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Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering 683

David Harvey
Haranath Kar
Shekhar Verma
Vijaya Bhadauria Editors

Advances
in VLSI,
Communication,
and Signal
Processing
Select Proceedings of VCAS 2019
Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering

Volume 683

Series Editors

Leopoldo Angrisani, Department of Electrical and Information Technologies Engineering, University of Napoli
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Marco Arteaga, Departament de Control y Robótica, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Coyoacán,
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Samarjit Chakraborty, Fakultät für Elektrotechnik und Informationstechnik, TU München, Munich, Germany
Jiming Chen, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
Shanben Chen, Materials Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
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Singapore, Singapore
Rüdiger Dillmann, Humanoids and Intelligent Systems Laboratory, Karlsruhe Institute for Technology,
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Torsten Kroeger, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
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David Harvey Haranath Kar
• •

Shekhar Verma Vijaya Bhadauria

•

Editors

Advances in VLSI,
Communication, and Signal
Processing
Select Proceedings of VCAS 2019

123
Editors
David Harvey Haranath Kar
Faculty of Engineering and Technology Department of Electronics
General Engineering Research Institute and Communication Engineering
Liverpool John Moorse University Motilal Nehru National Institute
Liverpool, UK of Technology Allahabad
Prayagraj, India
Shekhar Verma
Department of Information Technology Vijaya Bhadauria
Indian Institute of Information Technology Department of Electronics
Allahabad, India and Communication Engineering
Motilal Nehru National Institute
of Technology Allahabad
Prayagraj, India

ISSN 1876-1100 ISSN 1876-1119 (electronic)

Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering
ISBN 978-981-15-6839-8 ISBN 978-981-15-6840-4 (eBook)
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Contents

Controller Design According to Right/Left Coprime Factorization . . . . 1

A. Karimpour and D. K. Chaturvedi
Fault Detection and Classification in Microgrid Using Wavelet
Transform and Artificial Neural Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Priya Singh, Nitin Singh, and Niraj Kumar Choudhary
Performance of 4H-SiC IMPATT Diode at Ka- and W-Band
with Temperature Variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Girish Chandra Ghivela, Prince Kumar, Sourabh Tiwari,
and Joydeep Sengupta
Design and Analysis of Low-Power SRAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Pawar Dhiraj Kumar, Ritesh Kumar Kushwaha, and P. Karuppanan
A Unified Approach for Calculating Outage Performance
of Multi-hop Regenerative Relay Network in Nakagami-m Fading
Channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Himanshu Katiyar, P. K. Verma, Arun Kumar Singh, and Saurabh Dixit
832.5 Gb/s PM-8QAM Superchannel with 5 b/s/Hz Spectral
Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Divya Sharma, Shikha Devi, and Y. K. Prajapati
Design and Performance of High-Speed CMOS Double-Tail Dynamic
Comparator Suitable for Mixed-Signal ICs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Avaneesh K. Dubey, Vikrant Varshney, Ankur Kumar, Pratosh K. Pal,
and R. K. Nagaria
Hybrid Forecasting Model Based on Nonlinear Auto-Regressive
Exogenous Network, Fourier Transform, Self-organizing Map
and Pattern Recognition Model for Hour Ahead Electricity
Load Forecasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Nida-e-Falak and M. M. Tripathi

v
vi Contents

Structural and Optical Characterization of EZO Thin Film

for Application in Optical Waveguide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Lucky Agarwal, Richa Singh, and Shweta Tripathi
Predictive Analysis of Wind Turbine Output Power Using Support
Vector Machine(SVM) Based on Genetic Algorithm(GA) . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Tushar Srivastava and M. M. Tripathi
Dual-Band Dual-Mode Orthogonally Placed CDRA-Based MIMO
Antenna for Wi-fi/WLAN Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Ajay Kumar Dwivedi, Anand Sharma, Pramod Narayan Tripathi,
and Ashutosh Kumar Singh
An Energy-Efficient Localization Scheme Using Beacon Nodes
for Wireless Sensor Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Sunil Kumar, Prateek Raj Gautam, Swati Verma, and Arvind Kumar
Rain Streaks Elimination Using Hybrid Median Filter
and Contrast Stretching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Rais Ahmad and Som Pal Gangwar
Design of Efficient Ternary Subtractor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Yogesh Shrivastava and Tarun Kumar Gupta
A Multichannel Link-Layer Cooperation Protocol (MLCP)
for Cognitive Radio Ad Hoc Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Jahnvi Tiwari, Arun Prakash, and Rajeev Tripathi
Far Field Analysis of Defected Ground Structured Wideband Antenna
for RF Energy Harvesting Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Rashmi Pandey, A. K. Shankhwar, and Ashutosh Singh
New LMI Criterion to the Robust Stability of Discrete-Time Systems
with Time-Varying Delays and Generalized Overflow
Nonlinearities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Pushpendra Kumar Gupta and V. Krishna Rao Kandanvli
PAPR Reduction in OFDM for VLC System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Shilpi, M. Shukla, and Arvind Kumar
Performance Evaluation of Energy-Efficient Adiabatic Logic
Circuit-Based Multiplexer for Low Power Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Shivangi Jaiswal, Prashasti, Anam Khan, and Subodh Wairya
Design and Performance Evaluation of Highly Efficient Adders
in Nanometer Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Prashasti, Shivangi Jaiswal, Anam Khan, and Subodh Wairya
a g l=IG Composite Fading Model for Body-Centric
Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Prasoon Raghuwanshi and Krishan Kumar
Contents vii

DTMOS-Based Low-Voltage Low-Power CCII+ and Biquad Filter

Using –0.25 V Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Anil Kumar Gautam, Tripurari Sharan, and P. Nemthianhoi Zou
Structural and Optical Analysis of Bulk-Hetero Interface Between
MoS2: Pentacene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Anshika Srivastava and Shweta Tripathi
An Efficient Watermarking Process Based on Three-Level DWT
and FFT Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Jamal Arif and Som Pal Gangwar
Blockchain-Enabled Traceable, Transparent Transportation System
for Blood Bank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Nihar Ranjan Pradhan, Akhilendra Pratap Singh, and Vinay Kumar
A Compendious Analysis of Advances in HE Methods for Contrast
Enhancement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
D. Vijayalakshmi and Malaya Kumar Nath
A Survey of Semantic Segmentation on Biomedical Images
Using Deep Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Yellamelli Prajna and Malaya Kumar Nath
HT-IWT-DCT-Based Hybrid Technique of Robust Image
Watermarking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
Priyank Khare and Vinay Kumar Srivastava
Reliability and Circuit Timing Analysis with HCI and NBTI . . . . . . . . 371
S. Udaya Shankar and P. Kalpana
Realization of a Low Profile, Wideband Omni-directional Antenna
for Ku-band Airborne Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
Pramendra Kumar Verma and Raj Kumar
Effect of Structural Metal on Metamaterial-Based Absorber
Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
Sajal Agarwal and Y. K. Prajapati
Effect of Various Parameter Variations on Electrical Characteristics
of Rectangular Gate All Around Junctionless Transistor . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Manish Kumar Rai, Sanjeev Rai, and Abhinav Gupta
Slotted I-Patch with Capacitive Probe Fed Microstrip Antenna
for Wideband Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
Santosh Kumar Gupta and Sangaraju Varun
Development of Cloud-Based Multi-Modal m-Cardiac
Management System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
Naveen Kumar, Arun Kumar, Prabal Gupta, Rohini Srivastava,
R. P. Tewari, Nitin Sahai, and Basant Kumar
viii Contents

