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DAS23CoverCope 2/28/14 1:22 PM Page 1

VOLUME 23 THE COMPUTER MUSIC AND DIGITAL AUDIO SERIES

VOLUME 23 THE COMPUTER MUSIC AND DIGITAL AUDIO SERIES

Hidden Structure
Hidden Structure

Hidden Structure
Music Analysis
Using Computers Music Analysis
David Cope
Today’s computers provide music theorists with unprecedented opportunities to analyze
Using Computers
music more quickly and accurately than ever before. Where analysis once required several
weeks or even months to complete—often replete with human errors, computers now pro-
vide the means to accomplish these same analyses in a fraction of the time and with far

Music Analysis Using Computers

more accuracy. However, while such computer music analyses represent significant improve-
ments in the field, computational analyses using traditional approaches by themselves do
not constitute the true innovations in music theory that computers offer. In Hidden Structure:
Music Analysis Using Computers David Cope introduces a series of analytical processes
that—by virtue of their concept and design—can be better, and in some cases, only accom-
plished by computer programs, thereby presenting unique opportunities for music theorists to
understand more thoroughly the various kinds of music they study.
Following the introductory chapter that covers several important premises, Hidden Struc-
ture focuses on several unique approaches to music analysis offered by computer programs.
While these unique approaches do not represent an all-encompassing and integrated
global theory of music analysis, they do represent significantly more than a compilation of
loosely related computer program descriptions. For example, Chapter 5 on function in post-
tonal music, firmly depends on the scalar foundations presented in chapter 4. Likewise, chap-
ter 7 presents a multi-tiered approach to musical analysis that builds on the material found
in all of the preceding chapters. In short, Hidden Structure uniquely offers an integrated view
of computer music analysis for today’s musicians.

Of Related Interest
The Algorithmic Composer
By David Cope
DAS 16 ISBN 978-0-89579-454-3 (2000) xiii + 130 pp. (with CD-ROM) $49.95

Hyperimprovisation: Computer-Interactive Sound Improvisation

By Roger Dean
DAS 19 ISBN 978-0-89579-508-3 (2003) xxvi + 206 pp. (with CD-ROM) $49.95

New Digital Musical Instruments: Control and Interaction Beyond the Keyboard
By Eduardo Reck Miranda and Marcelo M. Wanderley
DAS 21 ISBN 978-0-89579-585-4 (2006) xxii + 286 pp. (with CD-ROM) $49.95

David Cope
I S B N 978-0-89579-640-0
A-R Editions, Inc. 90000
8551 Research Way, Suite 180
Middleton, WI 53562
800-736-0070
608-836-9000
http://www.areditions.com 9 780895 796400

Í David Cope
01_DAS_FM_ppi-xxx 1/29/09 1:06 PM Page i

HIDDEN STRUCTURE
01_DAS_FM_ppi-xxx 1/29/09 1:06 PM Page ii

THE COMPUTER MUSIC AND DIGITAL AUDIO SERIES

John Strawn, Founding Editor
James Zychowicz, Series Editor

Digital Audio Signal Processing Knowledge-Based Programming for

Edited by John Strawn Music Research
John W. Schaffer and Deron McGee
Composers and the Computer
Edited by Curtis Roads Fundamentals of Digital Audio
Alan P. Kefauver
Digital Audio Engineering
Edited by John Strawn The Digital Audio Music List: A Critical
Guide to Listening
Computer Applications in Music: Howard W. Ferstler
A Bibliography
Deta S. Davis The Algorithmic Composer
David Cope
The Compact Disc Handbook
Ken C. Pohlman The Audio Recording Handbook
Alan P. Kefauver
Computers and Musical Style
David Cope Cooking with Csound
Part I: Woodwind and Brass Recipes
MIDI: A Comprehensive Introduction Andrew Horner and Lydia Ayers
Joseph Rothstein
William Eldridge, Volume Editor Hyperimprovisation: Computer-
Interactive Sound Improvisation
Synthesizer Performance and Roger T. Dean
Real-Time Techniques
Jeff Pressing Introduction to Audio
Chris Meyer, Volume Editor Peter Utz

Music Processing New Digital Musical Instruments:

Edited by Goffredo Haus Control and Interaction Beyond
the Keyboard
Computer Applications in Music: Eduardo R. Miranda and
A Bibliography, Supplement I Marcelo M. Wanderley, with a
Deta S. Davis Foreword by Ross Kirk
Garrett Bowles, Volume Editor
Fundamentals of Digital Audio
General MIDI New Edition
Stanley Jungleib Alan P. Kefauver and David Patschke

Experiments in Musical Intelligence Hidden Structure: Music Analysis

David Cope Using Computers
David Cope
01_DAS_FM_ppi-xxx 1/29/09 1:06 PM Page iii

Volume 23 • THE COMPUTER MUSIC AND DIGITAL AUDIO SERIES

HIDDEN STRUCTURE

Music Analysis Using Computers

David Cope

Í A-R Editions, Inc.

Middleton, Wisconsin
01_DAS_FM_ppi-xxx 1/29/09 1:06 PM Page iv

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Cope, David, 1941–

Hidden structure : music analysis using computers / David Cope.
p. cm. — (Computer music and digital audio series : v. 23)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-89579-640-0
1. Music—Data processing. 2. Musical analysis—Data processing.
I. Title.

ML74.C69 2008
781.0285—dc22
2008019352
01_DAS_FM_ppi-xxx 1/29/09 1:06 PM Page v

Pulchritudo est Splendor Ordinis.

Beauty is the splendor of order.
Saint Augustine (345–430)
01_DAS_FM_ppi-xxx 1/29/09 1:06 PM Page vi
01_DAS_FM_ppi-xxx 1/29/09 1:06 PM Page vii

Contents

List of Figures xi

Preface xxi
Description of CD-ROM xxvii
Chapter One Background 1
Principles and Definitions 1
A Brief History of Algorithmic Analysis 7
A Brief Survey of Computational Music Analysis 22
Musical Examples 39
Program Description 41
Conclusions 43

Chapter Two Lisp, Algorithmic Information Theory, 45

and Music
Lisp 45
Definitions 50
Musical Algorithmic Information Theory 62
Musical Examples 74
Program Description 90
Conclusions 97
01_DAS_FM_ppi-xxx 1/29/09 1:06 PM Page viii

Chapter Three Register and Range in Set Analysis 99

Basics of Set Theory 99
Register 112
Ranges and Vectors 118
Comparisons 120
Musical Examples 127
Program Description 139
Conclusions 144

Chapter Four Computer Analysis of Scales in 145

Post-Tonal Music
Mathematical Sequences 145
Scales 148
Vector Classes and Metaclasses 153
Varèse’s Density 21.5 160
Schoenberg’s Six Little Piano Pieces, op. 19, no. 1 (1911) 169
Other Musical Examples 172
Program Description 182
Conclusions 188

Chapter Five Function and Structure in Post-Tonal 189

Music
Object-Oriented Programming 189
Definitions 197
The Acoustic Theory of Chord Roots 201
Musical Tension 205
Context and SPEAC 210
Function 215
Form and Structure 217
Musical Examples 225
Program Description 225
Conclusions 228
01_DAS_FM_ppi-xxx 1/29/09 1:06 PM Page ix

