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DAS23CoverCope 2/28/14 1:22 PM Page 1
Hidden Structure
Hidden Structure
Hidden Structure
Music Analysis
Using Computers Music Analysis
David Cope
Today’s computers provide music theorists with unprecedented opportunities to analyze
Using Computers
music more quickly and accurately than ever before. Where analysis once required several
weeks or even months to complete—often replete with human errors, computers now pro-
vide the means to accomplish these same analyses in a fraction of the time and with far
Of Related Interest
The Algorithmic Composer
By David Cope
DAS 16 ISBN 978-0-89579-454-3 (2000) xiii + 130 pp. (with CD-ROM) $49.95
New Digital Musical Instruments: Control and Interaction Beyond the Keyboard
By Eduardo Reck Miranda and Marcelo M. Wanderley
DAS 21 ISBN 978-0-89579-585-4 (2006) xxii + 286 pp. (with CD-ROM) $49.95
David Cope
I S B N 978-0-89579-640-0
A-R Editions, Inc. 90000
8551 Research Way, Suite 180
Middleton, WI 53562
800-736-0070
608-836-9000
http://www.areditions.com 9 780895 796400
Í David Cope
01_DAS_FM_ppi-xxx 1/29/09 1:06 PM Page i
HIDDEN STRUCTURE
01_DAS_FM_ppi-xxx 1/29/09 1:06 PM Page ii
HIDDEN STRUCTURE
David Cope
ML74.C69 2008
781.0285—dc22
2008019352
01_DAS_FM_ppi-xxx 1/29/09 1:06 PM Page v
Contents
List of Figures xi
Preface xxi
Description of CD-ROM xxvii
Chapter One Background 1
Principles and Definitions 1
A Brief History of Algorithmic Analysis 7
A Brief Survey of Computational Music Analysis 22
Musical Examples 39
Program Description 41
Conclusions 43
Bibliography 321
Glossary 331
Index 337
01_DAS_FM_ppi-xxx 1/29/09 1:06 PM Page x
01_DAS_FM_ppi-xxx 1/29/09 1:06 PM Page xi
List of Figures
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 From Aristoxenus, The Harmonics of Aristoxenus, trans.. Henry S.
Macran (New York: Oxford University Press, 1902), 249.
Figure 1.2 A woodcut of Boethius with an instrument designed for methodologi-
cally deriving tunings (an algorithm).
Figure 1.3 An example of Gregorian chant, Parce Domine, notated in neumes; the
second staff is a continuation of the first.
Figure 1.4 An example of medieval organum.
Figure 1.5 The Guidonian hand, in which a specific note is assigned to each part
of the hand. By pointing to a part of the hand, the conductor can indi-
cate to a group of singers which note to sing.
Figure 1.6 An example of three-voice counterpoint around the time of Tinctoris.
Figure 1.7 The division of the octave according to Zarlino.
Figure 1.8 An exercise by Beethoven for his student Archduke Rudolph based on
Fux’s Gradus ad Parnassum.
Figure 1.9 Two diagrams from Rameau’s Treatise on Harmony describing (a) the
major (perfect) triad and its inversions, and (b) the dominant (funda-
mental) seventh chord and its inversions.
Figure 1.10 First published after Mozart’s death in 1793 by J. J. Hummel in Berlin,
this musikalisches Würfelspiel instruction page shows the first two
phrases of number selections (chosen by throws of the dice) that were
keyed to measures of music. Also shown, an example page of music by
Haydn for this own musikalisches Würfelspiel.
Figure 1.11 A sample Schenker analysis of Bach’s organ prelude Wenn wir in höch-
sten Noten sein.
Figure 1.12 Charles Babbage’s first Difference Machine (1833), a forerunner of the
modern-day computer.
Figure 1.13 The author, Horizons for Orchestra, in graphic format. Time moves left
to right.
xi
01_DAS_FM_ppi-xxx 1/29/09 1:06 PM Page xii
Figure 1.14 From Experiment 2 from Hiller and Isaacson, Illiac Suite, using the
Illiac computer at the University of Illinois, ca. 1956.
Figure 1.15 Flowcharts for MUSANA and its analysis module.
Figure 1.16 Ten commands found in Humdrum.