PDP Analysis of CNTFET Full Adders for Single and Multiple

Threshold Voltages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
M. Elangovan, R. Ranjith, and S. Devika
A Linear OTA Using Series-Connected Source-Degenerated
Bulk-Driven Floating Gate Differential Pairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
Tanmay Dubey and Vijaya Bhadauria
Compressive Sensing-Based Continuous EEG Monitoring: Seizure
Detection Performance Comparison of Different Classifiers . . . . . . . . . . 459
Meenu Rani, S. B. Dhok, and R. B. Deshmukh
A Low Harmonic High Gain Subthreshold Flipped Voltage
Follower-Based Bulk-Driven OTA Suitable for Low-Frequency
Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
Sougata Ghosh, Saumya Tripathi, and Vijaya Bhadauria
Performance Analysis of MoS2FET for Electronic and Spintronic
Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
Kavindra Kumar Kavi, R. A. Mishra, and Shweta Tripathi
Split Behavior of Supervised Machine Learning Algorithms
for Phishing URL Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
Madhurendra Purbay and Divya Kumar
LMI and YALMIP: Modeling and Optimization Toolbox
in MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
Akhilesh Kumar Ravat, Amit Dhawan, and Manish Tiwari
Improved Noise Margin and Reduced Power Consumption in
Subthreshold Adiabatic Logic Using Dual Rail Power Supply . . . . . . . . 517
Sanjay Kumar Prajapati, Devarshi Shukla, and Santosh Kumar Gupta
Human Action Recognition Using a New Hybrid Descriptor . . . . . . . . . 527
Om Mishra, Pranoti S. Kavimandan, M. M. Tripathi, Rajiv Kapoor,
and Kalpana Yadav
Analog and Radio-Frequency Performance of Hetero-Gate-Dielectric
FD SOI MOSFET in Re-S/D Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
Nilesh Anand Srivastava, Anjali Priya, and Ram Awadh Mishra
Theoretical Analysis of Defected Ground Multiband Rectangular
Shape Microstrip Patch Antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
Salah Boubkar Salah Abdou, Anil Kumar, and Arvind Kumar
New Resistorless FDNR Simulation Configuration Employing
CDDITAs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
Kapil Bhardwaj and Mayank Srivastava
Contents ix

Novel CDDITA-Based-Grounded Inductance Simulation Circuits . . . . . 571

Kapil Bhardwaj and Mayank Srivastava
New FDNR and FDNC Simulation Configurations Using Inverted
VDDIBAs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
Kapil Bhardwaj and Mayank Srivastava
A Low Power Approach for Designing 12-Bit Current
Steering DAC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595
Abhishek Kumar, Santosh Kumar Gupta, and Vijaya Bhadauria
Design and Implementation of an Efficient Mixed Parallel-Pipeline
SAD Architecture for HEVC Motion Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605
Mamidi Nagaraju, Santosh Kumar Gupta, Vijaya Bhadauria,
and Devarshi Shukla
Minimization of Peak-to-Average Power Ratio in DHT Precoded
OFDM System by A-Law Companding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623
Ajay Kumar Yadav, Dheeraj Dubey, and Y. K. Prajapati
Leakage-Tolerant Low-Power Wide Fan-in OR Logic Domino
Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631
Ankur Kumar, Pratosh K. Pal, Vikrant Varshney, Avaneesh K. Dubey,
and R. K. Nagaria
Virtually Doped Silicon-on-Insulator Junctionless Transistor
for Reduced OFF-State Leakage Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643
Prateek Kishor Verma and Santosh Kumar Gupta
Improved Store-Carry-Forward Scheme for Information
Dissemination in Unfavorable Vehicular Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657
Ankita Srivastava, Arun Prakash, and Rajeev Tripathi
Information Theory-Based Defense Mechanism Against DDOS
Attacks for WSAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 667
Jyoti Bhola and Surender Soni
Comparative Analysis of Channel Estimation Techniques in Vehicular
Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 679
Devesh Shukla, Arun Prakash, and Rajeev Tripathi
A Survey Study of Diseases Diagnosed Through Imaging Methodology
Using Ultrasonography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 689
Kumar Mohit, Jojo Johnson, Kumari Simran, Rajeev Gupta,
and Basant Kumar
Sensor Localization in WSNs Using Rotating Directional-Antenna
at the Base Station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 705
Prateek Raj Gautam, Sunil Kumar, and Arvind Kumar
x Contents

A Survey on Proactive and Reactive Channel Switching Techniques

in Cognitive Radios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 719
Anushree Srivastava, Arun Prakash, and Rajeev Tripathi
Controlling GIDL Using Core–Shell Technique in Conventional
Nano-Wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 731
Abhishek Kumar, Sushmita Jaiswal, and Santosh Kumar Gupta
About the Editors

Dr. David Harvey is a Professor in the Department of Electronics Engineering,

Liverpool John Moores University, UK. Prof. Harvey got his doctorate degree on
Real-time Microprocessor-based Analysis of Optoelectronic Data in 1984. He has
been working as a Principal Electronics Design Engineer, Kratos, Analytical
Instruments. He has also been working as Director Electronic Design and
Manufacturing (EDAM) Centre, LJMU. He has also been Director Engineering
Development Centre (EDC), LJMU. He has been consultant of over 250 compa-
nies. He has an exhaustive experience in Metrology and advanced optical/acoustic/
X-ray/electronic/AFM measurement systems at nano-and micro-scales. He has
guided more than 19 Ph.D scholars, has more than 139 publications in reputed
journals and conferences and more than 618 citations. He has peer reviewed many
journals and is actively involved in research.

Dr. Haranath Kar received the B.E. Degree from Bengal Engineering College in
1989, the M.Tech. Degree from the Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India, in
1992 and the Ph.D. Degree from the University of Allahabad, Allahabad, India, in
2000. After spending a brief period at the Defence Research and Development
Organization as a Scientist B, he joined Motilal Nehru National Institute of
Technology (MNNIT), Allahabad, India, as a Lecturer in 1991, where he became an
Assistant Professor in 2001, Associate Professor in 2006 and Professor in 2007. He
spent two years with the Atilim University, Turkey (2002–2004) as an Assistant
Professor. He served as the Chairman of the Senate Post-Graduate Committee at
MNNIT from 2009 to 2010. He was Head of Electronics and Communication
Engineering Department at MNNIT during 2013–2015. His current research
interests are in digital signal processing, nonlinear dynamical systems, delayed
systems, robust stability, guaranteed cost control and multidimensional systems. He
is a recipient of the 2002–2003 IEE Heaviside Premium Award. He was conferred
with the D.N. Agrawal Award of excellence and the Bharat Vikas Award in 2005
and 2017, respectively. He was a member of editorial board of the Mathematical
Problems in Engineering.

xi
xii About the Editors

Dr. Shekhar Verma has received his BTech, MTech and PhD from IIT BHU,
Varanasi. He is currently working as professor in Information Technology at Indian
Institute of Information Technology Allahabad. He has published more than 100
research papers in reputed refereed International Journals and more than 80 papers in
international conferences. He has supervised 20 PhD scholars and handled many
R&D projects. He is a member of the “Machine Learning and Optimization Group”
at IIIT Allahabad. His research interests include dimensionality reduction, Manifold
regularization, Privacy Preserving Machine Learning and Deep Learning techniques.

Prof. Vijaya Bhadauria received her B.E. (Electronics) and M.E. (Control &
Instrumentation) from MNREC Allahabad. She received her Ph.D. in Electronics
Engineering from MNNIT Allahabad. She was Head in Department of Electronics
and Communication Engineering, MNNIT Allahabad, India from Aug. 2017 to
Aug. 2019. Her research interests are in the area of VLSI Circuit and System,
Digital Integrated Circuit Design, Advanced Analog Integrated Circuit Design,
VLSI Technology and Semiconductor Device and Modeling. She has published
many papers in international journals and conferences of repute and supervised
several Ph.D. students. Dr. Bhadauria worked as an ad hoc reviewer of many
international journals and served as program committee member of several inter-
national conferences of repute in the area of Microelectronics and VLSI Design.
Controller Design According
to Right/Left Coprime Factorization

A. Karimpour and D. K. Chaturvedi

Abstract This paper proposes a method to design a controller based on the right/left
coprime factorization. In this method, the designer chooses the controller from the
set of all stabilizing controllers based on some performance measures on the closed-
loop transfer function. In comparison with other methods that work on closed-loop
transfer functions such as H∞ or H2 , the proposed method has a better and clearer
insight into the system design procedure. The applicability of the method was shown
in some case studies.

