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Intelligent Systems Reference Library 242
Richi Nayak
Khanh Luong
Multi-aspect
Learning
Methods and Applications
Intelligent Systems Reference Library
Volume 242
Series Editors
Janusz Kacprzyk, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
Lakhmi C. Jain, KES International, Shoreham-by-Sea, UK
The aim of this series is to publish a Reference Library, including novel advances
and developments in all aspects of Intelligent Systems in an easily accessible and
well structured form. The series includes reference works, handbooks, compendia,
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well integrated knowledge and current information in the field of Intelligent Systems.
The series covers the theory, applications, and design methods of Intelligent Systems.
Virtually all disciplines such as engineering, computer science, avionics, business,
e-commerce, environment, healthcare, physics and life science are included. The list
of topics spans all the areas of modern intelligent systems such as: Ambient intelli-
gence, Computational intelligence, Social intelligence, Computational neuroscience,
Artificial life, Virtual society, Cognitive systems, DNA and immunity-based systems,
e-Learning and teaching, Human-centred computing and Machine ethics, Intelligent
control, Intelligent data analysis, Knowledge-based paradigms, Knowledge manage-
ment, Intelligent agents, Intelligent decision making, Intelligent network security,
Interactive entertainment, Learning paradigms, Recommender systems, Robotics
and Mechatronics including human-machine teaming, Self-organizing and adap-
tive systems, Soft computing including Neural systems, Fuzzy systems, Evolu-
tionary computing and the Fusion of these paradigms, Perception and Vision, Web
intelligence and Multimedia.
Indexed by SCOPUS, DBLP, zbMATH, SCImago.
All books published in the series are submitted for consideration in Web of Science.
Richi Nayak · Khanh Luong
Multi-aspect Learning
Methods and Applications
Richi Nayak Khanh Luong
Faculty of Science Faculty of Science
School of Computer Science School of Computer Science
Centre for Data Science Centre for Data Science
Queensland University of Technology Queensland University of Technology
Brisbane, Australia Brisbane, Australia
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,
broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information
storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or
the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any
errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Contents
v
vi Contents
2.3.3 Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.3.4 Benefits of NMF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.4 NMF-Based Clustering Methods on One-Aspect Data . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.5 NMF-Based Clustering Methods on Multi-aspect Data . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.5.1 NMF-Based Clustering Methods on Multi-view Data . . . . . . 37
2.5.2 NMF-Based Clustering Methods on MTRD Data . . . . . . . . . 43
2.6 Chapter Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3 NMF and Manifold Learning for Multi-aspect Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.2 Introduction to Manifold Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.3 NMF and Manifold Learning-Based Clustering Methods
Applied to Traditional One-Aspect Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.3.1 Manifold Learning Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.3.2 Manifold Learning Based NMF Methods
of Traditional One-Aspect Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.3.3 Challenges in Manifold Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.4 NMF and Manifold Learning-Based Clustering Methods
Applied to Multi-aspect Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.4.1 Learning the Manifold on Each Aspect
of the Multi-aspect Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.4.2 Learning the Accurate Manifold on Each Aspect . . . . . . . . . 65
3.4.3 Learning the Intrinsic Consensus Manifold
on Multi-view Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.4.4 Discussion: Manifold Learning Approaches
for Multi-view Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.5 Chapter Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4 Subspace Learning for Multi-aspect Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.2 Subspace Clustering: Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.3 One-Aspect Subspace Clustering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.3.1 Problem Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.3.2 Subspace-Based Clustering Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.4 Multi-aspect Subspace Clustering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.4.1 Multi-view Clustering Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.4.2 Multi-view Subspace Clustering Using Early
Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.4.3 Multi-view Subspace Clustering Using Late
Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.4.4 Multi-view Subspace Clustering Using Intermediate
Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.4.5 Multi-view Subspace Clustering Using a Shared
Unified Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Contents vii
4.5 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
4.6 Chapter Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
5 Spectral Clustering on Multi-aspect Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
5.2 Spectral Clustering on Traditional One-Aspect Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
5.2.1 Fundamental Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
5.2.2 Spectral Clustering Approach on One-Aspect Data . . . . . . . . 108
5.3 Spectral Clustering Methods on Multi-aspect Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
5.3.1 Multi-view Spectral Clustering Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
5.3.2 MTRD Spectral Clustering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
5.4 Chapter Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
6 Learning Consensus and Complementary Information
for Multi-aspect Data Clustering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
6.2 Overview of Learning Consensus and Complementary
Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
6.3 Learning Consensus and Complementary Information Using
NMF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
6.3.1 NMF-Based Methods Focused on Learning
the Consensus Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
6.3.2 NMF-Based Methods Focused on Enhancing
the Complementary Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
6.3.3 NMF-Based Methods Focused on Enhancing
Consensus and Complementary Information Both . . . . . . . . 138
6.4 Learning Consensus and Complementary Information Using
Subspace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
6.4.1 Subspace-Based Methods Learning the Consensus
Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
6.4.2 Subspace-Based Methods Learning
the Complementary Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
6.4.3 Subspace-Based Methods Learning Both Consensus
and Complementary Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
6.5 Learning Consensus and Complementary Information Using
Spectral Clustering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
6.5.1 Spectral Methods Learning Consensus
and Complementary Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
6.6 Summary of Constraints and Regularizations Designed
for Learning the Consensus and Complementary Information . . . . . 146
6.6.1 For Learning the Consensus Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
6.6.2 For Learning the Complementary Information . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
6.7 Chapter Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
viii Contents
1.1 Introduction
Fig. 1.1 An example of multi-type relational data with three object types: Users, Tweets and Terms
and various relationships between them
Users Webpages
Fig. 1.2 Another example of multi-type relational data with four object types: Users, Webpages,
Queries and Terms and various relationships between them
1.1 Introduction 3
Image
Text
a. b.