Figure 1.17 Bach Chorale 002 from the Music Theory Workbench, version 0.1
(http://pinhead.music.uiuc.edu/~hkt/mtw/pdf/), by Heinrich Taube
(accessed 24 July 2007).
Figure 1.18 An example of the OpenMusic visual programming environment of mu-
sic for composition and analysis.
Figure 1.19 The first few measures of Stravinsky, Three Pieces for String Quartet
(1914), 3rd movement.
Figure 1.20 Two screens from the Sets and Vectors program on the CD-ROM that
accompanies this book.
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 The first 2000 digits of π.
Figure 2.2 Morse’s code for English letters and numbers.
Figure 2.3 An example of the kind of three-dimensional modeling of musical style
by Böker-Heil.
Figure 2.4 Cellular automata output generated by the code in the text.
Figure 2.5 Examples of retrograde (b), inversion (c), and retrograde inversion (d)
of a motive (a).
Figure 2.6 Two matrixes of the four-note motive of Figure 2.5. The first matrix
provides the motive and its eleven transpositions (down from right
to left) along with its retrograde and its eleven transpositions (read
right to left). The second matrix provides the inversion and its eleven
transpositions along with its retrograde inversion and its eleven
transpositions.
Figure 2.7 A simple downward scale beginning on different pitches, thus produc-
ing different arrangements of whole and half steps.
Figure 2.8 Brief monophonic samplings of music by (a) J. S. Bach, Suite no. 1 in G
Major for Violoncello Solo (1720), Minuet, mm. 1–8; (b) W. A. Mozart,
Symphony no. 40 in G Minor, K. 550 (1788), 1st movement, mm. 1–5;
(c) Ludwig van Beethoven, Symphony no. 5, op. 67 (1808), 1st move-
ment, mm. 1–5; (d), Johannes Brahms, Symphony no. 1, op. 68 (1876),
4th movement, mm. 30–38; (e) Anton Webern, Variations for Piano, op.
27 (1936), 2nd movement, mm. 1– 4; (f) Ernst Krenek, Suite for Violon-
cello, op. 84 (1939), 1st movement, mm. 1–4; (g) The author, Three
Pieces for Solo Clarinet(1965), 1st movement, mm. 1–3.
Figure 2.9 Bartók, Mikrokosmos, no. 81.
01_DAS_FM_ppi-xxx 1/29/09 1:06 PM Page xiii
Figure 2.10 AIT structural analysis of the music presented in Figure 2.9.
Figure 2.11 A simple graph showing four parameters of a melody by Brahms (pre-
sented at the top of the figure).
Figure 2.12 Pitches reduced to intervals for pattern matching.
Figure 2.13 Bartók, Mikrokosmos, no. 81, from Figure 2.9, in a Dynamic Musical AIT
graph.
Figure 2.14 Multigraph output for the beginning of Stravinsky, Three Pieces for
String Quartet (1914), shown in Figure 1.19.
Figure 2.15 Two mazurkas in the style of Chopin for analytical comparison.
Figure 2.16 Two DMAIT graphs representing the Chopin mazurkas shown in Figure
2.15.
Figure 2.17 A prelude by Chopin comparable in length to the pieces in Figure 2.15.
Figure 2.18 A Dynamic Musical Algorithmic Information Theory graph of the Cho-
pin prelude shown in Figure 2.17.
Figure 2.19 Sample Multigraph output.
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Symbols representing several ways in which sets can be more formally
compared.
Figure 3.2 A Venn graphic of set theory logical deductions.
Figure 3.3 Root positions of triads have a smaller range between their outer notes.
Figure 3.4 A clock face arranged to allow clearer visualization of pitch-class
relationships.
Figure 3.5 The [1,6,t] pitch-class set does not resolve to the pitch-class set
[0,5,9] (9 distance when rotated to 0) because of the smaller range of
[6,t,1] (7 distance and equating to [0,4,7] when rotated to 0).
Figure 3.6 A straightforward example of the use of set theory to find similarities
in post-tonal music.
Figure 3.7 (a) [e,0,2,5,7,8] is [0,1,3,6,8,9] when rotated one number clockwise;
(b) [6,7,9,0,2,3] is [0,1,3,6,8,9] when rotated six numbers clockwise;
(c) [7,6,4,1,e,t] is [0,1,3,6,8,9] when rotated seven numbers counter-
clockwise; (d) [0,e,9,6,4,3] is [0,1,3,6,8,9] when rotated twelve num-
bers counterclockwise.