Keywords Right/left coprime factorization · All stabilizing controller · Controller

design

1 Introduction

Despite significant advances in control science and the growing speed of high-speed
computers, the design of a controller for LTI systems still is a challenging task.
Designing controller for linear systems can be done through open-loop or closed-loop
criteria [1, 2].
In designing the controller according to open-loop criteria, the designer tries to
consider the requested performance requirement on the open-loop transfer function.
So, shaping the open-loop transfer matrix is the main idea of this method. In this
method, some performance measures are gain margin (GM), phase margin (PM),
steady-state error, open-loop bandwidth, etc. Mainly, root locus, Bode plot, and

A. Karimpour
Department of Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad,
Mashhad, Iran
e-mail: karimpor@um.ac.ir
D. K. Chaturvedi (B)
Department of Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Dayalbagh Educational Institute,
Dayalbagh, Agra, India
e-mail: dkchaturvedi@dei.ac.in

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 1

D. Harvey et al. (eds.), Advances in VLSI, Communication, and Signal Processing,
Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering 683,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-6840-4_1
2 A. Karimpour and D. K. Chaturvedi

Nichols chart are used in designing the controller. Nichols chart helps the designer
to know about closed-loop criteria through open-loop analysis.
On the other, another approach is to consider closed-loop transfer matrices or
closed-loop behavior directly. For example, a linear quadratic regulator (LQR) tries to
minimize a performance measure that, directly considers some optimal performance
on the states and input signal. Reference [3] applied LQR to the power system.
Model predictive control (MPC) is another controller that has grown increasingly
popular over the past two decades, it tries to match the closed-loop system with a
desired one. MPC has been used in many areas and also some works available in their
estimation part and also some works on fuzzy models used in MPC [4–7]. Others have
investigated methods using historical data to design a controller for traffic systems
[8]. The computational effort for real-time analysis is found in [9].
Other approaches try to shape the closed-loop transfer matrix directly. In this area,
some important controllers are robust controllers such as H∞ /H2 [10, 11]. These
controllers suffer from the lack of a precise method to find the exact closed-loop
shape.
Some researchers use the right/left coprime factorization and then try to find a
suitable controller from the set of all stabilizing controllers [12]. Reference [13] uses
the genetic algorithm to choose the suitable controller from the set of all stabilizing
controller.
In this paper, right/left coprime factorization used to find the set of all stabilizing
controllers. Then by choosing the exact shape for some transfer function and using
some optimization procedure, one can derive a suitable controller from the set of all
stabilizing controller to control the system. Section 2 of this paper explains about
right/left coprime factorization and stabilizing controllers, Sect. 3 deals briefly with
the procedure to consider control requirements on closed-loop transfer functions.
Section 4 explains the controller design by coprime factorization and limitation on
closed-loop transfer matrices, and Sect. 5 shows the applicability of the method by
some case studies. Section 6 summarizes the paper with a conclusion.

2 Right/Left Coprime Factorization and Stabilizing

Controller

Any transfer matrix G(s) with m output and q input can be decomposed to right/left
coprime factorization as Eq. 1 or Eq. 2.

G(s) = N (s)M −1 (s) (1)

 −1 (s) N
G(s) = M (s) (2)

(s) is m × q
where N (s) is m × q transfer matrix, M(s) is q × q transfer matrix, N

transfer matrix, and M(s) is m × m transfer matrix in the set of H∞ space (stable
Controller Design According to Right/Left Coprime Factorization 3

Fig. 1 System under study

transfer matrix). Meanwhile, M(s) and N (s) are right coprime and also M(s)  and

N (s) are left coprime so there exist Bezout pairs X r , Yr , X l and Yl , respectively.
Equation 3 shows the relation between right/left coprime factorization and their
Bezout counterparts.
    
M −Yl X r Yr I 0
M  = (3)
N Xl −N 0I

To consider the importance of coprime factorization considers Fig. 1. In Fig. 1,

G(s) is the plant under control and K (s) is the controller of the system. The set of
all stabilizing controller can be derived from Theorem 1 [1].

Theorem 1 [1] The set of all K (s) for which the feedback system in Fig. 1 is internally
stable equals
   
 −1 Yr + Q r M
K (s) = X r − Q r N  (4)

K (s) = (Yl + M Q l )(X l − N Q l )−1 (5)

 =
Remark 1 If G(s) is stable transfer matrix so one can clearly choose M = M
X l = X r = I and N = N  = G and Yl = Yr = 0 so the set of all stabilizing
controller are

K (s) = (I − Q r G)−1 Q r (6)

K (s) = Q l (I − G Q l )−1 (7)

Now, finding the right/left coprime factorization and their Bezout counterpart
is the main challenge and reference [2] shows the procedure to derive them. The
following algorithm is used to derive right/left coprime factorization and their Bezout
counterpart [1, 2].
Step 1: Get a detectable and stabilizable ( A, B, C, and D) of G(s).
4 A. Karimpour and D. K. Chaturvedi

Step 2: Compute matrices F and L so that [A + B F] and [A + LC] are stable.

Step 3: Derive right/left coprime factorization and their Bezout counterpart in
Eqs. 8 and 9.
⎡ ⎤
  A + B F B −L
M −Yl
=⎣ F I 0 ⎦ (8)
N Xl
C + DF D I
⎡ ⎤
  A + LC −(B + L D) L
X r Yr ⎣
M  = F I 0⎦ (9)
−N
C −D I

Next section will provide the procedure to consider performance measures into
closed-loop transfer matrix.

3 Performance in Terms of Closed-Loop Criteria

There are two main approaches to design controller analytically. First one is according
to shaping the open-loop transfer matrix L(s) = G(s)K (s). The performance
measures in this situation are, gain margin (GM), phase margin (PM), steady-state
error, open-loop bandwidth, etc. Second approach is according to the shaping of the
closed-loop transfer matrix. To explain this procedure, consider the output of the
system and output of the controller of Fig. 1 as:

y(s) = T (s)r (s) + S(s)G d (s)d(s) − T (s)n(s) (10)

u(s) = K (s)S(s)r (s) + K (s)S(s)G d (s)d(s) − K (s)S(s)n(s) (11)

where S(s) is sensitivity transfer matrix, T (s) is complement sensitivity transfer

matrix, r (s) is reference signal, d(s) is disturbance, and, n(s) is the measurement
noise. S(s) and T (s) are closed-loop transfer matrix and complement sensitivity
transfer matrix, respectively, and derived by:

T (s) = G(s)K (s)(I + G(s)K (s))−1 (12)

S(s) = (I + G(s)K (s))−1 (13)

For reference tracking and disturbance rejection according to Eq. 10, T (s) must
be I and so S(s) must be zero. For noise attenuation according to Eq. 10, T (s) must
be zero and so S(s) must be I. So one need to compromise between T (s) and S(s)
to derive suitable performance. Fortunately, since reference and disturbances are in
Controller Design According to Right/Left Coprime Factorization 5

Fig. 2 Suitable shape for T, S, and L

low frequency and noise is in high frequency so suitable shapes for (s), S(s), and
also L(s) can be shown in Fig. 2 (Note that S(s) = (I + L(s))−1 ).
Some closed-loop criteria such as H∞ /H2 try to consider an upper bound for some
closed-loop transfer functions. For example, a mixed sensitivity problem considers
two weighting matrix for S(s) and K (s)S(s) as W p (s) and Wu (s), respectively, to
take care of disturbance rejection and also input saturation. The H∞ controller tries
to minimize the following performance measure.

W p (s)S(s)
J = min (14)
K (s) Wu (s)K (s)S(s) ∞

The main drawback of this kind of design is that the designer has not direct intuition
into the details of design and just have an overview through chooses weight. This
paper considers a procedure that the designer can have a better feel and more intuition
in the design procedure. The next two secessions describe the procedure proposed
by this paper.

4 Controller Design by Coprime Factorization

and Limitation on Closed-Loop Transfer Matrices

To design a controller through right/left coprime factorization one must apply the
performance measures on closed-loop transfer matrix. In this regard, one must know
the limitation that must be considered on a closed-loop transfer matrix.

Lemma 1 Closed-loop transfer function between the reference signal and output
must have the same RHP zeros as G(s).