Chapter Six Generative Models of Music 231

Modeling 231
Recombinancy 234
Probabilities 249
Rules and Markov Chains 252
Musical Examples 269
Program Description 269
Conclusions 274

Chapter Seven A Look to the Future 275

Principles 275
Mathematics 277
Artificial Intelligence 290
Muse 295
Musical Examples 305
The Future 310
Conclusions 316

Bibliography 321
Glossary 331
Index 337
01_DAS_FM_ppi-xxx 1/29/09 1:06 PM Page x
01_DAS_FM_ppi-xxx 1/29/09 1:06 PM Page xi

List of Figures

Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 From Aristoxenus, The Harmonics of Aristoxenus, trans.. Henry S.
Macran (New York: Oxford University Press, 1902), 249.
Figure 1.2 A woodcut of Boethius with an instrument designed for methodologi-
cally deriving tunings (an algorithm).
Figure 1.3 An example of Gregorian chant, Parce Domine, notated in neumes; the
second staff is a continuation of the first.
Figure 1.4 An example of medieval organum.
Figure 1.5 The Guidonian hand, in which a specific note is assigned to each part
of the hand. By pointing to a part of the hand, the conductor can indi-
cate to a group of singers which note to sing.
Figure 1.6 An example of three-voice counterpoint around the time of Tinctoris.
Figure 1.7 The division of the octave according to Zarlino.
Figure 1.8 An exercise by Beethoven for his student Archduke Rudolph based on
Fux’s Gradus ad Parnassum.
Figure 1.9 Two diagrams from Rameau’s Treatise on Harmony describing (a) the
major (perfect) triad and its inversions, and (b) the dominant (funda-
mental) seventh chord and its inversions.
Figure 1.10 First published after Mozart’s death in 1793 by J. J. Hummel in Berlin,
this musikalisches Würfelspiel instruction page shows the first two
phrases of number selections (chosen by throws of the dice) that were
keyed to measures of music. Also shown, an example page of music by
Haydn for this own musikalisches Würfelspiel.
Figure 1.11 A sample Schenker analysis of Bach’s organ prelude Wenn wir in höch-
sten Noten sein.
Figure 1.12 Charles Babbage’s first Difference Machine (1833), a forerunner of the
modern-day computer.
Figure 1.13 The author, Horizons for Orchestra, in graphic format. Time moves left
to right.

xi
01_DAS_FM_ppi-xxx 1/29/09 1:06 PM Page xii

xii HIDDEN STRUCTURE

Figure 1.14 From Experiment 2 from Hiller and Isaacson, Illiac Suite, using the
Illiac computer at the University of Illinois, ca. 1956.
Figure 1.15 Flowcharts for MUSANA and its analysis module.
Figure 1.16 Ten commands found in Humdrum.
Figure 1.17 Bach Chorale 002 from the Music Theory Workbench, version 0.1
(http://pinhead.music.uiuc.edu/~hkt/mtw/pdf/), by Heinrich Taube
(accessed 24 July 2007).
Figure 1.18 An example of the OpenMusic visual programming environment of mu-
sic for composition and analysis.
Figure 1.19 The first few measures of Stravinsky, Three Pieces for String Quartet
(1914), 3rd movement.
Figure 1.20 Two screens from the Sets and Vectors program on the CD-ROM that
accompanies this book.
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 The first 2000 digits of π.
Figure 2.2 Morse’s code for English letters and numbers.
Figure 2.3 An example of the kind of three-dimensional modeling of musical style
by Böker-Heil.
Figure 2.4 Cellular automata output generated by the code in the text.
Figure 2.5 Examples of retrograde (b), inversion (c), and retrograde inversion (d)
of a motive (a).
Figure 2.6 Two matrixes of the four-note motive of Figure 2.5. The first matrix
provides the motive and its eleven transpositions (down from right
to left) along with its retrograde and its eleven transpositions (read
right to left). The second matrix provides the inversion and its eleven
transpositions along with its retrograde inversion and its eleven
transpositions.
Figure 2.7 A simple downward scale beginning on different pitches, thus produc-
ing different arrangements of whole and half steps.
Figure 2.8 Brief monophonic samplings of music by (a) J. S. Bach, Suite no. 1 in G
Major for Violoncello Solo (1720), Minuet, mm. 1–8; (b) W. A. Mozart,
Symphony no. 40 in G Minor, K. 550 (1788), 1st movement, mm. 1–5;
(c) Ludwig van Beethoven, Symphony no. 5, op. 67 (1808), 1st move-
ment, mm. 1–5; (d), Johannes Brahms, Symphony no. 1, op. 68 (1876),
4th movement, mm. 30–38; (e) Anton Webern, Variations for Piano, op.
27 (1936), 2nd movement, mm. 1– 4; (f) Ernst Krenek, Suite for Violon-
cello, op. 84 (1939), 1st movement, mm. 1–4; (g) The author, Three
Pieces for Solo Clarinet(1965), 1st movement, mm. 1–3.
Figure 2.9 Bartók, Mikrokosmos, no. 81.
01_DAS_FM_ppi-xxx 1/29/09 1:06 PM Page xiii

LIST OF FIGURES xiii

Figure 2.10 AIT structural analysis of the music presented in Figure 2.9.
Figure 2.11 A simple graph showing four parameters of a melody by Brahms (pre-
sented at the top of the figure).
Figure 2.12 Pitches reduced to intervals for pattern matching.
Figure 2.13 Bartók, Mikrokosmos, no. 81, from Figure 2.9, in a Dynamic Musical AIT
graph.
Figure 2.14 Multigraph output for the beginning of Stravinsky, Three Pieces for
String Quartet (1914), shown in Figure 1.19.
Figure 2.15 Two mazurkas in the style of Chopin for analytical comparison.
Figure 2.16 Two DMAIT graphs representing the Chopin mazurkas shown in Figure
2.15.
Figure 2.17 A prelude by Chopin comparable in length to the pieces in Figure 2.15.
Figure 2.18 A Dynamic Musical Algorithmic Information Theory graph of the Cho-
pin prelude shown in Figure 2.17.
Figure 2.19 Sample Multigraph output.

Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Symbols representing several ways in which sets can be more formally
compared.
Figure 3.2 A Venn graphic of set theory logical deductions.
Figure 3.3 Root positions of triads have a smaller range between their outer notes.
Figure 3.4 A clock face arranged to allow clearer visualization of pitch-class
relationships.
Figure 3.5 The [1,6,t] pitch-class set does not resolve to the pitch-class set
[0,5,9] (9 distance when rotated to 0) because of the smaller range of
[6,t,1] (7 distance and equating to [0,4,7] when rotated to 0).
Figure 3.6 A straightforward example of the use of set theory to find similarities
in post-tonal music.
Figure 3.7 (a) [e,0,2,5,7,8] is [0,1,3,6,8,9] when rotated one number clockwise;
(b) [6,7,9,0,2,3] is [0,1,3,6,8,9] when rotated six numbers clockwise;
(c) [7,6,4,1,e,t] is [0,1,3,6,8,9] when rotated seven numbers counter-
clockwise; (d) [0,e,9,6,4,3] is [0,1,3,6,8,9] when rotated twelve num-
bers counterclockwise.
Figure 3.8 The opening 4 measures of Schoenberg, Six Little Piano Pieces, Op. 19,
no. 6.
Figure 3.9 The opening measures of Claude Debussy, La cathédrale engloutie
(The Sunken Cathedral), 1909.
Figure 3.10 A conversion chart relating decimal to duodecimal notation.
01_DAS_FM_ppi-xxx 1/29/09 1:06 PM Page xiv