Figure 3.8 The opening 4 measures of Schoenberg, Six Little Piano Pieces, Op. 19,
no. 6.
Figure 3.9 The opening measures of Claude Debussy, La cathédrale engloutie
(The Sunken Cathedral), 1909.
Figure 3.10 A conversion chart relating decimal to duodecimal notation.
01_DAS_FM_ppi-xxx 1/29/09 1:06 PM Page xiv
Figure 3.11 A more understandable and musical way to think in terms of duodeci-
mal notation.
Figure 3.12 Conversion methods used for decimal to duodecimal numbers and
vice versa.
Figure 3.13 Subtraction, addition, multiplication, and division using arbitrary
numbers in duodecimal notation.
Figure 3.14 Two two-set progressions showing pitch classes (first), t-normal form
(second), and prime (third).
Figure 3.15 Same reduction as Figure 3.14 but with registers intact in the form of
duodecimal notation.
Figure 3.16 Range notation shown to the lower right.
Figure 3.17 Arnold Schoenberg, Suite for Piano, op. 25 (1923), Gavotte, mm. 1–6,
with groupings circled and numbered.
Figure 3.18 Computer analysis of Schoenberg‘s Gavotte by tetrachords and tri-
chords as shown circled and numbered in figure 3.17.
Figure 3.19 Webern, Variations (1936), mm. 1–7.
Figure 3.20 Webern analysis by dyads (a) and trichords by hand (b) as shown
circled—dyads by solid line and trichords by dotted line—in Figure
3.19.
Figure 3.21 Nine measures from Boulez, Structures (1952).
Figure 3.22 Boulez analysis by tetrachords by hand as shown circled in Figure
3.21.
Figure 3.23 Webern, Concerto for 9 Instruments, op. 24, 1st movement, mm. 1–7.
Figure 3.24 (a) Calculations of registral information in Webern, Concerto for 9 In-
struments, op. 24, 1st movement, mm. 1–3.
Figure 3.25 Webern, Concerto for 9 Instruments, op. 24, 1st movement, last 7
measures.
Figure 3.26 Calculations of registral information from Figure 3.25.
Figure 3.27 Boulez, Second Sonata for Piano (1948), 2nd movement, beginning.
Figure 3.28 Calculations of registral information in mm. 1–6 in Boulez, Second
Sonata for Piano (1948), 2nd movement.
Figure 3.29 The author, Triplum for flute and piano (1975), beginning.
Figure 3.30 Calculations of registral information in the author’s Triplum for flute
and piano (1975), mm. 1–7.
Figure 3.31 The author, Triplum for flute and piano (1975), mm. 98–104.
Figure 3.32 Another passage from the author’s Triplum for flute and piano (1975),
m. 43.
Figure 3.33 The 97 possible origin sets for [0,2,6].
01_DAS_FM_ppi-xxx 1/29/09 1:06 PM Page xv
LIST OF FIGURES xv
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Beethoven, Piano Sonata in C Major, op. 53, beginning.
Figure 4.2 The numbers of iterations per pitch of the 298 pitches present in
Beethoven, Piano Sonata in C Major, op. 53, beginning (C, 48; C-sharp,
1; D, 26; E-flat, 11; E, 17; F, 57; F-sharp, 2; G, 52; A-flat, 16; A 13; B-flat,
31; B, 24).
Figure 4.3 A list of all 77 linear interval vector classes.
Figure 4.4 Four sets of scales related by symmetry (a, b, and c) and repeating
pattern (d).
Figure 4.5 Beethoven, Piano Sonata op. 7, mm. 97–105.
Figure 4.6 A series of possible scales, with each successive scale possibility lack-
ing one of the previous scale’s notes, the one with the shortest overall
duration. Each line here represents the scale’s transposed pitch-class
set beginning on 0, its linear interval vector, and the original pitch-
class set in ascending order.
Figure 4.7 Varèse, Density 21.5 for solo flute.
Figure 4.8 Computer scale analysis of the phrases of the three sections of Varèse,
Density 21.5 (see Figure 4.7), with author’s determination of best scale
possibility in boldface.