Proof The transfer function between the reference signal r and the output signal y
of the system in Fig. 1 is derived easily from Eq. 12 by putting controller of Eq. 4 in
it:
6 A. Karimpour and D. K. Chaturvedi
 

T (s) = N (s) Yr (s) + Q r (s) M(s) (15)

So if there were some RHP zeros on G(s), N (S) losses rank at that point and so
T (s) also must lose rank at that point. (Note that since the term in bracket is stable
so it cannot eliminate the RHP zeros of (S)).

Lemma 2 Closed-loop transfer function between the reference signal and output
must be one at the RHP poles of G(s).

Proof Suppose G(s), has an  RHP pole at p so M(s) is zero at p and so T ( p) =
 p) = N ( p)Yr ( p) = 1 according to Eq. 3.
N ( p) Yr ( p) + Q r ( p) M(

Lemma 3 Poles of the closed-loop transfer function between the reference signal
and output are among the eigenvalues of [A + B F], [A + LC], and poles of Q r (s)
or Q l (s).

Proof Proof of theorem is clear by Eq. 15.

So to choose Tdesired (s)/Sdesired (s) one must consider the following remarks.

Remark 2 Desired transfer matrix Tdesired (s) must be zero at RHP zeros of G(s) or
equivalently sensitivity matrix Sdesired (s) must be one at RHP zeros of G(s). (Since
T (s) + S(s) = 1. in the SISO case).

Remark 3 Desired transfer matrix Tdesired (s) must be one at the RHP poles of G(s)
or equivalently sensitivity matrix Sdesired (s) must be zero at the RHP poles of G(s).
(Since T (s) + S(s) = 1. in the SISO case).

Remark 4 There is also some limitation on the bandwidths of the closed-loop system.
For example [1] shows that bandwidth must be less than half of RHP zeros of G(s).
And also the bandwidth of system must be twice of RHP pole of G(s).

Next session an algorithm for the design of controller based on closed-loop

measures are presented.

5 Algorithm of Controller Design According to Right/Left

Coprime Factorization

To design a controller through coprime factorization one must apply the performance
measures on closed-loop transfer matrix. Also, limitations on the closed-loop matrix
mentioned in the previous session must be considered.
So the following algorithm suggested for controller design.
1. Try to convert your performance criteria on closed-loop matrix.
In this part, designer need to map performance measures on the closed-loop
transfer matrices.
Controller Design According to Right/Left Coprime Factorization 7

2. Analyze the system under study and find its RHP zeros and RHP poles.
3. Choose Tdesired /Sdesired according to step 1 and consider Remarks 2–4 in the
previous section.
4. Try to choose a parametric stable Q r or Q l with suitable order and also note to
Lemma 3 of the previous section. Choose the number of parameters according
to flexibility and parsimony. (High parameters are suitable for more flexibility
and smaller parameters consider parsimony)
5. By use of optimization try to find parameters of Q r or Q l such that following
performance measures are minimized.

J= min Tdesired − Tactual 2 (16)

Parameters of Q r or Q l

By this optimization, the designer can put all of the performance measures on
the closed-loop transfer matrices.
6. Check the controller on the system if it is still not acceptable to try again from 3
or 4, otherwise, it is finished.
Next section considers some case studies to clarify the mentioned procedure. The
main contribution of this paper is to use the optimization part (step 5 of the algorithm)
to map all of our performance requests on the closed-loop transfer function. However,
here examples are very easy so the controller was found directly through analytical
formulation to show the applicability of procedure.
Benefits of using right/left coprime factorization method in designing the
controller is that, the designer has more insight into the controller design and better
insight into the closed-loop transfer function. On the other side, mapping requested
performance on the closed-loop transfer matrices is not an easy task.

6 Case Studies

In this section, two examples are considered. In the first example, the system under
study has no RHP pole and zero so there no limitation according to RHP poles
and zeros. In the second example, the system has two RHP poles so there is some
limitation according to the existence of RHP poles.

Example 1 Consider the system in Fig. 1 and suppose

200 1
G(s) =
10s + 1 (0.05s + 1)2
100
G d (s) =
10s + 1
8 A. Karimpour and D. K. Chaturvedi

Suppose we want to design a controller such that rise time (to reach 90% of the
final value) should be less than 0.3 s and the overshoot should be less than 5%. The
outputs go to zero as quickly as possible if a unit disturbance applied to the system.

Reference [1] solves the problem with mixed sensitivity H∞ approach and the
step response of the system (y1 ) to reference and disturbance are shown in Figs. 3
and 4 respectively. Since the response to disturbance was very sluggish so designer
the weighting matrix must change. After some try and error y2 is the step response
of the system to reference and disturbance as shown in Figs. 3 and 4, respectively.
Now, we want to design a controller in the procedure mentioned in this paper.
Clearly, since the plant is stable so closed-loop transfer function T (s) can be found
from Eq. 15 as:

T (s) = G(s)Q r (s)

Fig. 3 Reference step

response [1]

Fig. 4 Disturbance step

response [1]
Controller Design According to Right/Left Coprime Factorization 9

So, since, closed-loop transfer function T (s) must be proper and also poles of
Q r (s) will appear in poles of T (s) so Q r (s) choose as:

as 3 + bs 2 + cs + d
Q r (s) =  2 
s + 14s + 100 (0.01s + 1)

Now by choosing

100
Tdesired =  2 
s + 14s + 100 (0.01s + 1)

Minimization of Eq. 16 leads to a = 1.25, b = 50.12, c = 505, d = 50.

Step response of the system to reference and disturbance are shown in Figs. 5 and
6 respectively. Since the response to disturbance was very sluggish so some changes
must be considered to the system. To have more insight into the system problem,
bode plot of S(s) and G d (s) are considered in Figs. 7 and 8 correspondingly.
Figures 7 and 8 show that although S(s) it is small at the frequency less than
10 rad/s but, of G d (s) is not small so we choose another Tdesired (Sdesired ) to find a
better situation.
16s + 100
Tdesired =  2 
s + 14s + 100 (0.01s + 1)2

Since T (s) = G(s)Q r (s) so Q r (s) must have at least four poles. So by Lemma
3, try

Fig. 5 Reference step response of Example 1 by proposed method

10 A. Karimpour and D. K. Chaturvedi

Fig. 6 Disturbance step response of Example 1 by proposed method

Fig. 7 Bode plot of S(s)

Controller Design According to Right/Left Coprime Factorization 11

Fig. 8 Bode plot of G d (s)

as 4 + bs 3 + cs 2 + ds + e
Q r (s) =  2 
s + 14s + 100 (0.01s + 1)2

Minimization of Eq. 16 leads to a = 20, b = 927, c = 13090, d = 51300, and

e = 5000
Step response of the system to reference and disturbance are shown in Figs. 9 and
10 respectively.
Now, the responses of the system are acceptable. Next example is an unstable
plant and derived from [2].

Example 2 Consider the system in Fig. 1 and suppose

1
G(s) =
(s − 1)(s − 2)
G d (s) = 1

The problem is to find a controller that the system tracks step with zero
steady-state error and the final value of y equals zero when d is a sinusoid of 10 rad/s
and r = 0.

Since this system is unstable so, first of all, a stabilizable and detectable state
space of system derived as:
12 A. Karimpour and D. K. Chaturvedi

Fig. 9 Reference step response of Example 1 by the proposed method

Fig. 10 Disturbance step response of Example 1 by the proposed method

Controller Design According to Right/Left Coprime Factorization 13
   
0 1 0
ẋ = x+ u
−2 3 1
y= 10 x

T
By choosing F = 1 −5 and L = −7 −23 then A + B F and A + LC
are stable so right/left coprime factorization can be derived from Eqs. 8 and 9. Now
since G(s) is unstable there is some limitation on T (s). Let Tdesired = 1 − Sdesired .
And let to consider the limitation on T (s) and S(s) let
 
s(s − 1)(s − 2) s 2 + 100
Sdesired = 1 − 2e − 6  2 
s + 0.7s + 0.25 (0.02s + 1)(0.01s + 1)2

Choose a parametrized Q r (s) as

as 5 + bs 4 + cs 3 + ds 2 + es + f
Qr =  2 
s + 0.7s + 0.25 (0.02s + 1)(0.01s + 1)2

After minimizing Eq. 16 the step response of the system to reference and
disturbance are shown in Figs. 11 and 12 respectively.

