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Power Systems

José Carlos Goulart de Siqueira

Benedito Donizeti Bonatto

Introduction
to Transients
in Electrical
Circuits
Analytical and Digital Solution Using an
EMTP-based Software
Power Systems
Electrical power has been the technological foundation of industrial societies for
many years. Although the systems designed to provide and apply electrical energy
have reached a high degree of maturity, unforeseen problems are constantly
encountered, necessitating the design of more efficient and reliable systems based
on novel technologies. The book series Power Systems is aimed at providing
detailed, accurate and sound technical information about these new developments in
electrical power engineering. It includes topics on power generation, storage and
transmission as well as electrical machines. The monographs and advanced
textbooks in this series address researchers, lecturers, industrial engineers and
senior students in electrical engineering.
**Power Systems is indexed in Scopus**

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/4622

José Carlos Goulart de Siqueira •

Benedito Donizeti Bonatto

Introduction to Transients
in Electrical Circuits
Analytical and Digital Solution Using
an EMTP-based Software

123
José Carlos Goulart de Siqueira Benedito Donizeti Bonatto
Institute of Electrical Systems and Energy Institute of Electrical Systems and Energy
Federal University of Itajubá Federal University of Itajubá
Itajubá, Brazil Itajubá, Brazil

ISSN 1612-1287 ISSN 1860-4676 (electronic)

Power Systems
ISBN 978-3-030-68248-4 ISBN 978-3-030-68249-1 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68249-1
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2021
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of
illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and
transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar
or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from
the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the
authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained
herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard
to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Preface

The book Introduction to Transients in Electrical Circuits: Analytical and Digital

Solution Using an EMTP-based Software integrates the analytical solution with the
digital solution through the ATP—Alternative Transients Program software (rec-
ognized for its use all over the world in academia and in the electric power industry)
in a didactic approach and mathematical and scientific rigour suitable for under-
graduate and graduate programs, as well as for industry professionals.
It is clear that many other classical and advanced books indeed cover more
extensive subjects in electromagnetic transients. This book fills a gap between
classic works in the field of electrical circuits and more advanced works in the field
of transients in electrical power systems, facilitating a full understanding of ana-
lytical and digital modelling and solution of transients in basic circuits. Therefore, it
fulfils its role as an introductory book, but completes in its learning proposal in
undergraduate and graduate courses. Finally, the book presents a significant number
of examples and proposed problems, all with answers, without exception. The book
fills an important gap between the analytical solution of traditional electrical circuits
with the digital solution using a well-established tool (the ATP program) in the
power engineering community. It may be particularly important when teaching
some basic power system transients that can be simulated with linear networks and
lumped parameters.
This book presents an approach to solving singular function differential equa-
tions representing the transient and steady-state dynamics of a circuit in a structured
manner and without the need for physical reasoning to set initial conditions to zero
plus (0+). The method indeed facilitates the mathematical solution. That does not
mean that physical reasoning and proper modelling are unimportant in engineering
education. Real applications may come after a strong background in these concepts.
It also presents, for each presented problem, the exact analytical solution as well as
the corresponding digital solution through a computer program based on the EMTP
—Electromagnetics Transients Program. The andragogical approach (science and
art in adult education) integrates existing knowledge and starts from the simple to
the complex, with rich exposure to a variety of problems solved (all with tested and
validated solutions).

v
vi Preface

The teacher and the apprentice are encouraged to use modern computational
tools used in the electrical power industry for the calculation of electromagnetic
transients, but are warned about their limitations and modelling constraints. This
integrates the “know-how” and “know why” necessary for the safe analysis of
simulated results. The teacher can direct students in solving specific problems in the
textbook or even propose that students present real day-to-day problems for solu-
tion, as the introductory methodology for modelling and calculation of digital and
analytical solution of circuit transients in electrical systems are fully presented in
the textbook. Technical–scientific articles should be consulted, as well as textbooks
for more advanced studies on transients in electrical power systems can be con-
sulted, depending on the interest and need of the problem to be solved.
It is important to clarify that the motivation and intent primacy of the main
author, Prof. José Carlos Goulart de Siqueira, are to leave a legacy to the teachers
and students of UNIFEI, where he magistrate with excellence for decades, having
been the first rector of UNIFEI-Federal University of Itajubá, which has been
completed, on November 23rd 2020, 107 years of history of contributions to higher
education in Brazil.
We think that the book is intended for engineering students who already have
been successfully approved in introductory circuit analysis, calculus and ordinary
differential equations courses. Our experience as educators is that, when it comes to
truly understand and apply the mathematical knowledge in electrical circuits tran-
sients, the majority of students have much more difficulties. Therefore, this book
supplies, in an integrated way, all the necessary knowledge and practice through
extensive examples.
This book is organized as follows: Chap. 1 presents an introduction to transients in
electrical circuits with a discussion about fundamentals of circuit analysis, physical
phenomena and the need for mathematical modelling and simulation. The student is
encouraged from the beginning to become familiar with Appendix A—processing at
the ATP. Chapter 2 presents singular functions for the analytical solution, and
Appendix B shows the main relations involving singular functions. Chapter 3 pre-
sents the solution of differential equations. It emphasizes the solution using the
classical method in the time domain. For the operational method in the complex
frequency domain using the Laplace transform, Appendix C—Laplace transform
properties, Appendix D—Laplace transform pairs and Appendix E—Heaviside
expansion theorem can be helpful.
Chapter 4 presents the digital solution of transients in basic electrical circuits.
The fundamental algorithm of EMTP-based program is introduced, and the problem
of numerical oscillations due to the trapezoidal method is briefly discussed. Chapter
5 presents transients in first-order circuits. Extensive number of examples are
provided with their analytical and digital solution using the ATPDraw. Chapter 6
Preface vii