Figure 4.9 Computer analysis of Varèse, Density 21.5, by complete section with
author’s determination of best scale possibility in boldface and sec-
ondary possibilities marked by “*” and “†.”
Figure 4.10 Unordered but nontransposed scale pitch classes for each section in
Figure 4.7.
Figure 4.11 The first section of Varèse, Density 21.5, with non-scale tones circled.
Figure 4.12 Schoenberg, Six Little Piano Pieces, op. 19, no. 1 (1911).
Figure 4.13 Computer readouts from a three-phrase analysis of Schoenberg, Six Little
Piano Pieces op. 19, no. 1.
Figure 4.14 Computer analysis of the entirety of Schoenberg, op. 19, no. 1.
Figure 4.15 From the author’s Concerto for Cello and Orchestra (1994).
Figure 4.16 The author, Concerto for Cello and Orchestra (1994), computer analy-
sis by phrase.
Figure 4.17 Computer analysis of the excerpt from the author’s concerto in Figure
4.15, by section.
Figure 4.18 Computer analysis of the entirety of the excerpt from the author’s
concerto shown in Figure 4.15.
Figure 4.19 Selected measures of the solo cello part of the author’s concerto. The
scale used in the third movement has a related complement used
much as the dominant key might be used in a tonal concerto.
01_DAS_FM_ppi-xxx 1/29/09 1:06 PM Page xvi
Figure 4.20 A scale analysis of Stravinsky, Three Pieces for String Quartet (1914),
3rd movement (opening), as shown in Figure 1.19.
Figure 4.21 A pitch field that covers a span of two-plus octaves and contains two
exclusionary hexachord pitch-class sets.
Figure 4.22 A scale with a range of two-plus octaves for the example shown in Fig-
ure 4.21.
Figure 4.23 An example where the notes C-sharp, G, and B appear only in the up-
per register and the notes E-flat, F, and A appear only in the lower reg-
ister (Arnold Schoenberg, Das Buch der hängenden Gärten, II).
Figure 4.24 The scale differences between a one-octave representation and a two-
octave representation of the music in Figure 4.23.
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 One possible overview of the structure of a work of music that is at
one and the same time a visual/musical representation and an OOP
representation.
Figure 5.2 Examples where (a) roots remain the same but tensions change and
(b) tensions remain fairly equal but roots change, demonstrating how
neither process alone can determine function in post-tonal music.
Figure 5.3 The overtone series from the fundamental C.
Figure 5.4 (a) Interval derivations from the overtone series along with their root
designations, and (b) interval root strengths shown in order of strength.
Figure 5.5 Six groupings to serve as examples of the root-identification process.
Figure 5.6 A list of intervals weighted according to their tension levels.
Figure 5.7 Figuring interval weights from the bass note by using the chart in Fig-
ure 5.6 produces 0.3 (M3 at 0.2 + P5 at 0.1), .5 (m3 at 0.225 + m6 at
0.275), and 0.8 (P4 at 0.55 + M6 at 0.25), respectively. The minor triad
and its inversions produce 0.325 (m3 at 0.225 + P5 at 0.1), .45 (M3 at
0.2 + M6 at 0.25), and 0.825 (P4 at 0.55 + m6 at 0.275).
Figure 5.8 The augmented triad at 0.475 (M3 at 0.2 + m6 at 0.275), the diminished
triad at 0..775 (m3 at 0.225 + A4 at 0.55), the dominant seventh chord
at 1.0 (M3 at 0.2 + P5 at 0.1 + m7 at 0.7), and the diminished seventh
chord at 1.125 (m3 at 0.225 + A4 at 0.65 + M6 at 0.25).
Figure 5.9 Four chords producing tensions of 1.2 (M3 at 0.2 + P5 at 0.1 + M7 at
0.9), 1.25 (m3 at 0.225 + P5 at 0.1 + m7 at 0.7), 0.55 (M3 at 0.2 + P5 at
0.1 + M6 at 0.25), and 2.0 (M3 at 0.2 + P5 at 0.1 + M7 at 0.9 + M2 at 0.8).