Fig. 11 Reference step response of Example 2 by the proposed method

14 A. Karimpour and D. K. Chaturvedi

Fig. 12 Disturbance step response of Example 2 by the proposed method

7 Conclusion

In the convention method based on mixed sensitivity design (H∞ /H2 ) designer must
consider the performance request on the weighting function as a whole and the
designer has no exact insight into the detail of the design. Also, a mixed sensitivity
procedure is based on trial and error. A new method of the designing controller as
described in this paper that the designer can consider his request in a more effi-
cient way and in more detail. According to this fashion designer derive a stabilizing
controller through the set of all stabilizing controller through an optimization. By
choosing a high order stable Q r or Q l and with the use of optimization procedure one
can assign a more suitable controller. So, in this method designer has more insight
into designing the controller.

References

1. Skogestad S, Postlethwaite I (2007) Multivariable feedback control: analysis and design. Wiley,
New York
2. Doyle J, Francis B, Tannenbaum A (1990) Feedback control theory. Macmillan Publishing Co.
3. Hasanzadeh A, Edrington CS, Mokhtari H (2011) A novel LQR based optimal tuning method
for IMP-based linear controllers of power electronics/power systems. In: 2011 50th IEEE
conference on decision and control and European control conference, pp 7711–7716
Controller Design According to Right/Left Coprime Factorization 15

4. Hartley EN, Maciejowski JM (2013) Predictive control for spacecraft rendezvous in an elliptical
orbit using an FPGA. In: 2013 European control conference (ECC), pp 1359–1364
5. Brunner FD, Müller MA, Allgöwer F (2018) Enhancing output-feedback MPC with set-valued
moving horizon estimation. IEEE Trans Autom Control 63(9):2976–2986
6. Teng L, Wang Y, Cai W, Li H (2018) Robust fuzzy model predictive control of discrete-time
Takagi-Sugeno systems with nonlinear local models. IEEE Trans Fuzzy Syst 26(5):2915–2925
7. Karimpour M, Hitihamillage L, Elkhoury N, Moridpour S, Hesami R (2018) Fuzzy approach
in rail track degradation prediction. J Adv Transp
8. Karimpour M, Karimpour A, Kompany K, Karimpour A (2017) Online traffic prediction using
time series: a case study. In: Integral methods in science and engineering, vol 2, Birkhäuser,
Cham, pp 147–156
9. Kerrigan EC, Constantinides GA, Suardi A, Picciau A, Khusainov B (2015) Computer archi-
tectures to close the loop in real-time optimization. In: 2015 54th IEEE conference on decision
and control (CDC), pp 4597–4611
10. Lin X, Liang K, Li H, Jiao Y, Nie J (2018) Robust finite-time H-infinity control with transients
for dynamic positioning ship subject to input delay. Math Problems Eng
11. Ashok Kumar M, Kanthalakshmi S (2018) H∞ tracking control for an inverted pendulum. J
Vib Control 24(16):3515–3524
12. Glaria JJ, Goodwin GC (1994) A parameterization for the class of all stabilizing controllers
for linear minimum phase plants. IEEE Trans Autom Control 39(2):433–434
13. Ebrahim Zadeh F, Karimpour A (2011) Designing stabilizing control with genetic algo-
rithm, based on the transfer function. In: 3rd Iranian conference on electrical and electronics
engineering (ICEEE), Gonabad, Iran pp 1–8
Fault Detection and Classification
in Microgrid Using Wavelet Transform
and Artificial Neural Network

Priya Singh, Nitin Singh, and Niraj Kumar Choudhary

Abstract In the proposed work, Wavelet Transform analysis and wavelet entropy
methods have been used to classify various types of fault in a nine bus microgrid
system. Both methods are compared and analyzed. The simulation result shows that
the proposed method successfully identifies the fault type and phase involved in the
fault. The proposed algorithm is validated for different locations and fault types on
nine bus microgrid system. In addition to the above, wavelet analysis and wavelet
coefficients are also used with the Artificial Neural Network (ANN) for detecting
and classifying the faults. The different fault cases have different fault resistances
and inception angles. The fault detection process is done by the summation of sixth
level detail coefficients of current obtained using Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT)
based Multiresolution Analysis (MRA) technique for all the three phases while, for
the classification of fault type, wavelet entropy calculations for each phase currents
are acquired.

Keywords Fault classification · Wavelet analysis · Wavelet entropy (WE) ·

Artificial Neural Network (ANN) · Multiresolution Analysis (MRA)

1 Introduction

A fault is any abnormal condition related to the current or voltage in a power system.
It can occur due to several reasons such as natural casualty, human error, tree fall,
etc. The fault may be of symmetrical or unsymmetrical characteristics. Although an
unsymmetrical fault is most likely to occur in a system, it is the symmetrical fault

P. Singh (B) · N. Singh · N. K. Choudhary

Department of Electrical Engineering, MNNIT Allahabad, Prayagraj, India
e-mail: eengpriya@gmail.com
N. Singh
e-mail: nitin@mnnit.ac.in
N. K. Choudhary
e-mail: niraj@mnnit.ac.in

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 17

D. Harvey et al. (eds.), Advances in VLSI, Communication, and Signal Processing,
Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering 683,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-6840-4_2
Another Random Scribd Document
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which overpass the bounds of instinct, and approach closely to those
of reason.
From its scent and by its quick strong vision the bear apprehends
the position of the seal. Then it throws itself prone upon the ice, and
profiting by inequalities which are invisible to human eyes, gradually
steals upon its destined victim by a soft and scarcely perceptible
movement of the hind feet. To hide its black muzzle, it constantly
uses its fore feet; and thus, only the dingy white of its coat being
visible, it is scarcely to be distinguished from the general mass of the
floe. Patiently it draws nearer and nearer; the seal, mistaking it for
one of its own congeners, or else yielding to a fatal curiosity,
delaying until its assailant, with one spring, is upon it.
Yet, as the old adage says, there is many a slip; and even in
these circumstances the bear does not always secure its feast. It is
disappointed sometimes just as the prey seems within its grasp; and
how keen the disappointment is can be appreciated only, we are
told, by hapless Arctic travellers, “who have been hours crawling up,
dreaming of delicious seal’s fry and overflowing fuel bags, and seen
the prey pop down a hole when within a hundred yards of it.” The
great muscular power of the seal frequently enables it to fling itself
into the water in spite of the bear’s efforts to hold it on the floe; Bruin,
however, retains his grip, for his diving powers are not much inferior
to those of the seal, and down they go together! Sometimes the bear
proves victorious, owing to mortal injuries inflicted upon the seal
before it reaches the water; sometimes it may be seen reappearing
at another hole in the floe, or clambering up another loose piece of
ice, apparently much mortified by its want of success.
 BEAR CATCHING A SEAL.
As we have said, the bear dives well, and is nearly as much at
home in the water as upon the ice. If it catches sight of a seal upon a
drifting floe, it will slide quietly into the sea, swim with only the tip of
its nose above the water, and, diving under the floe, reach the very
spot which the hapless seal has regarded as an oasis of safety. It is
this stratagem of its enemy which has taught the seal to watch its
hole so warily. Even on extensive ice-fields fast to the land, where
the bear cannot conceal its approach by taking advantage of
hummocks or other inequalities, the seal is not safe; for then Bruin
drops down a hole, and swims along under the ice-crust until it
reaches the one where the poor seal is all unwittingly enjoying its
last rays of sunshine.
The bear’s season of plenty begins with the coming of the spring.
In February and March the seal is giving birth to her young, who are
born blind and helpless, and for ten days are unable to take to the
water. The poor mothers use every effort to protect them, but, in
spite of their affectionate exertions, a perfect massacre of the
innocents takes place, in which, not improbably, the Arctic wolf is not
less guilty than the Arctic bear.
Voracity, however, frequently proves its own Nemesis, and the
bear, in its eager pursuit of prey, often involves itself in serious
disaster. The seal instinctively breeds as close as possible to the
open water. But the ice-floes, during the early equinoctial gales, will
sometimes break up and drift away in the form of pack-ice; a matter
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death to the bear. Borne afar on their little islets of ice, rocked by
tempestuous waters, buffeted by icy gales, numbers of these
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that when the gales blow down from the north, bears are sometimes
stranded in such numbers on the shores of Iceland as to endanger
the safety of the flocks and herds of the Icelandic peasants; and they
have been known to reach the coasts of Norway.
Bears drifting about at a considerable distance from the land are
often enough seen by the whalers. They have been discovered fully
sixty miles from shore, in Davis Strait, without any ice in sight, and
utterly exhausted by long swimming. It is thus that Nature checks
their too rapid increase; for beyond the possibility of the wolf hunting
it in packs and destroying the cubs, there seems no other limitation
of their numbers. The Eskimos are too few, and too badly provided
with weapons, to slaughter them very extensively. Wherever seals
abound, so do bears; in Barrow Strait and in the Queen’s Channel
they have been seen in very numerous troops. The Danes assert
that they are plentiful about the northern settlement of Upernavik in
Greenland, for nine months in the year; and from the united
testimony of the natives inhabiting the north-eastern portion of Baffin
Bay, and that of Dr. Kane, who wintered in Smith Sound, it is evident
that they are plentiful about the polynias, or open pools, formed there
by the action of the tides.
In the summer months, when the bear is loaded with fat, it is
easily hunted down, for then it can neither move swiftly nor run long;
but in deep winter its voracity and its great strength render it a
formidable enemy to uncivilized and unarmed man. Usually it avoids
coming into contact with our British seamen, though instances are on
record of fiercely contested engagements, in which Bruin has with
difficulty been defeated.
It is folly, says Sherard Osborn, to talk of the Polar bear
hibernating: whatever bears may do on the American continent,
there is only one Arctic navigator who ever saw a bear’s nest! Bears
were seen at all points visited by our sailors in the course of
M’Clure’s expedition; at all times and in all temperatures; males or
females, and sometimes females with their cubs. In mid-winter, as
well as in midsummer, they evidently frequented spots where tides or
currents occasioned either water to constantly exist, or only allowed
such a thin coating of ice to form that the seal or walrus could easily
break through.
That the Polar bear does not willingly attack man, except when
hotly pursued or when suffering from extreme want, is asserted by
several good authorities, and confirmed by an experience which Dr.
Hayes relates. He was strolling one day along the shore, and
observing with much interest the effect of the recent spring-tides
upon the ice-foot, when, rounding a point of land, he suddenly found
himself confronted in the full moonlight by an enormous bear. It had
just sprung down from the land-ice, and met Dr. Hayes at full trot, so
that they caught sight of each other, man and brute, at the same
moment. Being without a rifle or other means of defence, Dr. Hayes
suddenly wheeled towards his ship, with much the same reflections,
probably, about discretion and valour as occurred to old Jack Falstaff
when the Douglas set upon him; but discovering, after a few lengthy
strides, that he was not “gobbled up,” he looked back over his
shoulder, when, to his gratification as well as surprise, he saw the
bear speeding towards the open water with a celerity which left no
doubt as to the state of its mind. It would be difficult to determine
which, on this occasion, was the more frightened, the bear or Dr.
Hayes!

