by different
language translations. An image can be described by many different features such
as Edge, Fourier or Texture as in Fig. 1.3d. Each type of feature represents a unique
view in the dataset.
With the advancements in data collection and storage technologies, multi-aspect
data has become prevalent. Both MTRD and multi-view datasets share the character-
istic of providing complementary information for the learning process, but they focus
on different aspects, relationship types, or views. This book treats these two dataset
types as multi-aspect data, where different aspects in multi-view data correspond to
different views, and different object types along with their associated relationships
constitute different aspects in MTRD data.
Due to the incorporation of rich information, customized machine learning algo-
rithms are required to leverage multiple relationships and types present in multi-
aspect data, resulting in informative outcomes for supervised or unsupervised learn-
ing tasks. This book primarily focuses on the unsupervised machine learning
task of clustering, which aims to extract useful information from unlabelled data
by identifying natural groupings based on similarities.
Clustering has been extensively studied in various fields, including data mining,
text mining, image processing, web analysis, and bioinformatics. Clustering methods
designed for traditional data, where samples are represented by a single type of feature
or considered from a single view, need to be modified. Customized multi-aspect data
4 1 Multi-aspect Data Learning: Overview, Challenges and Approaches

Fig. 1.4 Content structure of the chapter

clustering methods should accurately explore and identify the underlying structure
while extracting useful and meaningful knowledge. Learning methods need to exploit
the latent relatedness between samples and different feature objects in MTRD, as
well as the latent properties of data in each view representation in multi-view data
[47, 52, 73].
Given the necessity of considering all available information to derive meaningful
outcomes and the inherent complexity of multi-aspect data, clustering on MTRD
and multi-view data remains a challenging problem that deserves careful attention.
A plethora of MTRD and multi-view clustering methods have been developed based
on concepts such as graph partitions (e.g., spectral clustering) [19, 38, 39, 47, 64],
subspace learning [12, 28, 75, 80], and nonnegative matrix factorization (NMF)
[33, 37, 73, 74, 94]. These approaches can identify underlying structures in multi-
aspect data and have demonstrated improved performance compared to traditional
clustering methods. Each approach has its own strengths and limitations, which will
be detailed in this book for readers’ understanding.
The structure of the chapter is depicted in Fig. 1.4.

1.2 Multi-type Relational Data

An MTRD dataset comprises various types of objects and multiple relationships

among these interconnected objects. Each aspect can be represented by an object
type in the dataset, along with the associated relationships between the object types.
For instance, the MTRD dataset shown in Fig. 1.5 has three aspects: (1) Webpages
and the relationships between Webpages and other object types; (2) Hyperlinks and
the relationships between Hyperlinks and other object types; and (3) Terms and the
relationships between Terms and other object types.
1.2 Multi-type Relational Data 5

Terms Hyperlinks
t1 h1
h2
t2 t3

t4 h3

t6 t5 h4

h5

t7 h6
t8 w1
t9 h7
w3
w2
w4

w5
w6

w8
w7
w9
Webpages

Fig. 1.5 An example of MTRD with three object types: Webpages, Terms, Hyperlinks. The intra-
type relationships are represented as solid lines and inter-type relationships are represented as dotted
lines

1.2.1 Object Type, Objects

An object type refers to a collection of objects of the same data type. For example, the
Webpages object type consists of several webpage objects or instances, denoted as
w1 , w2 , etc., in the MTRD web search system dataset presented in Fig. 1.5. MTRD
encompasses multiple object types. In the given example, there are three distinct
object types corresponding to three different aspects: Webpages, Hyperlinks, and
Terms. The Webpages object type is referred to as the sample object type, while
Hyperlinks and Terms are considered as feature object types.

1.2.2 Relationships
MTRD involves three types of relationships: inter-type, intra-type and association
relationships.

a. Inter-type relationship and Intra-type relationship

The inter-type relationship in MTRD describes the relationships between objects

of two different object types. Meanwhile, the intra-type relationship models the
6 1 Multi-aspect Data Learning: Overview, Challenges and Approaches

Fig. 1.6 Association

relationship

relationships between objects of the same type. In the example depicted in Fig. 1.5,
the inter-type relationships are the connections between objects of Webpages and
Terms, between objects of Webpages and Hyperlinks, and between objects of Terms
and Hyperlinks, indicated by dashed lines. On the other hand, the intra-type relation-
ships are the connections between objects within Webpages, within Hyperlinks, or
within Terms, represented by solid lines. Each inter-type or intra-type relationship
can be encoded in a matrix, which becomes an input for the MTRD learning process.

b. Association relationship

Intra-type and inter-type relationships capture the similarity between individual

objects within the object types. The association relationship captures the relationships
between groups of objects [47]. Identifying and utilizing the association relationship
or the interactions between groups to learn a higher-order to lower-order mapping can
enhance clustering performance. An illustration of association relationships between
groups is shown in Fig. 1.6, which represents the relations between different groups
of different object types. In the figure, the red clusters represent document groups
and the green clusters represent term groups. An association relationship can exist
between a document cluster and a term cluster, as indicated by the dashed line in the
figure.

1.2.3 Bi-type Data

A special case of MTRD is known as bi-type data, where the dataset contains only two
object types: the sample object type and the feature object type. The clustering task
on bi-type data is referred to as co-clustering or bi-clustering, where the clustering
task is performed simultaneously on the rows and columns of the input data matrix.
While the data samples are grouped based on their features, the features can be
clustered using their distributions across the data samples. There are various real-
world applications that exhibit the duality between data samples and features, which
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