xiv HIDDEN STRUCTURE

Figure 3.11 A more understandable and musical way to think in terms of duodeci-
mal notation.
Figure 3.12 Conversion methods used for decimal to duodecimal numbers and
vice versa.
Figure 3.13 Subtraction, addition, multiplication, and division using arbitrary
numbers in duodecimal notation.
Figure 3.14 Two two-set progressions showing pitch classes (first), t-normal form
(second), and prime (third).
Figure 3.15 Same reduction as Figure 3.14 but with registers intact in the form of
duodecimal notation.
Figure 3.16 Range notation shown to the lower right.
Figure 3.17 Arnold Schoenberg, Suite for Piano, op. 25 (1923), Gavotte, mm. 1–6,
with groupings circled and numbered.
Figure 3.18 Computer analysis of Schoenberg‘s Gavotte by tetrachords and tri-
chords as shown circled and numbered in figure 3.17.
Figure 3.19 Webern, Variations (1936), mm. 1–7.
Figure 3.20 Webern analysis by dyads (a) and trichords by hand (b) as shown
circled—dyads by solid line and trichords by dotted line—in Figure
3.19.
Figure 3.21 Nine measures from Boulez, Structures (1952).
Figure 3.22 Boulez analysis by tetrachords by hand as shown circled in Figure
3.21.
Figure 3.23 Webern, Concerto for 9 Instruments, op. 24, 1st movement, mm. 1–7.
Figure 3.24 (a) Calculations of registral information in Webern, Concerto for 9 In-
struments, op. 24, 1st movement, mm. 1–3.
Figure 3.25 Webern, Concerto for 9 Instruments, op. 24, 1st movement, last 7
measures.
Figure 3.26 Calculations of registral information from Figure 3.25.
Figure 3.27 Boulez, Second Sonata for Piano (1948), 2nd movement, beginning.
Figure 3.28 Calculations of registral information in mm. 1–6 in Boulez, Second
Sonata for Piano (1948), 2nd movement.
Figure 3.29 The author, Triplum for flute and piano (1975), beginning.
Figure 3.30 Calculations of registral information in the author’s Triplum for flute
and piano (1975), mm. 1–7.
Figure 3.31 The author, Triplum for flute and piano (1975), mm. 98–104.
Figure 3.32 Another passage from the author’s Triplum for flute and piano (1975),
m. 43.
Figure 3.33 The 97 possible origin sets for [0,2,6].
01_DAS_FM_ppi-xxx 1/29/09 1:06 PM Page xv

LIST OF FIGURES xv

Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Beethoven, Piano Sonata in C Major, op. 53, beginning.
Figure 4.2 The numbers of iterations per pitch of the 298 pitches present in
Beethoven, Piano Sonata in C Major, op. 53, beginning (C, 48; C-sharp,
1; D, 26; E-flat, 11; E, 17; F, 57; F-sharp, 2; G, 52; A-flat, 16; A 13; B-flat,
31; B, 24).
Figure 4.3 A list of all 77 linear interval vector classes.
Figure 4.4 Four sets of scales related by symmetry (a, b, and c) and repeating
pattern (d).
Figure 4.5 Beethoven, Piano Sonata op. 7, mm. 97–105.
Figure 4.6 A series of possible scales, with each successive scale possibility lack-
ing one of the previous scale’s notes, the one with the shortest overall
duration. Each line here represents the scale’s transposed pitch-class
set beginning on 0, its linear interval vector, and the original pitch-
class set in ascending order.
Figure 4.7 Varèse, Density 21.5 for solo flute.
Figure 4.8 Computer scale analysis of the phrases of the three sections of Varèse,
Density 21.5 (see Figure 4.7), with author’s determination of best scale
possibility in boldface.
Figure 4.9 Computer analysis of Varèse, Density 21.5, by complete section with
author’s determination of best scale possibility in boldface and sec-
ondary possibilities marked by “*” and “†.”
Figure 4.10 Unordered but nontransposed scale pitch classes for each section in
Figure 4.7.
Figure 4.11 The first section of Varèse, Density 21.5, with non-scale tones circled.
Figure 4.12 Schoenberg, Six Little Piano Pieces, op. 19, no. 1 (1911).
Figure 4.13 Computer readouts from a three-phrase analysis of Schoenberg, Six Little
Piano Pieces op. 19, no. 1.
Figure 4.14 Computer analysis of the entirety of Schoenberg, op. 19, no. 1.
Figure 4.15 From the author’s Concerto for Cello and Orchestra (1994).
Figure 4.16 The author, Concerto for Cello and Orchestra (1994), computer analy-
sis by phrase.
Figure 4.17 Computer analysis of the excerpt from the author’s concerto in Figure
4.15, by section.
Figure 4.18 Computer analysis of the entirety of the excerpt from the author’s
concerto shown in Figure 4.15.
Figure 4.19 Selected measures of the solo cello part of the author’s concerto. The
scale used in the third movement has a related complement used
much as the dominant key might be used in a tonal concerto.
01_DAS_FM_ppi-xxx 1/29/09 1:06 PM Page xvi

xvi HIDDEN STRUCTURE

Figure 4.20 A scale analysis of Stravinsky, Three Pieces for String Quartet (1914),
3rd movement (opening), as shown in Figure 1.19.
Figure 4.21 A pitch field that covers a span of two-plus octaves and contains two
exclusionary hexachord pitch-class sets.
Figure 4.22 A scale with a range of two-plus octaves for the example shown in Fig-
ure 4.21.
Figure 4.23 An example where the notes C-sharp, G, and B appear only in the up-
per register and the notes E-flat, F, and A appear only in the lower reg-
ister (Arnold Schoenberg, Das Buch der hängenden Gärten, II).
Figure 4.24 The scale differences between a one-octave representation and a two-
octave representation of the music in Figure 4.23.

Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 One possible overview of the structure of a work of music that is at
one and the same time a visual/musical representation and an OOP
representation.
Figure 5.2 Examples where (a) roots remain the same but tensions change and
(b) tensions remain fairly equal but roots change, demonstrating how
neither process alone can determine function in post-tonal music.
Figure 5.3 The overtone series from the fundamental C.
Figure 5.4 (a) Interval derivations from the overtone series along with their root
designations, and (b) interval root strengths shown in order of strength.
Figure 5.5 Six groupings to serve as examples of the root-identification process.
Figure 5.6 A list of intervals weighted according to their tension levels.
Figure 5.7 Figuring interval weights from the bass note by using the chart in Fig-
ure 5.6 produces 0.3 (M3 at 0.2 + P5 at 0.1), .5 (m3 at 0.225 + m6 at
0.275), and 0.8 (P4 at 0.55 + M6 at 0.25), respectively. The minor triad
and its inversions produce 0.325 (m3 at 0.225 + P5 at 0.1), .45 (M3 at
0.2 + M6 at 0.25), and 0.825 (P4 at 0.55 + m6 at 0.275).
Figure 5.8 The augmented triad at 0.475 (M3 at 0.2 + m6 at 0.275), the diminished
triad at 0..775 (m3 at 0.225 + A4 at 0.55), the dominant seventh chord
at 1.0 (M3 at 0.2 + P5 at 0.1 + m7 at 0.7), and the diminished seventh
chord at 1.125 (m3 at 0.225 + A4 at 0.65 + M6 at 0.25).
Figure 5.9 Four chords producing tensions of 1.2 (M3 at 0.2 + P5 at 0.1 + M7 at
0.9), 1.25 (m3 at 0.225 + P5 at 0.1 + m7 at 0.7), 0.55 (M3 at 0.2 + P5 at
0.1 + M6 at 0.25), and 2.0 (M3 at 0.2 + P5 at 0.1 + M7 at 0.9 + M2 at 0.8).
Figure 5.10 Chord tensions adding to 1.0 (M2 at 0.8 + M3 at 0..2), 1.225 (m2 at 1.0 +
m3 at 0.225), 1.8 (m2 at 1.0 + M2 at 0.8), and 1.475 (P4 at 0.55 + m7 at
0.7 + m3 at 0.225).
01_DAS_FM_ppi-xxx 1/29/09 1:06 PM Page xvii

LIST OF FIGURES xvii

Figure 5.11 A simple lookup table of metric tensions for principal beats in twelve
different meters.
Figure 5.12 (a) J. S. Bach, Chorale no. 42, demonstrating the same chord in differ-
ing contexts; (b) Schoenberg, Six Pieces for Piano, op. 19, no. 6, open-
ing measures, demonstrating the same types of contextual differences.
Figure 5.13 SPEAC analysis of the music in Figure 5.12a and b.
Figure 5.14 An example of a unification as derived from Schoenberg, Three Piano
Pieces, op. 11, no. 1: (a) the unification, and (b) the first 8 measures of
the work from which the unification was drawn. Note the other unifi-
cations present here as well.
Figure 5.15 Two patterns, a target pattern and a potential matching pattern. If the
*intervals-off* controller were set to 2, the two patterns would
not match. However, if the *intervals-off* controller were set to
3, the two patterns would match.
Figure 5.16 A phrase of music by Mozart (a); a machine-composed replication (b);
the meta-pattern that binds them together (c).
Figure 5.17 Various levels (gradient map) of music revealed by applying filters.
Figure 5.18 The opening few beats of a graphical analysis of Stravinsky, Three
Pieces for String Quartet (1914), 3rd movement.
Figure 5.19 A root analysis of Stravinsky, Three Pieces for String Quartet (1914),
3rd movement.
Figure 5.20 SPEAC analysis (by chord change) of Stravinsky, Three Pieces for
String Quartet (1914), 3rd movement.
Figure 5.21 A structural graph of a section from the author’s Triplum for flute and
piano.

Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 (a) Mozart, Piano Sonata K. 279, 1st movement, mm. 1–3; (b) results of
the Melodic Predictor; (c) Mozart, Piano Sonata K. 533, 1st movement,
mm. 1–4; (d) results of the Melodic Predictor.
Figure 6.2 Recombination process leading to the completion of a new Bach-like
chorale phrase.
Figure 6.3 An example of differing types of internal patterns causing problems in
recombination: (a) and (b) originals, (c) a recombination without re-
gard to texture sensitivity.
Figure 6.4 An example of Experiments in Musical Intelligence output: the begin-
ning of the Rondo Capriccio for cello and orchestra arguably in the
style of Mozart.
01_DAS_FM_ppi-xxx 1/29/09 1:06 PM Page xviii

xviii HIDDEN STRUCTURE

Figure 6.5 An example of allusion in (a) an Experiments in Musical Intelligence

replication; and (b) a Beethoven bagatelle Op. 119, no. 1 (1820), upon
which it is partially based.
Figure 6.6 A Bach chorale as example of a jigsaw puzzle.
Figure 6.7 The Bayes rule.
Figure 6.8 A state-transition matrix for a first-order Markov chain involving all
twelve notes of the chromatic scale.
Figure 6.9 The upper left-hand corner of a second-order Markov chain state tran-
sition matrix.
Figure 6.10 (a) Original, Bartók, Mikrokosmos, no. 71, transposed to begin on G;
(b–f) five computer extensions beginning five notes from the end of
the passage.
Figure 6.11 (a) Original, Bartók, Mikrokosmos, no. 77, transposed to begin on D;
(b–d) three computer extensions beginning five notes from the end of
the passage.
Figure 6.12 A simple two-voice counterpoint in which each voice moves stepwise
in various directions.
Figure 6.13 A post-tonal example, where the various two-note groupings do not
have clear functionalism.
Figure 6.14 Two possible nonidentical computer extensions (b and c) to the origi-
nal by Bartók (Mikrokosmos, no. 80) presented in (a).
Figure 6.15 Three different forms of analysis provided by Alice.
Figure 6.16 The rule (((3 3) 2 1) ((5 1) -2 2) ((0 0) 2 3) ((8 5) -1 4)) in music
notation.
Figure 6.17 Extending voice-leading rules.
Figure 6.18 Several student-created extensions (b–d) based on Bartók (a),
Mikrokosmos, no. 81.
Figure 6.19 The rule (((19 16) -3)) in music notation.

Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 The top ten levels of Pascal’s triangle.
Figure 7.2 Pascal’s triangle shown stacked to the left and modulo 2 with the ze-
ros identifying the Sierpinski gasket (a), and zeros removed (b) to
make the graphic more readable.
Figure 7.3 A simple 5 × 5 magic square in which all horizontal ranks and vertical
columns sum to 65.
01_DAS_FM_ppi-xxx 1/29/09 1:06 PM Page xix

LIST OF FIGURES xix

Figure 7.4 A magic square containing intervals that equate (when added to-
gether) to 5 in top-to-bottom and left-to-right directions, along with
musical examples.
Figure 7.5 The author, Concerto for Cello and Orchestra, 2nd movement
(excerpt).
Figure 7.6 A magic cube with both incremental numbers and music intervals
(with directions).
Figure 7.7 A formal analysis of the first 89 measures of Bartók, Music for Strings,
Percussion and Celeste (Lendvai 1983, p. 74), based on the golden
mean and the Fibonacci series.
Figure 7.8 The first 14 measures of Varèse, Density 21.5, with much the same
pitch classes as the silver variation.
Figure 7.9 A simple model of a neural network.
Figure 7. 10 A simple example of an association network.
Figure 7.11 An example of Muse’s grouping process.
Figure 7.12 All of the possible permutations of a six-note list of nonrepeating num-
bers not including the original arrangement ([0,2,7] [1,5,8]) and its ret-
rograde ([1,5,8] [0,2,7]).
Figure 7.13 A view of the listener window after the completion of one analysis by
Muse.
Figure 7.14 Muse’s program includes a function called sleep.
Figure 7.15 The Eine Kleine Stück arguably in the style of Arnold Schoenberg by
Experiments in Musical Intelligence.
Figure 7.16 Schoenberg, Three Piano Pieces, op. 11, no. 1 (opening).
Figure 7.17 The first page of the score to Beethoven, Symphony no. 5, revision.
Figure 7.18 Dies irae, a medieval Latin sequence and the first words of the Re-
quiem Mass.
Figure 7.19 (a) A passage from the Mystic Circle of the Young Girls in Stravinsky,
The Rite of Spring ; (b) a passage from Stravinsky, Three Pieces for
String Quartet.
Figure 7.20 (a) A passage from the 3rd movement of Stravinsky, Three Pieces for
String Quartet; (b) a similar passage in the Symphonies of Wind Instru-
ments.
Figure 7.21 A post-tonal work by the author resembling Stravinsky’s style.
01_DAS_FM_ppi-xxx 1/29/09 1:06 PM Page xx
01_DAS_FM_ppi-xxx 1/29/09 1:06 PM Page xxi