A curious illustration of the combined voracity and epicureanism

of Bruin is recorded by Dr. Kane. A cache, or depôt of provisions,
which had been constructed by one of his exploring parties with
great care, and was intended to supply them with stores on their
return journey, they found completely destroyed. It had been built,
with every possible precaution, of rocks brought together by heavy
labour, and adjusted in the most skilful manner. So far as the means
of the builders permitted, the entire construction was most effective
and resisting. Yet these “tigers of the ice” seemed to have scarcely
encountered an obstacle. Not a morsel of pemmican (preserved
meat) remained, except in the iron cases, which, being round, with
conical ends, defied both claw and teeth. These they had rolled and
pawed in every direction,—tossing them about like footballs,
although upwards of eighty pounds in weight. An alcohol-case,
strongly iron-bound, was dashed into small fragments; and a tin can
of liquor twisted almost into a ball. The bears’ strong claws had
perforated the metal, and torn it up as with a chisel.
 BEARS DESTROYING A CACHE.
But the burglars were too dainty for salt meats. For ground coffee
they had evidently a relish; old canvas was also a favourite,—de
gustibus non est disputandum; even the flag which had been reared
“to take possession” of the icy wilderness, was gnawed down to the
very staff. It seemed that the bears had enjoyed a regular frolic;
rolling the bread-barrels over the ice-foot and into the broken outside
ice; and finding themselves unable to masticate the heavy India-
rubber cloth, they had amused themselves by tying it up in
unimaginable hard knots.

The she-bear displays a strong affection for her young, which she
will not desert even in the extremity of peril. The explorer already
quoted furnishes an interesting narrative of a pursuit of mother and
cub, in which the former’s maternal qualities were touchingly
exhibited.
On the appearance of the hunting party and their dogs, the bear
fled; but the little one being unable either to keep ahead of the dogs
or to maintain the same rate of speed as its mother, the latter turned
back, and, putting her head under its haunches, threw it some
distance forward. The cub being thus safe for the moment, she
would wheel round and face the dogs, so as to give it a chance to
run away; but it always stopped where it had alighted, until its mother
came up, and gave it another forward impulse; it seemed to expect
her aid, and would not go forward without it. Sometimes the mother
would run a few yards in advance, as if to coax her cub up to her,
and when the dogs approached she would turn fiercely upon them,
and drive them back. Then, as they dodged her blows, she would
rejoin the cub, and push it on,—sometimes putting her head under it,
sometimes seizing it in her mouth by the nape of its neck.

FIGHT WITH A WHITE BEAR.