Figure 5.10 Chord tensions adding to 1.0 (M2 at 0.8 + M3 at 0..2), 1.225 (m2 at 1.0 +
m3 at 0.225), 1.8 (m2 at 1.0 + M2 at 0.8), and 1.475 (P4 at 0.55 + m7 at
0.7 + m3 at 0.225).
01_DAS_FM_ppi-xxx 1/29/09 1:06 PM Page xvii
Figure 5.11 A simple lookup table of metric tensions for principal beats in twelve
different meters.
Figure 5.12 (a) J. S. Bach, Chorale no. 42, demonstrating the same chord in differ-
ing contexts; (b) Schoenberg, Six Pieces for Piano, op. 19, no. 6, open-
ing measures, demonstrating the same types of contextual differences.
Figure 5.13 SPEAC analysis of the music in Figure 5.12a and b.
Figure 5.14 An example of a unification as derived from Schoenberg, Three Piano
Pieces, op. 11, no. 1: (a) the unification, and (b) the first 8 measures of
the work from which the unification was drawn. Note the other unifi-
cations present here as well.
Figure 5.15 Two patterns, a target pattern and a potential matching pattern. If the
*intervals-off* controller were set to 2, the two patterns would
not match. However, if the *intervals-off* controller were set to
3, the two patterns would match.
Figure 5.16 A phrase of music by Mozart (a); a machine-composed replication (b);
the meta-pattern that binds them together (c).
Figure 5.17 Various levels (gradient map) of music revealed by applying filters.
Figure 5.18 The opening few beats of a graphical analysis of Stravinsky, Three
Pieces for String Quartet (1914), 3rd movement.
Figure 5.19 A root analysis of Stravinsky, Three Pieces for String Quartet (1914),
3rd movement.
Figure 5.20 SPEAC analysis (by chord change) of Stravinsky, Three Pieces for
String Quartet (1914), 3rd movement.
Figure 5.21 A structural graph of a section from the author’s Triplum for flute and
piano.
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 (a) Mozart, Piano Sonata K. 279, 1st movement, mm. 1–3; (b) results of
the Melodic Predictor; (c) Mozart, Piano Sonata K. 533, 1st movement,
mm. 1–4; (d) results of the Melodic Predictor.
Figure 6.2 Recombination process leading to the completion of a new Bach-like
chorale phrase.
Figure 6.3 An example of differing types of internal patterns causing problems in
recombination: (a) and (b) originals, (c) a recombination without re-
gard to texture sensitivity.
Figure 6.4 An example of Experiments in Musical Intelligence output: the begin-
ning of the Rondo Capriccio for cello and orchestra arguably in the
style of Mozart.
01_DAS_FM_ppi-xxx 1/29/09 1:06 PM Page xviii
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 The top ten levels of Pascal’s triangle.
Figure 7.2 Pascal’s triangle shown stacked to the left and modulo 2 with the ze-
ros identifying the Sierpinski gasket (a), and zeros removed (b) to
make the graphic more readable.
Figure 7.3 A simple 5 × 5 magic square in which all horizontal ranks and vertical
columns sum to 65.
01_DAS_FM_ppi-xxx 1/29/09 1:06 PM Page xix
Figure 7.4 A magic square containing intervals that equate (when added to-
gether) to 5 in top-to-bottom and left-to-right directions, along with
musical examples.
Figure 7.5 The author, Concerto for Cello and Orchestra, 2nd movement
(excerpt).
Figure 7.6 A magic cube with both incremental numbers and music intervals
(with directions).
Figure 7.7 A formal analysis of the first 89 measures of Bartók, Music for Strings,
Percussion and Celeste (Lendvai 1983, p. 74), based on the golden
mean and the Fibonacci series.
Figure 7.8 The first 14 measures of Varèse, Density 21.5, with much the same
pitch classes as the silver variation.
Figure 7.9 A simple model of a neural network.
Figure 7. 10 A simple example of an association network.
Figure 7.11 An example of Muse’s grouping process.
Figure 7.12 All of the possible permutations of a six-note list of nonrepeating num-
bers not including the original arrangement ([0,2,7] [1,5,8]) and its ret-
rograde ([1,5,8] [0,2,7]).
Figure 7.13 A view of the listener window after the completion of one analysis by
Muse.
Figure 7.14 Muse’s program includes a function called sleep.