Preface

Today’s computers provide music theorists with unprecedented opportunities to

analyze music more quickly and accurately than ever before. Whereas analysis once
required several weeks or even months to complete and was often replete with hu-
man errors, computers now provide the means to accomplish these same analyses
in a fraction of the time and with far more accuracy. However, although such com-
puter music analyses represent significant improvements in the field, computational
analyses using traditional approaches do not in themselves constitute the true inno-
vations in music theory that computers offer. In this book, I introduce a series of an-
alytical processes that—by virtue of their concept and design—can better, and in
some cases only, be accomplished by computer programs, presenting unique oppor-
tunities for music theorists to better understand the music they study.
As an example, when comparing computational and human analysis, we need to
distinguish between time differences of minutes or hours and of months or years.
Analyses that may take a human minutes, hours, or days may still be undertaken
by hand. Analyses that require a human months or even years may not even be
considered feasible. Without these latter analyses, however, our range of choices of
analytical processes becomes arbitrarily limited. With computers able to reduce
our months or years to fractions of seconds and accuracy to near perfect, music
analysts must rethink many theories that they may have previously dismissed as
impossible due to the magnitude of the undertaking. Computers can not only re-
duce our fatigue and increase our accuracy, but they can open whole new worlds
previously considered unachievable—if considered at all.
Many readers of a book like this might value an annotated bibliography of cur-
rently available software for tonal and post-tonal music analysis, but most would
find this kind of listing woefully out of date the very day it became available; the
field simply changes too rapidly to make this kind of offering practical. Instead, this
book—with the exception of the broad introductory first chapter—focuses on sev-
eral unique approaches to music analysis offered by computer programs. Although
these approaches do not represent an all-encompassing and integrated global
theory of music analysis, they do represent significantly more than a compilation of
loosely related computer program descriptions. Chapter 5, on function in post-
tonal music, for example, firmly depends on the scalar foundations presented in

xxi
01_DAS_FM_ppi-xxx 1/29/09 1:06 PM Page xxii

xxii HIDDEN STRUCTURE

Chapter 4. Likewise, the logic of Chapter 7’s presentation of a multi-tiered approach

to musical analysis depends on the material of all of the preceding chapters. In
short, this book represents an integrated view of computer music analysis.
Hidden Structure also centers on post-tonal rather than tonal music for several
reasons. First, as we shall see in this chapter, tonal music analysis has a long and
distinguished history that details approaches to melody, harmony, counterpoint,
form, and structure. Although the advent of computer technology can certainly add
tools and allow the discovery of new concepts, the range of potential for truly new
approaches is, I feel, somewhat limited compared to the potential for analytical
possibilities in post-tonal music. Second, many diverse and useful programs for
tonal music analysis already exist. In fact, most early computer computational ex-
periments with music analysis involved tonal music. On the other hand, although
many computer pitch-class set programs exist, little beyond this easily created soft-
ware is currently available. Third, and possibly most important, post-tonal music
represents the lingua franca of today’s concert music, the music in which I am most
interested and to which I wish to devote my research time.
The ideas described in this book are ordered from simple to complex, and from
more traditional to possibly more innovative. Chapter 2’s focus on information
theory mirrors the work done by early music theorists using computers, while
Chapter 6’s concentration on computer modeling parallels more recent work in
computer composition using rule acquisition. Most of these ideas also share com-
mon perspectives. For example, they have the same post-tonal focus, use similar
artificial-intelligence approaches, and share the same computational foci. Thus, this
book represents an integrated view of music analysis rather than a potpourri of
interesting but unrelated analytical perspectives.
Although this book is meant for a general audience, with the only prerequisite
being the ability to read music, it is particularly intended for both musicians inter-
ested in the application of computers to the understanding of music and computer
scientists—both professionals and those amateurs who enjoy the sport of benign
hacking—wishing to use their expertise to better understand music. Given my sus-
picion that many of these individuals do not share a great deal of common ground,
I have attempted to educate each group in the territory of the other. I therefore
define the terms and concepts used very carefully. For example, music theorists
will require an understanding of information theory, programming, and so on. Like-
wise, non–music theorists will require an understanding of musical set theory,
chord roots, and so on. By doing this, however, I fear that both will consider many
of the chapters here uneven, at least in the sense that computer scientists, for ex-
ample, understand set theory, just not musical set theory, and vice versa for musi-
cians. Thus, readers may find themselves in shallow water for one section of a
chapter and then suddenly in deep water. I apologize for the lack of uniformity that
may result. Hopefully, the chapter subheadings will allow those already familiar
with one or more of the concepts described to skip to the next section relevant to
01_DAS_FM_ppi-xxx 1/29/09 1:06 PM Page xxiii

PREFACE xxiii

their interests if they so desire. I believe that those who stick with this book, despite
its bumpy ride, will gain a new appreciation for the views of music offered here.
Chapter 1 begins with principles and definitions, followed by a survey of histori-
cal algorithmic analysis processes and a broad overview of the computer music
programs in use today. This overview does not just list the many different imple-
mentations of particular analytical processes, but describes representative exam-
ples of them. For example, pitch-class set analysis programs in Java can be found at
dozens of Internet sites at present, the variations between them limited primarily
to differences in graphical user interfaces. Therefore, the coverage here is relatively
limited. Other programs, such as the Humdrum Toolkit, that provide more univer-
sal algorithms are discussed in more detail. Chapter 2, on music and algorithmic
information theory, describes how a form of compression (replacing redundant ma-
terial with signifiers to conserve space) can reveal important statistics about post-
tonal music. It also proposes an analytical technique that incorporates a dynamic
integrative approach to aspects of pitch, rhythm, texture, and dynamics in an at-
tempt to understand the constantly changing foci of musical works.
Chapter 3, on set analysis of register and range, introduces a duodecimal nota-
tion for representing pitch-class sets, a notation that, by virtue of its having a base
(radix) of twelve, allows both register and pitch class to share one relatively simple
notation. Integrating these two interrelated aspects of musical pitch in a pitch-class
abstraction enables the comparison of equivalent prime-form sets with significant
registral differences, revealing contrasts as significant as those between prime-form
sets that share very similar registral arrangements. Chapter 4 presents a computer
analysis of musical scales and describes a method for generating all possible equal-
tempered scales and an approach to efficiently discovering and cataloging these
scales, particularly in post-tonal music. Because scales have scale degrees that in
tonal music signify musical functions, the concept of post-tonal scale analysis
has far-reaching implications. This is the subject of Chapter 5, which more fully
explores the implications of discovering function in post-tonal music, defining and
analyzing potential musical progressions, cadences, chromatic harmonies, hierar-
chies, and so on.
Chapter 6 focuses on generating rules from music itself, rather than imposing
user-prescribed rules. I end in Chapter 7 with a possibly brazen (but hopefully use-
ful) look to the future at some of the areas of musical analysis I feel will develop
over the next few decades thanks to the availability of new computational tools.
I have chosen commonly analyzed musical examples for this book so that read-
ers will be able to better compare the results of the analytical processes I describe
here with the results of other, more standard analytical techniques. I have also in-
terpolated examples of my own music here and there in order that readers may
more directly ascertain how the techniques described further prove valuable in the
creative process. I explicitly used the analytical processes described in these com-
positions, and these works represent the best cases I can prove of such usage.
01_DAS_FM_ppi-xxx 1/29/09 1:06 PM Page xxiv