 For some time she conducted her retreat with equal skill and
celerity, leaving the two hunters far in the rear. They had sighted her
on the land-ice; but she led the dogs in-shore, up a small stony
valley which penetrated into the interior. After going a mile and a
half, however, her pace slackened, and, the little one being spent,
she soon came to a halt, evidently determined not to desert it.
At this moment the men were only half a mile behind; and,
running at full speed, they soon reached the spot where the dogs
were holding her at bay. The fight then grew desperate. The mother
never moved more than two yards ahead, constantly and
affectionately looking at her cub. When the dogs drew near, she sat
upon her haunches, and taking the little one between her hind legs,
she fought her assailants with her paws, roaring so loudly that she
could have been heard a mile off. She would stretch her neck and
snap desperately at the nearest dog with her shining teeth, whirling
her paws like the sails of a windmill. If she missed her aim, not
daring to pursue one dog lest the others should pounce upon her
cub, she uttered a deep howl of baffled rage, and on she went,
pawing and snapping, and facing the ring, grinning at them with
wide-opened jaws.
When the hunters came up, the little one apparently had
recovered its strength a little, for it was able to turn round with its
dam, however quickly she moved, so as always to keep in front of
her belly. Meantime the dogs were actively jumping about the she-
bear, tormenting her like so many gadflies; indeed, it was difficult to
fire at her without running the risk of killing the dogs. But Hans, one
of the hunters, resting on his elbow, took a quiet, steady aim, and
shot her through the head. She dropped at once, and rolled over
dead, without moving a muscle.
Immediately the dogs sprang towards her; but the cub jumped
upon her body and reared up, for the first time growling hoarsely.
They seemed quite afraid of the little creature, she fought so actively,
and made so much noise; and, while tearing mouthfuls of hair from
the dead mother, they would spring aside the minute the cub turned
towards them. The men drove the dogs off for a time, but were
compelled to shoot the cub at last, as she would not quit the body.
 A still more stirring episode is recorded by Dr. Kane, which will
fitly conclude our account of the Polar bear.
“Nannook! nannook!” (A bear! a bear!) With this welcome shout,
Hans and Morton, two of his attendants, roused Dr. Kane one fine
Saturday morning.
To the scandal of his domestic regulations, the guns were all
impracticable. While the men were loading and capping anew, Dr.
Kane seized his pillow-companion six-shooter, and ran on deck, to
discover a medium-sized bear, with a four-months’ cub, in active
warfare with the dogs. They were hanging on her skirts, and she,
with remarkable alertness, was picking out one victim after another,
snatching him by the nape of the neck, and flinging him many feet, or
rather yards, by a scarcely perceptible movement of her head.
Tudea, the best dog, was already hors de combat; he had been
tossed twice. Jenny, another of the pack, made an extraordinary
somerset of nearly fifty feet, and alighted senseless. Old Whitey, a
veteran combatant, stanch, but not “bear-wise,” had been foremost
in the battle; soon he lay yelping, helplessly, on the snow.
It seemed as if the battle were at an end; and nannook certainly
thought so, for she turned aside to the beef-barrels, and began with
the utmost composure to turn them over, and nose out their fatness.
A bear more innocent of fear does not figure in the old, old stories of
Barents and the Spitzbergen explorers.
Dr. Kane now lodged a pistol-ball in the side of the cub. At once
the mother placed her little one between her hind legs, and, shoving
it along, made her way to the rear of the store or “beef-house.” As
she went she received a rifle-shot, but scarcely seemed to notice it.
By the unaided efforts of her fore arms she tore down the barrels of
frozen beef which made the triple walls of the store-house, mounted
the rubbish, and snatching up a half barrel of herrings, carried it
down in her teeth, and prepared to slip away. It was obviously time to
arrest her movements. Going up within half pistol-range, Dr. Kane
gave her six buck-shot. She dropped, but instantly rose, and getting
her cub into its former position, away she sped!
And this time she would undoubtedly have effected her escape,
but for the admirable tactics of Dr. Kane’s canine Eskimo allies. The
Smith Sound dogs, he says, are educated more thoroughly than any
of their more southern brethren. Next to the seal and the walrus, the
bear supplies the staple diet of the tribes of the North, and, except
the fox, furnishes the most important element of their wardrobe.
Unlike the dogs Dr. Kane had brought with him from Baffin Bay, the
Smith Sound dogs were trained, not to attack, but to embarrass.
They revolved in circles round the perplexed bear, and when
pursued would keep ahead with regulated gait, their comrades
accomplishing a diversion at the critical moment by a nip at the
nannook’s hind-quarters. This was done in the most systematic
manner possible, and with a truly wonderful composure. “I have seen
bear-dogs elsewhere,” says Dr. Kane, “that had been drilled to
relieve each other in the mêlée, and avoid the direct assault; but
here, two dogs, without even a demonstration of attack, would put
themselves before the path of the animal, and retreating right and
left, lead him into a profitless pursuit that checked his advance
completely.”
The unfortunate animal was still fighting, and still retreating,
embarrassed by the dogs, yet affectionately carrying along her
wounded cub, and though wounded, bleeding, and fatigued, gaining
ground upon her pursuers, when Hans and Dr. Kane secured the
victory, such as it was, for their own side, by delivering a couple of
rifle-balls. She staggered in front of her young one, confronted her
assailants in death-like defiance, and did not sink until pierced by six
more bullets.
When her body was skinned, no fewer than nine balls were
discovered. She proved to be of medium size, very lean, and without
a particle of food in her stomach. Hunger, probably, had stimulated
her courage to desperation. The net weight of the cleansed carcass
was 300 pounds; that of the entire animal, 650 pounds; her length,
only 7 feet 8 inches.
 It is said that bears in this lean condition are more palatable and
wholesome than when fat; and that the impregnation of fatty oil
through the cellular tissues makes a well-fed bear nearly uneatable.
The flesh of a famished beast, though less nutritious as body-fuel or
as a stimulating diet, is rather sweet and tender than otherwise.
Moral: starve your bear before you eat him!
The little cub was larger than the qualifying adjective would imply.
She was taller than a dog, and her weight 114 lbs. She sprang upon
the corpse of her slaughtered mother, and rent the air with woful
lamentations. All efforts to noose her she repelled with singular
ferocity; but at last, being completely muzzled with a line fastened by
a running knot between her jaws and the back of her head, she was
dragged off to the brig amid the uproar of the dogs.
Dr. Kane asserts that during this fight, and the compulsory
somersets which it involved, not a dog suffered seriously. He
expected, from his knowledge of the hugging propensity of the
plantigrades, that the animal would rear, or it she did not rear, would
at least use her fore arms; but she invariably seized the dogs with
her teeth, and after disposing of them for a time, refrained from
following up her advantage,—probably because she had her cub to
take care of. The Eskimos state that this is the habit of the hunted
bear. One of the Smith Sound dogs made no exertion whatever
when he was seized, but allowed himself to be flung, with all his
muscles relaxed, a really fearful distance; the next instant he rose
and renewed the attack. According to the Eskimos, the dogs soon
learn this “possum-playing” habit.
It would seem that the higher the latitude, the more ferocious the
bear, or that he increases in ferocity as he recedes from the usual
hunting-fields.
At Oominak, one winter day, an Eskimo and his son were nearly
killed by a bear that had housed himself in an iceberg. They attacked
him with the lance, but he boldly turned on them, and handled them
severely before they could make their escape.
The continued hostility of man, however, has had, in Dr. Kane’s
opinion, a modifying influence upon the ursine character in South
Greenland; at all events, the bears of that region never attack, and
even in self-defence seldom inflict injury upon, the hunters. Many
instances have occurred where they have defended themselves, and
even charged after having been wounded, but in none of them was
life lost.
A stout Eskimo, an assistant to a Danish cooper of Upernavik,
fired at a she-bear, and the animal closed at the instant of receiving
the ball. The man had the presence of mind to fling himself prone on
the ground, extending his arm to protect his head, and afterwards
lying perfectly motionless. The beast was deceived. She gave the
arm a bite or two, but finding her enemy did not stir, she retired a few
paces, and sat upon her haunches to watch. But her watch was not
as wary as it should have been, for the hunter dexterously reloaded
his rifle, and slew her with the second shot.

It has been pointed out that in approaching the bear the hunters
should take advantage of the cover afforded by the inequalities of
the frozen surface, such as its ridges and hillocks. These vary in
height, from ten feet to a hundred, and frequently are packed so
closely together as to leave scarcely a yard of level surface. It is in
such a region that the Polar bear exhibits his utmost speed, and in
such a region his pursuit is attended with no slight difficulty.