Figure 7.15 The Eine Kleine Stück arguably in the style of Arnold Schoenberg by
Experiments in Musical Intelligence.
Figure 7.16 Schoenberg, Three Piano Pieces, op. 11, no. 1 (opening).
Figure 7.17 The first page of the score to Beethoven, Symphony no. 5, revision.
Figure 7.18 Dies irae, a medieval Latin sequence and the first words of the Re-
quiem Mass.
Figure 7.19 (a) A passage from the Mystic Circle of the Young Girls in Stravinsky,
The Rite of Spring ; (b) a passage from Stravinsky, Three Pieces for
String Quartet.
Figure 7.20 (a) A passage from the 3rd movement of Stravinsky, Three Pieces for
String Quartet; (b) a similar passage in the Symphonies of Wind Instru-
ments.
Figure 7.21 A post-tonal work by the author resembling Stravinsky’s style.
01_DAS_FM_ppi-xxx 1/29/09 1:06 PM Page xx
01_DAS_FM_ppi-xxx 1/29/09 1:06 PM Page xxi
Preface
xxi
01_DAS_FM_ppi-xxx 1/29/09 1:06 PM Page xxii
PREFACE xxiii
their interests if they so desire. I believe that those who stick with this book, despite
its bumpy ride, will gain a new appreciation for the views of music offered here.
Chapter 1 begins with principles and definitions, followed by a survey of histori-
cal algorithmic analysis processes and a broad overview of the computer music
programs in use today. This overview does not just list the many different imple-
mentations of particular analytical processes, but describes representative exam-
ples of them. For example, pitch-class set analysis programs in Java can be found at
dozens of Internet sites at present, the variations between them limited primarily
to differences in graphical user interfaces. Therefore, the coverage here is relatively
limited. Other programs, such as the Humdrum Toolkit, that provide more univer-
sal algorithms are discussed in more detail. Chapter 2, on music and algorithmic
information theory, describes how a form of compression (replacing redundant ma-
terial with signifiers to conserve space) can reveal important statistics about post-
tonal music. It also proposes an analytical technique that incorporates a dynamic
integrative approach to aspects of pitch, rhythm, texture, and dynamics in an at-
tempt to understand the constantly changing foci of musical works.
Chapter 3, on set analysis of register and range, introduces a duodecimal nota-
tion for representing pitch-class sets, a notation that, by virtue of its having a base
(radix) of twelve, allows both register and pitch class to share one relatively simple
notation. Integrating these two interrelated aspects of musical pitch in a pitch-class
abstraction enables the comparison of equivalent prime-form sets with significant
registral differences, revealing contrasts as significant as those between prime-form
sets that share very similar registral arrangements. Chapter 4 presents a computer
analysis of musical scales and describes a method for generating all possible equal-
tempered scales and an approach to efficiently discovering and cataloging these
scales, particularly in post-tonal music. Because scales have scale degrees that in
tonal music signify musical functions, the concept of post-tonal scale analysis
has far-reaching implications. This is the subject of Chapter 5, which more fully
explores the implications of discovering function in post-tonal music, defining and
analyzing potential musical progressions, cadences, chromatic harmonies, hierar-
chies, and so on.
Chapter 6 focuses on generating rules from music itself, rather than imposing
user-prescribed rules. I end in Chapter 7 with a possibly brazen (but hopefully use-
ful) look to the future at some of the areas of musical analysis I feel will develop
over the next few decades thanks to the availability of new computational tools.
I have chosen commonly analyzed musical examples for this book so that read-
ers will be able to better compare the results of the analytical processes I describe
here with the results of other, more standard analytical techniques. I have also in-
terpolated examples of my own music here and there in order that readers may
more directly ascertain how the techniques described further prove valuable in the
creative process. I explicitly used the analytical processes described in these com-
positions, and these works represent the best cases I can prove of such usage.
01_DAS_FM_ppi-xxx 1/29/09 1:06 PM Page xxiv
I have limited the scope of study for this book to classical post-tonal music.
Other genres of music might serve equally well. However, classical post-tonal music
provides a comprehensive range of music over a significant historical period. As
well, my own background consists almost exclusively of classical tonal and post-
tonal music, and hence I lack the expertise to intelligently discuss other genres of
music. Readers may offset this shortcoming by applying the techniques defined
and described here to whatever style of music they know best.