xxiv HIDDEN STRUCTURE

I have limited the scope of study for this book to classical post-tonal music.
Other genres of music might serve equally well. However, classical post-tonal music
provides a comprehensive range of music over a significant historical period. As
well, my own background consists almost exclusively of classical tonal and post-
tonal music, and hence I lack the expertise to intelligently discuss other genres of
music. Readers may offset this shortcoming by applying the techniques defined
and described here to whatever style of music they know best.
The various computer programs discussed in this book, along with MP3 versions
of all of the book’s musical examples, are available on the CD-ROM that accompa-
nies this book. The programs are written in Common Lisp, of which two versions
are available: (1) Macintosh platform, or (2) any platform that supports Common
Lisp. To ensure that these latter programs will perform in different environments
requires the omission of platform-dependent code such as all Musical Instrument
Digital Interface (MIDI) and graphical user interface (GUI) functions. Full documen-
tation and operating instructions are included with each program.
As time permits, I will provide code updates for new versions of the Macintosh
operating system on my Web site (arts.ucsc.edu/faculty/cope). However, if history
proves accurate, as soon as I write new platform-dependent programs, system
hardware or software changes will once again render the code almost immediately
obsolete. Furthermore, the software for the programs in this book, although very
helpful in demonstrating the principles of each chapter and in clarifying the ana-
lytical principles proposed, is not critical to the understanding of the material
presented.
Whenever possible in this book, I have included the thoughts of music theorists,
musicologists, mathematicians, computer scientists, and cognitive scientists whose
work complements or poses the greatest challenges to the ideas presented here.
My apologies to those whose work may seem relevant, but to which I have not re-
ferred here due to space limitations.
Many individuals have advised me in this study of computer music analysis, par-
ticularly graduate students and colleagues at the University of California at Santa
Cruz (notably Paul Nauert, Ben Carson, and Daniel Brown). I also owe immense
gratitude to Nico Schüler for forwarding a copy of his dissertation (2000), without
which I would have floundered more than I already have in the first chapter’s his-
tory of computer music analysis. Keith Muscutt, Eric Nichols, and Irene Natow pro-
vided much-needed advice (editorial and otherwise). Many of the ideas in this book
originated from my teaching over the years, and I thank the many classes of stu-
dents who acted as guinea pigs for my theoretical explorations. Without support
from colleagues and students such as these, this book could not have been
completed.
Hidden Structure describes a few of the ways in which I believe computer pro-
grams can contribute significantly to the analysis of music, particularly to the often
difficult-to-understand post-tonal music of our time. Although computer programs—
 Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
purpose, and given to the relations, who place the winnows on the roof of the house till
the following day, when the food is eaten.

By some Koravas, a ceremony in honour of the departed ancestors is performed at the

time of the November new moon. A well-polished brass vessel, with red and white
marks on it, is placed in the corner of a room, which has previously been swept, and
purified with cow-dung. In front of the pot is placed a leaf plate, on which cooked rice
and other edibles are set. Incense is burned, and the eldest son of the house partakes of
the food in the hope that he, in due course, will be honoured by his offspring.

The Koramas of Mysore are said to experience considerable difficulty in finding men to
undertake the work of carrying the corpse to the grave. Should the dead Korama be a
man who has left a young widow, it is customary for some one to propose to marry her
the same day, and, by so doing, to engage to carry out the principal part of the work
connected with the burial. A shallow grave, barely two feet deep, is dug, and the corpse
laid therein. When the soil has been loosely piled in, a pot of fire, carried by the chief
mourner in a split bamboo, is broken, and a pot of water placed on the raised mound.
Should the spot be visited during the night by a pack of jackals, and the water drunk by
them to slake their thirst after feasting on the dead Korama, the omen is accepted as
proof that the liberated spirit has fled away to the realms of the dead, and will never
trouble man, woman, child, or cattle. On the sixth day, the chief mourner must kill a
fowl, and mix its blood with rice. This he places, with some betel leaves and nuts, near
the grave. If it is carried off by crows, everything is considered to have been settled
satisfactorily.

As regards the dress of the Koravas, Mr. Mullaly writes as follows. “The women wear
necklaces of shells and cowries interspersed with beads of all colours in several rows,
hanging low down on the bosom; brass bangles from the wrist to the elbow; brass, lead,
and silver rings, very roughly made, on all their fingers except the middle one. The cloth
peculiar to Koravar women is a coarse black one; but they are, as a rule, not particular as
to this, and wear stolen cloths after removing the borders and all marks of identification.
They also wear the chola, which is fastened across the bosom, and not, like the
Lambādis, at the back. The men are dirty, unkempt-looking objects, wear their hair long,
and usually tied in a knot on the top of the head, and indulge in little finery. A joochi
(gochi), or cloth round the loins, and a bag called vadi sanchi, made of striped cloth,
complete their toilet.”

In 1884, Mr. Stevenson, who was then the District Superintendent of Police, North
Arcot, devised a scheme for the regeneration of the Koravas of that district. He obtained
for the tribe a tract of Government land near Gudiyattam, free of assessment for ten
years, and also a grant of Rs. 200 for sinking wells. Licenses were also issued to the
settlers to cut firewood at specially favourable rates. He also prevailed upon the
Zemindar of Karvetnegar to grant twenty-five cawnies of land in Tiruttani for ten years
for another settlement, as well as some building materials. Unfortunately the
impecunious condition of the Zemindar precluded the Tiruttani settlement from deriving
any further privileges which were necessary to keep the colony going, and its existence
was, therefore, cut short. The Gudiyattam colony, on the other hand, exhibited some
vitality for two or three years, but, in 1887, it, too, went the way of the Tiruttani
colony.”226 I gather, from the Police Administration Report, 1906, that a scheme is being
worked out, the object of which is to give a well-known wandering criminal gang some
cultivable land, and so enable the members of it to settle down to an honest livelihood.