And after the day’s labour comes the night’s rest; but what a
night! We know what night is in these temperate climes, or in the
genial southern lands; a night of stars, with a deep blue sky
overspreading the happy earth like a dome of sapphire: a night of
brightness and serene glory, when the moon is high in the heaven,
and its soft radiance seems to touch tree and stream, hill and vale,
with a tint of silver; a night of storm, when the clouds hang low and
heavily, and the rain descends, and a wailing rushing wind loses
itself in the recesses of the shuddering woods; we know what night
is, in these temperate regions, under all its various aspects,—now
mild and beautiful, now gloomy and sad, now grand and
tempestuous; the long dark night of winter with its frosty airs, and its
drooping shadows thrown back by the dead surface of the snow; the
brief bright night of summer, which forms so short a pause between
the evening of one day and the morning of another, that it seems
intended only to afford the busy earth a breathing-time;—but we can
form no idea of what an Arctic Night is, in all its mystery,
magnificence, and wonder. Strange stars light up the heavens; the
forms of earth are strange; all is unfamiliar, and almost unintelligible.
 STALKING A BEAR.
It is not that the Arctic night makes a heavy demand on our
physical faculties. Against its rigour man is able to defend himself;
but it is less easy to provide against its strain on the moral and
intellectual faculties. The darkness which clothes Nature for so long
a period reveals to the senses of the European explorer what is
virtually a new world, and the senses do not well adapt themselves
to that world. The cheering influences of the rising sun, which invite
to labour; the soothing influences of the evening twilight, which
beguile to rest; that quick change from day to night, and night to day,
which so lightens the burden of existence in our temperate clime to
mind and soul and body, kindling the hope and renewing the
courage,—all these are wanting in the Polar world, and man suffers
and languishes accordingly. The grandeur of Nature, says Dr. Hayes,
ceases to give delight to the dulled sympathies, and the heart longs
continually for new associations, new hopes, new objects, new
sources of interest and pleasure. The solitude is so dark and drear
as to oppress the understanding; the imagination is haunted by the
desolation which everywhere prevails; and the silence is so absolute
as to become a terror.
The lover of Nature will, of course, find much that is attractive in
the Arctic night; in the mysterious coruscations of the aurora, in the
flow of the moonlight over the hills and icebergs, in the keen
clearness of the starlight, in the sublimity of the mountains and the
glaciers, in the awful wildness of the storms; but it must be owned
that they speak a language which is rough, rugged, and severe.
All things seem built up on a colossal scale in the Arctic world.
Colossal are those dark and tempest-beaten cliffs which oppose
their grim rampart to the ceaseless roll and rush of the ice-clad
waters. Colossal are those mountain-peaks which raise their crests,
white with unnumbered winters, into the very heavens. Colossal are
those huge ice-rivers, those glaciers, which, born long ago in the
depths of the far-off valleys, have gradually moved their ponderous
masses down to the ocean’s brink. Colossal are those floating
islands of ice, which, outrivalling the puny architecture of man, his
temples, palaces, and pyramids, drift away into the wide waste of
waters, as if abandoned by the Hand that called them into existence.
Colossal is that vast sheet of frozen, frosty snow, shimmering with a
crystalline lustre, which covers the icy plains for countless leagues,
and stretches away, perhaps, to the very border of the sea that is
supposed to encircle the unattained Pole.
In Dr. Hayes’ account of his voyage of discovery towards the
North Pole occurs a fine passage descriptive of the various phases
of the Arctic night. “I have gone out often,” he says, “into its
darkness, and viewed Nature under different aspects. I have rejoiced
with her in her strength, and communed with her in her repose. I
have seen the wild burst of her anger, have watched her sportive
play, and have beheld her robed in silence. I have walked abroad in
the darkness when the winds were roaring through the hills and
crashing over the plain. I have strolled along the beach when the
only sound that broke the stillness was the dull creaking of the ice-
floes, as they rose and fell lazily with the tide. I have wandered far
out upon the frozen sea, and listened to the voice of the icebergs
bewailing their imprisonment; along the glacier, where forms and
falls the avalanche; upon the hill-top, where the drifting snow,
coursing over the rocks, sung its plaintive song; and again, I have
wandered away to some distant valley where all these sounds were
hushed, and the air was still and solemn as the tomb.”
Whoever has been overtaken by a winter night, when crossing
some snowy plain, or making his way over the hills and through the
valleys, in the deep drifts, and with the icicles pendent from the
leafless boughs, and the white mantle overspreading every object
dimly discernible in the darkness, will have felt the awe and mystery
of the silence that then and there prevails. Both the sky above and
the earth beneath reveal only an endless and unfathomable quiet.
This, too, is the peculiar characteristic of the Arctic night. Evidence
there is none of life or motion. No footfall of living thing breaks on the
longing ear. No cry of bird enlivens the scene; there is no tree,
among the branches of which the wind may sigh and moan. And
hence it is that one who had travelled much, and seen many
dangers, and witnessed Nature in many phases, was led to say that
he had seen no expression on the face of Nature so filled with terror
as the silence of the Arctic night.
But by degrees the darkness grows less intense, and the coming
of the day is announced by the prevalence of a kind of twilight, which
increases more and more rapidly as winter passes into spring. There
are signs that Nature is awakening once more to life and motion. The
foxes come out upon the hill side, both blue and white, and gallop
hither and thither in search of food,—following in the track of the
bear, to feed on the refuse which the “tiger of the ice” throws aside.
The walrus and the seal come more frequently to land; and the latter
begins to assemble on the ice-floes, and select its breeding-places.
At length, early in February, broad daylight comes at noon, and then
the weary explorer rejoices to know that the end is near. Flocks of
speckled birds arrive, and shelter themselves under the lee of the
shore; chiefly dove-kies, as they are called in Southern Greenland—
the Uria grylle of the naturalist. At last, on the 18th or 19th of
February, the sun once more makes its appearance above the
southern horizon, and is welcomed as one welcomes a friend who
has been long lost, and is found again. Upon the crests of the hills
light clouds are floating lazily, and through these the glorious orb is
pouring a stream of golden fire, and all the southern sky quivers, as
it were, with the shooting, shifting splendours of the coming day.
Presently a soft bright ray breaks through the vaporous haze,
kindling it into a purple sea, and touches the silvery summits of the
lofty icebergs until they seem like domes and pinnacles of flame.
Nearer and nearer comes that auspicious ray, and widens as it
comes; and that purple sea enlarges in every direction; and those
domes and pinnacles of flame multiply in quick succession as they
feel the passage of the quickening light; and the dark red cliffs are
warmed with an indescribable glow; and a mysterious change
passes over the face of the ocean; and all Nature acknowledges the
presence of the sun!
“The parent of light and life everywhere,” says Dr. Hayes, “he is
the same within these solitudes. The germ awaits him here as in the
Orient; but there it rests only through the short hours of a summer
night, while here it reposes for months under a sheet of snows. But
after a while the bright sun will tear this sheet asunder, and will
tumble it in gushing fountains to the sea, and will kiss the cold earth,
and give it warmth and life; and the flowers will bud and bloom, and
will turn their tiny faces smilingly and gratefully up to him, as he
wanders over these ancient hills in the long summer. The very
glaciers will weep tears of joy at his coming. The ice will loose its iron
grip upon the waters, and will let the wild waves play in freedom. The
reindeer will skip gleefully over the mountains to welcome his return,
and will look longingly to him for the green pastures. The sea-fowls,
knowing that he will give them a resting-place for their feet on the
rocky islands, will come to seek the moss-beds which he spreads for
their nests; and the sparrows will come on his life-giving rays, and
will sing their love-songs through the endless day.”
With the sun return the Arctic birds, and before we quit the realm
of waters we propose to glance at a few of those which frequent the
cliffs and shores during the brief Polar summer.
 Among the first-comers is the dove-kie or black guillemot (Uria
grylle), which migrates to the temperate climates on the approach of
winter, visiting Labrador, Norway, Scotland, and even descending as
far south as Yorkshire. In fact, we know of no better place where to
observe its habits than along the immense range of perpendicular
cliffs stretching from Flamborough Head to Filey Bay. Here, on the
bare ledges of this colossal ocean-wall, the guillemot lays its eggs,
but without the protection of a nest; some of them parallel with the
edge of the shelf, others nearly so, and others with their blunt and
sharp ends indiscriminately pointing to the sea. They are not affixed
to the rock by any glutinous matter, or any foreign substance
whatever. You may see as many as nine or ten, or sometimes
twelve, old guillemots in a line, so near to each other that their wings
almost touch. The eggs vary greatly in size and shape and colour.
Some are large, others small; some exceedingly sharp at one end,
others rotund and globular. It is said that, if undisturbed, the
guillemot never lays more than one egg; but if that be taken away,
she will lay another, and so on. But Audubon asserts that he has
seen these birds sitting on as many as three eggs at a time.
 SEA-BIRDS IN THE POLAR REGIONS.
The black guillemot differs from the foolish guillemot (Uria troile)
only in the colour of its plumage, which, with the exception of a large
white patch on the coverts of each wing, is black, silky, and glossy;
the feathers appearing to be all unwebbed, like silky filaments or fine
hair. The bill, in all the species, is slender, strong, and pointed; the
upper mandible bending slightly near the end, and the base covered
with soft short feathers. The food of the guillemot consists of fish and
other marine products.

The Alcidæ, or auks, are also included amongst the Arctic birds.
The little auk (Arctica alca) frequents the countries stretching
northwards from our latitudes to the regions of perpetual ice, and is
found in the Polar Regions both of the Old World and the New. Here,
indeed, they congregate in almost innumerable flocks. At early morn
they sally forth to get their breakfast, which consists of different
varieties of marine invertebrates, chiefly crustaceans, with which the
Arctic waters teem. Then they return to the shore in immense
swarms. It would be impossible, says an Arctic voyager, to convey
an adequate idea of the numbers of these birds which swarmed
around him. The slope on both sides of the valley in which he had
pitched his camp rose at an angle of about forty-five degrees to a
distance of from 300 to 500 feet, where it met the cliffs, which stood
about 700 feet higher. These hill-sides are composed of the loose
rocks detached from the cliffs by the action of the frost. The birds
crawl among these rocks, winding far in through narrow places, and
there deposit their eggs and hatch their young, secure from their
great enemy, the Arctic fox.
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