The various computer programs discussed in this book, along with MP3 versions
of all of the book’s musical examples, are available on the CD-ROM that accompa-
nies this book. The programs are written in Common Lisp, of which two versions
are available: (1) Macintosh platform, or (2) any platform that supports Common
Lisp. To ensure that these latter programs will perform in different environments
requires the omission of platform-dependent code such as all Musical Instrument
Digital Interface (MIDI) and graphical user interface (GUI) functions. Full documen-
tation and operating instructions are included with each program.
As time permits, I will provide code updates for new versions of the Macintosh
operating system on my Web site (arts.ucsc.edu/faculty/cope). However, if history
proves accurate, as soon as I write new platform-dependent programs, system
hardware or software changes will once again render the code almost immediately
obsolete. Furthermore, the software for the programs in this book, although very
helpful in demonstrating the principles of each chapter and in clarifying the ana-
lytical principles proposed, is not critical to the understanding of the material
presented.
Whenever possible in this book, I have included the thoughts of music theorists,
musicologists, mathematicians, computer scientists, and cognitive scientists whose
work complements or poses the greatest challenges to the ideas presented here.
My apologies to those whose work may seem relevant, but to which I have not re-
ferred here due to space limitations.
Many individuals have advised me in this study of computer music analysis, par-
ticularly graduate students and colleagues at the University of California at Santa
Cruz (notably Paul Nauert, Ben Carson, and Daniel Brown). I also owe immense
gratitude to Nico Schüler for forwarding a copy of his dissertation (2000), without
which I would have floundered more than I already have in the first chapter’s his-
tory of computer music analysis. Keith Muscutt, Eric Nichols, and Irene Natow pro-
vided much-needed advice (editorial and otherwise). Many of the ideas in this book
originated from my teaching over the years, and I thank the many classes of stu-
dents who acted as guinea pigs for my theoretical explorations. Without support
from colleagues and students such as these, this book could not have been
completed.
Hidden Structure describes a few of the ways in which I believe computer pro-
grams can contribute significantly to the analysis of music, particularly to the often
difficult-to-understand post-tonal music of our time. Although computer programs—
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DANS LE CHEMIN QUI S'ENFONCE…
et restons,
balancés, secoués, à regarder…
On s'arrête… ho…
O Taille-Mince,
on va dire, dans les champs,
que votre taille tiendrait dans
la ceinture des deux mains ainsi jointes.
O Blonde,
O ardente apparue, ô cheveux blonds,
on va vouloir vous couronner,
pour nous faire honneur, de la fleur
des moissons—
et de soleil, cueillis au faîte des batteuses
qu'on entend lointainement ronfler par la campagne
et haleter, et qui crachent,
dans les cours, la paille poussiéreuse.
A Maurice Denis.
*
* *
Cette femme que j'ai vue, en passant devant elle, prier au chœur
de la cathédrale, m'a rappelé qu'il faut parler du corps de la femme
et comment il faut en parler:
C'est ainsi qu'il nous est précieux: tel que notre vie passée et nos
coutumes l'ont fait, tout confondu avec son passé, tout paré de cette
vie qu'il nous rapporte, de cette féminité qu'on lui a transmise—avec
ce goût d'éphémère que lui donne la mode! Tandis que l'idole
grecque de M. Louys, cette «nudité sculpturale» dressée sous les
lustres ne nous est rien de plus qu'une abstraction. Malgré Taine,
nous ne pouvons plus penser, ni surtout sentir à la façon grecque:
dès qu'il ne s'agit plus de froide spéculation, mais de passion, ce
sont les quinze siècles de «barbarie» occidentale qui revivent en
nous. Et que nous assistions aux exhibitions dont M. Louys a plaidé
jadis la nécessité, notre admiration sera forcée, livresque, pédante;