At the census, 1891, Korava was returned as a sub-division of Paraiyans, and the name is
also applied to Jōgis employed as scavengers.227

The following note on the Koravas of the west coast is interesting as showing that
Malabar is one of the homes of the now popular game of Diavolo, which has become
epidemic in some European countries. “In Malabar, there is a class of people called
Koravas, who have, from time immemorial, played this game almost in the same manner
as its Western devotees do at the present time. These people are met with mostly in the
southern parts of Malabar, Cochin and Travancore, and they speak the Malayālam
language with a sing-song accent, which easily distinguishes them from other people.
They are of wandering habits. The men are clever acrobats and rope-dancers, but those
of more settled habits are engaged in agriculture and other industries. The beautiful grass
mats, known as Palghat mats, are woven by these people. Their women are fortune-
tellers and ballad singers. Their services are also in demand for boring the ears of girls.
The ropedancers perform many wonderful feats while balancing themselves on the rope,
among them being the playing of diabolo while walking to and fro on a tight rope. The
Korava acrobat spins the wooden spool on a string, attached to the ends of two bamboo
sticks, and throws it up to the height of a cocoanut tree, and, when it comes down, he
receives it on the string, to be again thrown up. There are experts among them who can
receive the spool on the string without even looking at it. There is no noteworthy
difference in the structure and shape of the spool used by the Koravas, and those of
Europe, except that the Malabar apparatus is a solid wooden thing a little larger and
heavier than the Western toy. It has not yet emerged from the crude stage of the village
carpenter’s skill, and cannot boast of rubber tyres and other embellishments which adorn
the imported article; but it is heavy enough to cause a nasty injury should it hit the
performer while falling. The Koravas are a very primitive people, but as acrobats and
ropedancers they have continued their profession for generations past, and there is no
doubt that they have been expert diabolo players for many years.”228 It may be noted
that Lieutenant Cameron, when journeying from Zanzibar to Benguela, was detained
near Lake Tanganyika by a native chief. He relates as follows. “Sometimes a slave of
Djonmah would amuse us by his dexterity. With two sticks about a foot long connected
by a string of a certain length, he spun a piece of wood cut in the shape of an hour-glass,
throwing it before and behind him, pitching it up into the air like a cricket-ball, and
catching it again, while it continued to spin.”
1 Gazetteer of the Bellary district.
2 Madras Diocesan Magazine, June, 1906.
3 John S. Chandler, a Madura Missionary, Boston.
4 Madras Mail, November, 1905.
5 J. Hornell. Report on the Indian Pearl Fisheries of the Gulf of Manaar, 1905.
6 Madras Diocesan Mag., 1906.
7 Notes from a Diary, 1881–86.
8 Lecture delivered at Trivandrum, MS.
9 Nineteenth Century, 1898.
10 Malay Archipelago.
11 Monograph. Ethnog: Survey of Cochin, No. 9, 1906.
12 Malabar Manual.
13 Manual of the Coimbatore district.
14 Madras Journ. Lit. Science, I. 1833.
15 W. W. Skeat and C. O. Blagden. Pagan Races of the Malay Peninsula, 1906.
16 Gazetteer of the Malabar district.
17 Madras Census Report, 1891.
18 Manual of Malabar.
19 Manual of the North Arcot district.
20 Madras Census Report, 1891.
21 Manual of the North Arcot district.
22 A reddish formation found all over Southern India.
23 Op. cit.
24 Journey through Mysore, Canara, and Malabar.
25 Rev. H. Jensen. Classified Collection of Tamil Proverbs, 1897.
26 Manual of the North Arcot district.
27 Gazetteer of the Trichinopoly district.
28 For this note I am indebted to Mr. N. Subramani Aiyar.
29 Madras Census Report, 1891.
30 Mokhalingam is in Ganjam, not Vizagapatam.
31 Place of meeting, which is a large tamarind tree, under which councils are held.
32 Gazetteer of the Madura district.
33 Gazetteer of the Madura district.
34 Sētupati, or lord of the bridge. The title of the Rājas of Rāmnād.
35 Gazetteer of the Madura district.
36 Madras Census Report, 1891.
37 Manual of the Madura district.
38 G. Oppert. Madras Journ. Lit. Science, 1888–9.
39 Madras Census Report, 1901.
40 Notes on Criminal Classes of the Madras Presidency.
41 Madras Review, 1899.
42 Madras Census Report, 1891.
43 Gazetteer of the Madura district.
44 Op. cit.
45 Illustrated Criminal Investigation and Law Digest, I, 3, 1908, Vellore.
46 Madras Journ. Lit. Science, XXV.
47 I am informed that only Mēl-nādu, Sīrukudi, Mella-kōttai, and Puramalai are
endogamous.
48 Madras Census Report, 1891.
49 Manual of the Madura district.
50 Hindu Feasts, Fasts, and Ceremonies, 1903.
51 The Tamils eighteen hundred years ago, 1904.
52 Madras Census Report, 1901.
53 Gazetteer of the Tanjore district.
54 Madras Census Report, 1891.
55 Madras Mail, 1908.
56 Ind. Ant., III., 1874.
57 A lakh = a hundred thousand.
58 Compare the theft of Laban’s teraphim by Rachel. Genesis, XXXI, 19.
59 Gazetteer of the Tanjore district.
60 Madras Census Report, 1891.
61 Madras Census Report, 1901.
62 Manual of the North Arcot district.
63 Ind. Ant., VIII, 1879.
64 Manual of the North Arcot district.
65 Madras Census Report, 1891.
66 Hutchinson. Marriage Customs in many lands, 1897.
67 Gazetteer of the Bellary district.
68 Gazetteer of the Anantapur district.
69 Mediæval Sinhalese Art.
70 Maduraikanchi, Line 521.
71 E. Hultzsch. South Indian Inscriptions, II, i, 44, 46, 1891.
72 Ibid. III, i, 47, 1899.
73 Madras Census Report, 1891.
74 Madras Census Report, 1871.
75 New Asiatic Review, Jan. 1907.
76 Madras Mail, 1907.
77 Classified Collection of Tamil Proverbs, 1897, from which some of the proverbs
quoted are taken.
78 Madras Census Report, 1901.
79 See the legendary story narrated in the article on Tiyans.
80 Malabar and its Folk, 1900.
81 Letters from Malabar.
82 Madras Census Report, 1901.
83 Ind. Ant., VIII, 1879.
84 Gazetteer of the Vizagapatam district.
85 Yule and Burnell, Hobson-Jobson.
86 Monograph, Eth. Survey of Cochin, No. 4, 1905.
87 Unhusked rice.
88 Manual of the South Canara district.
89 Money-lender.
90 Malabar Quarterly Review, 1905.
91 Indian Review, III, 1902.
92 Monograph, Ethnog. Survey, Cochin.
93 According to another version of the legend, it was the hut of a Tiyan.
94 Malabar Manual.
95 Gazetteer of the Malabar district.
96 C. Karunakara Menon. Madras Mus. Bull., V, 2, 1906.
97 Madras Mus. Bull., II, 3, 1901.