Edge
Fourier
Texture
c. d.
each newspaper forms a view in Fig. 1.3a (e.g., news from BBC, Yahoo etc.), or
each source can come in different forms such as text, image as in Fig. 1.3b. The
multilingual dataset as shown in Fig. 1.3c is a typical multi-view dataset where each
language type corresponds to a view and each document is represented by different
language translations. An image can be described by many different features such
as Edge, Fourier or Texture as in Fig. 1.3d. Each type of feature represents a unique
view in the dataset.
With the advancements in data collection and storage technologies, multi-aspect
data has become prevalent. Both MTRD and multi-view datasets share the character-
istic of providing complementary information for the learning process, but they focus
on different aspects, relationship types, or views. This book treats these two dataset
types as multi-aspect data, where different aspects in multi-view data correspond to
different views, and different object types along with their associated relationships
constitute different aspects in MTRD data.
Due to the incorporation of rich information, customized machine learning algo-
rithms are required to leverage multiple relationships and types present in multi-
aspect data, resulting in informative outcomes for supervised or unsupervised learn-
ing tasks. This book primarily focuses on the unsupervised machine learning
task of clustering, which aims to extract useful information from unlabelled data
by identifying natural groupings based on similarities.
Clustering has been extensively studied in various fields, including data mining,
text mining, image processing, web analysis, and bioinformatics. Clustering methods
designed for traditional data, where samples are represented by a single type of feature
or considered from a single view, need to be modified. Customized multi-aspect data
4 1 Multi-aspect Data Learning: Overview, Challenges and Approaches
clustering methods should accurately explore and identify the underlying structure
while extracting useful and meaningful knowledge. Learning methods need to exploit
the latent relatedness between samples and different feature objects in MTRD, as
well as the latent properties of data in each view representation in multi-view data
[47, 52, 73].
Given the necessity of considering all available information to derive meaningful
outcomes and the inherent complexity of multi-aspect data, clustering on MTRD
and multi-view data remains a challenging problem that deserves careful attention.
A plethora of MTRD and multi-view clustering methods have been developed based
on concepts such as graph partitions (e.g., spectral clustering) [19, 38, 39, 47, 64],
subspace learning [12, 28, 75, 80], and nonnegative matrix factorization (NMF)
[33, 37, 73, 74, 94]. These approaches can identify underlying structures in multi-
aspect data and have demonstrated improved performance compared to traditional
clustering methods. Each approach has its own strengths and limitations, which will
be detailed in this book for readers’ understanding.
The structure of the chapter is depicted in Fig. 1.4.
Terms Hyperlinks
t1 h1
h2
t2 t3
t4 h3
t6 t5 h4
h5
t7 h6
t8 w1
t9 h7
w3
w2
w4
w5
w6
w8
w7
w9
Webpages
Fig. 1.5 An example of MTRD with three object types: Webpages, Terms, Hyperlinks. The intra-
type relationships are represented as solid lines and inter-type relationships are represented as dotted
lines
An object type refers to a collection of objects of the same data type. For example, the
Webpages object type consists of several webpage objects or instances, denoted as
w1 , w2 , etc., in the MTRD web search system dataset presented in Fig. 1.5. MTRD
encompasses multiple object types. In the given example, there are three distinct
object types corresponding to three different aspects: Webpages, Hyperlinks, and
Terms. The Webpages object type is referred to as the sample object type, while
Hyperlinks and Terms are considered as feature object types.
1.2.2 Relationships
MTRD involves three types of relationships: inter-type, intra-type and association
relationships.
relationships between objects of the same type. In the example depicted in Fig. 1.5,
the inter-type relationships are the connections between objects of Webpages and
Terms, between objects of Webpages and Hyperlinks, and between objects of Terms
and Hyperlinks, indicated by dashed lines. On the other hand, the intra-type relation-
ships are the connections between objects within Webpages, within Hyperlinks, or
within Terms, represented by solid lines. Each inter-type or intra-type relationship
can be encoded in a matrix, which becomes an input for the MTRD learning process.
b. Association relationship
A special case of MTRD is known as bi-type data, where the dataset contains only two
object types: the sample object type and the feature object type. The clustering task
on bi-type data is referred to as co-clustering or bi-clustering, where the clustering
task is performed simultaneously on the rows and columns of the input data matrix.
While the data samples are grouped based on their features, the features can be
clustered using their distributions across the data samples. There are various real-
world applications that exhibit the duality between data samples and features, which
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