ou peut-être rirons-nous de ce que nous prendrons pour une
audacieuse plaisanterie: mais si le mot de «femme» est prononcé, le
vieux paysan de Beauce ou de Touraine, l'homme de toutes
convenances et de toutes traditions, parlera en nous son vieux
langage grave et silencieux:
Mais cette attente est en nous comme ces rêves fiévreux des
enfants amoureux, où l'on voit, dans leurs salons impossibles, à
une heure tardive de la nuit des noces, des enfants mariés et
d'autres, causant longuement et mystérieusement.—Et, même
alors si nous l'imaginons précisément, le corps de la femme,
dans sa nudité, ne sera point dévêtu du prestige dont nous
l'avons paré: Les chastes et rigides vêtements qu'on lui voit aux
vitraux du moyen-âge lui auront laissé leur forme; il en sort un
peu raide, affiné légèrement, tendrement émacié. A la frileuse
gaucherie de ses pas, à cette grâce—comme de draperie ou de
manche pagode—qui accompagne le geste de ses bras, on sent
enlevée à peine sa robe moderne et à la mode. Le chignon sur
son front n'est pas défait, ni la natte en arrière de ses cheveux
blonds… Nous ne pensons pas à la Vénus grecque, car ceci est
encore féminin, maternel, innocent, avec cette humilité candide
que lui enseigna «l'Imitation de Jésus-Christ», avec cet air
mystérieux et furtif qu'on lui vit, dressé dans le rond de ses
habits tombés, au fond du «Jardin des Vierges sages» et sur les
«Plages», cette hâte joyeuse de revenir en grelottant au linge
abandonné—tel enfin que l'a dessiné et colorié le peintre
Maurice Denis, à qui, tout naturellement et affectueusement, cet
Essai se dédie.
DANS LE TOUT PETIT JARDIN…
II
A Claude Debussy.
I
Grandes manœuvres.—La chambre d'amis du tailleur.
Petite chambre très lente, avec tes rideaux blancs, ta porte sur le
balcon. Tu voguais le long des journées désertes, dans les immenses
paysages noirs et bleus, parmi les averses et les ciels. Tu heurtais
parfois, au cours d'une terne matinée, les marches d'un moulin à
vent abandonné, sur une colline comme celle d'où tu étais partie.
Alors la vieille musique de ses ailes faisait passer dans tes rideaux un
frémissement, le regret des jeudis matins morts, où les enfants ne
sont pas venus, comme aux images de tes murs, avec de longs
discours anxieux et leurs joues chaudes l'une à l'autre appuyées,
guetter l'amour à ton balcon.
Parfois aussi, vers deux heures, tu rencontrais le soleil, comme
un marchand qui depuis le matin passa tous les villages et toutes les
demeures. L'un vers l'autre vous aviez marché longtemps. Lui te
disait: «Ce n'est rien! Dans la vallée qui s'en va tout au bout des
plus lointaines journées, là-bas, ce ne sont pas encore les villes
étranges. Ce n'est pas encore le pays des vaines arrivées parmi les
beaux visages perdus. Il n'y a que des pins et des bruyères. Et cet
éclair, sur la dernière ligne de la terre qui monte vers moi comme
d'une vitre, ah! ce n'est que…» Et le soleil, après s'être un instant
reposé sur le barreau de bois, laissait, une fois de plus, entre les
ombres de tes murs, l'ombre morne d'un jour.
Mais, un soir, voyageur que tu n'attendais plus, je suis monté
vers toi.
Du fond des nuits d'été, je t'apportais tous les désirs des autres
maisons, là-bas, maisons où meurent les grandes vacances, où les
enfants pleurent d'ennui à regarder la lueur éclatante de la nuit sur
la vitre, maisons où nous t'imaginions si belle, et mouvante dans
l'ombre, et toute peuplée de personnages, chambre inconnue!
chambre d'amis où nous ne fûmes pas invités!
Hélas, il était déjà trop tard, ce soir-là. J'ai cargué tes rideaux de
toile, et tu ne m'as donné qu'à dormir. Au matin, je t'ai trouvée vide,
et tu t'étais échouée contre l'hiver. Le froid posait sur mon visage
découvert et sur ma fièvre sa bonne main douloureuse. Un pavillon
de neige était étendu le long du balcon. Et tant de silence s'était fait
en toi, après le long voyage manqué, qu'on croyait entendre déjà le
bruit mat des premières allées et venues, dans la rue, le matin de
Noël.
II
Grandes manœuvres.—Marche avant le jour.
III
L'amour cherche les lieux abandonnés
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