98 This account is mainly from an article by Mr. N. Subramani Aiyar.
99 Ind. Ant., IX, 1880.
100 Manual of the North Arcot district.
101 Madras Census Report, 1901.
102 Historical Sketches, Mysore.
103 Gazetteer of the Madura district.
104 Gazetteer of the Madura district.
105 Madras Census Report, 1891.
106 Dynasties of the Kanarese Districts of the Bombay Presidency.
107 Loc. cit., and Manual of the North Arcot district.
108 Section III, Inhabitants, Madras Government Press, 1907.
109 Ind. Ant., VIII, 1879.
110 J. F. Kearns. Kalyāna shatanku.
111 Madras Series, IV, 1882; VI, 1883.
112 Illatakaru, a bride’s father having no son, and adopting his son-in-law.
113 See further C. Ramachendrier. Collection of Decisions of High Courts and the Privy
Council applicable to dancing-girls, illatom affiliation, etc., Madras, 1892.
114 Gazetteer of the Anantapur district.
115 Madras Mail, Nov. 1905.
116 Madras Mail, 1905.
117 Gazetteer of the Malabar district.
118 Manual of the North Arcot district.
119 Gazetteer of the Malabar district.
120 Tamil and English Dictionary, 1862.
121 The word, in this sense, is said to occur in a Tamil work named Pingala Nikandu.
Karuku is Tamil for the serrated margin of the leaf—petiole of the palmyra palm.
122 Yule and Burnell. Hobson-Jobson.
123 Madras Census Report, 1901.
124 Manual of the Salem district.
125 Madras Census Report, 1901.
126 Manual of the Madura district.
127 Manual of the Tanjore district.
128 Madras Census Report, 1891.
129 Madras Christ. Coll. Mag., 1894.
130 Malabar Law and Custom.
131 Ind. Ant., VIII, 1879.
132 Mysore and Coorg Gazetteer.
133 Madras Census Report, 1901.
134 Journ. Anthrop. Inst., II, 1873.
135 Gazetteer of the Anantapur district.
136 Indian Review, VII, 1906.
137 See Ravi Varma, the Indian Artist. Indian Press, Allahabad.
138 Madras Census Report, 1891.
139 Madras Museum Bull., V. 3, 1907.
140 Epigraphia Indica, VI, 1900–1901.
141 Rev. J. Cain, Ind. Ant., VIII, 1879.
142 Trans. Ethnolog. Soc., London, 1869; Ind. Ant., VIII, 1879.
143 Original Inhabitants of Bhārathavarsha.
144 The panas have reference to the division of South Indian castes into the right- and left-
hand factions.
145 The mofussil indicates up-country stations and districts, as contra-distinguished from
the “Presidency” (Madras City).
146 Marriage Customs in Many Lands, 1897.
147 Moore. Indian Appeal Cases, Vol. III, 359–82.
148 Journey through Mysore, Canara and Malabar.
149 See Talboys Wheeler, Madras in the Olden Time, II, 49–89.
150 See Tales of Kōmati Wit and Wisdom. C. Hayavadana Rao, Madras, 1907.
151 Classified Collection of Tamil Proverbs, 1897. See also C. Hayavadana Rao, op. cit.,
and Ind. Ant., XX, 78, 1891.
152 Madras Census Report, 1871.
153 Gazetteer of the Godāvari district.
154 Linguistic Survey of India, IV, 1906.
155 Man. March 1902.
156 G.O., No. 1020, Public, 8th October 1901.
157 G.O., No. 3005, Revenue, 3rd November 1908.
158 Occasional Essays on Native South Indian Life, 1901.
159 Madras Census Report, 1881.
160 Agricul: Ledger Series, Calcutta. No. 7, 1904.
161 Madras Mail, 1894.
162 Gazetteer of the Vizagapatam district.
163 A very interesting note on Totemism among the Khonds by Mr. J. E. Friend-Pereira
has been published in the Journal of Asiatic Society of Bengal, LXXIII, 1905.
164 The Golden Bough, 1900.
165 Selections from the Records, Government of India, No. V, Human Sacrifice and
Infanticide, 1854.
166 Personal Narrative of Service among the Wild Tribes of Khondistan.
167 Manual of the Vizagapatam district.
168 Journ. Asiat. Soc., Bengal, 1898.
169 Madras Mail, 1894.
170 Selections from the Records of the Government of India (Home Department), V.,
1845.
171 J. A. R. Stevenson. Madras Journ: Lit. Science, VI, 1837.
172 J. E. Friend-Pereira. Journ: Asiat: Soc. Bengal, LXXI, 1902.
173 Madras Journ: Lit. & Science, VI, 1837.
174 Loc. cit.
175 Journ. Anthrop. Soc., Bombay, II, 249.
176 Madras Mail, 1896.
177 Macpherson. Memorials of Service in India.
178 Journ., Anth. Soc., Bombay, II, 1890.
179 Ibid.
180 Madras Police Report, 1904.
181 Madras Mail, 1894.
182 Madras Mail, 1908.
183 See G.O., Judicial, 14th August 1882, No. 952, Khond Rising.
184 Manual of the South Canara district.
185 Letters from Malabar. Translation. Madras, 1862.
186 Fine cakes made of gram flour and a fine species of alkali, which gives them an
agreeable taste, and serves the purpose of making them rise and become very crisp when
fried.
187 Journ. Anthrop. Inst., IV., 1875.
188 Madras Christ. Coll. Mag. III, 1885–6.
189 Ind. Ant. X, 1881.
190 Manual of the South Canara district.
191 Journ. Anthrop. Inst. IV, 1875.
192 Manual of the South Canara district.
193 Manual of the South Canara district.
194 M. Paupa Rao Naidu. History of Railway Thieves.
195 Madras Census Report, 1891.
196 Madras Journ. Lit: and Science, 1888–89.
197 Tirumurukairuppadai.
198 Madras Census Report, 1901.
199 Indian Antiquity, IX, 1880.
200 Cyclopædia of India.
201 Loc. cit.
202 Note on Koravas, 1908.
203 Notes on Criminal Classes of the Madras Presidency.
204 Forest Inspection Report, 1896.
205 Gazetteer of the Bellary district.
206 Gazetteer of the Vizagapatam district.
207 F. S. Mullaly. Op. cit.
208 Madras Journ. Lit. Science, XVII, 1853.
209 History of Railway Thieves. Madras, 1904.
210 Madras Census Report, 1901.
211 Gazetteer of the Trichinopoly district.
212This story is based on well-known episode of Nalacharitra in the Āranya Parva of the
Mahabharatha.
213 M. Paupa Rao Naidu. Op. cit.
214 Ibid.
215 Police Report, 1902.
216 Op. cit.
217 A varāha or pagoda was worth Rs. 3–8–0.
218 A seer is an Indian measure of weight, varying in different parts of the country.
219 Trans. Eth. Sec. N.S., VII.
220 J. F. Kearns, Kalyāna Shatanku, 1868.
221 Ind. Ant., III., 1874.
222 Madras Census Report, 1871.
223 Madras Census Report, 1901.
224 India. Trübner. Oriental Series.
225 Ind. Ant., III, 1874.
226 Madras Mail, 1907.
227 For this account of the Koravas, I am largely indebted to a report by Mr. N. E. Q.
Mainwaring, Superintendent of Police.
228 Madras Mail, 1908.
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Volume Contents First Article

I A and B Abhishēka
II C to J Canji
III K Kabbēra
VI K to M Kōri
V M to P Marakkāyar
VI P to S Palli
VII T to Z Tābēlu

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9 [Not in source] ;
96 Gāmpa Gampa
102 annointing anointing
103 Gangimakkulu Gangimakkalu
155 negociations negotiations
160 orginally originally
161 feed fed
181 ” [Deleted]
226 [Not in source] ’
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317 Bhāskarācharya Bhāskarāchārya
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