presents transients in circuits of any order, exploring the solution methods con-
solidated so far. Finally, Chap. 7 introduces switching transients using the injection
of sources method. All chapters provide useful references to enhance the learning
process, as well as to instigate further investigation about advanced topics. Enjoy it!

Itajubá, Brazil José Carlos Goulart de Siqueira

Benedito Donizeti Bonatto

Acknowledgments We would like to express our gratitude to many people who have helped to
bring this book project to its conclusion. We deeply thank all members of our families, friends
(Antonio Eduardo Hermeto…), colleagues who by listening and encouraging have provided the
fundamental support and personal care. We give a special thanks to Alexa Bonelli Bonatto and
Aline Bonelli Bonatto for their work in the initial translation and editing. Professional editing was
provided by Springer’s team to whom we are deeply gratefull. Finally, we thank many students
who were challenged in their studies during their courses at UNIFEI by the many proposed
problems.
Contents

1 Introduction to Fundamental Concepts in Electric Circuit

Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Preliminary Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Electrical Quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4 Power and Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.5 Circuit Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.6 Kirchhoff’s Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
1.7 Analytical and Digital Circuit Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
1.8 Conclusions and Motivations for Electromagnetic Transients
Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 76
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 77
2 Singular Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
2.1 Single Step Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
2.2 Unitary Impulse Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
2.3 The Family of Singular Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
2.4 Causal Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
2.5 Derivative of an Ordinary Sectionally Continuous Function . . . . 111
2.6 Decomposition of a Function into Singular Functions . . . . . . . . . 112
2.7 The Distribution Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
2.8 The Unitary Impulse Function as Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
2.9 Initial Condition at t = 0+ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
2.10 Initial Decomposition of Functions in Steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
2.11 Decomposition of Functions into Impulses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
2.12 Convolution Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
2.13 Properties of the Convolution Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
2.14 Proposed Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
2.15 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

ix
x Contents

3 Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
3.2 Ordinary Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
3.2.1 Solution of the Homogeneous Differential Equation . . . . . 158
3.2.2 Considerations on Algebraic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
3.2.3 Solution of the Non-homogeneous Differential
Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
3.3 Differential Equations with Singular and Causal Forcing
Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
3.3.1 Step Type Forcing Function U
1 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
3.3.2 Forcing Function Type Impulse U0 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
3.3.3 Systematic Method for Calculating Initial Conditions
at t ¼ 0 þ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
3.4 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
4 Digital Solution of Transients in Basic Electrical Circuits . . . . . . . . . 207
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
4.2 Basic Algorithm for Computational Solution of EMTP-Based
Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
4.3 Solution of Differential Equations via Digital Integration . . . . . . 210
4.4 Digital Computational Model of the Elements with
Concentrated Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
4.4.1 Resistance R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
4.4.2 Inductance L . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
4.4.3 Capacitance C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
4.5 Numerical Oscillations in EMTP Due to the Trapezoidal
Integration Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
4.6 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
5 Transients in First Order Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
5.2 Continuity Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
5.3 Response to Impulse and Response to Step . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
5.4 Sequential Switching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
5.5 Magnetically Coupled Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
5.6 DuHamel Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
5.7 Proposed Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
5.8 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
6 Transients in Circuits of Any Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
6.2 Circuits Initially Deenergized . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
Contents xi

6.3 Thévenin and Norton Equivalents for Initially Energized

Capacitances and Inductances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
6.4 Circuits Initially Energized . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
6.5 Switching Transients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
6.6 Proposed Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
6.7 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
7 Switching Transients Using Injection of Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
7.2 Method of Voltage Source Injection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578
7.3 Current Source Injection Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606
7.4 Displacement of Current Source Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629
7.5 Proposed Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 638
7.6 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 652
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 652

Appendix A: Processing in the ATP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653

Appendix B: Main Relations Involving Singular Functions . . . . . . . . . . . 663
Appendix C: Laplace Transform Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 667
Appendix D: Laplace Transform Pairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669
Appendix E: Heaviside Expansion Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671
List of Figures

Fig. 1.1 a System input and output; b Mechanical system composed

of mass, spring and friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Fig. 1.2 Force F acting on q according to Coulomb’s law . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Fig. 1.3 Force lines of the point charge þ Q . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Fig. 1.4 Electrostatic field in an electric dipole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Fig. 1.5 Infinitesimal work dW associated with displacement dr . . . . . . 12
Fig. 1.6 Body moviment along the ABC path in the xy plane . . . . . . . . 13
Fig. 1.7 The electrostatic potential of point P . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Fig. 1.8 Two charges þ q being displaced against the electrostatic
field E, from the reference, one to position A and the other
one to position B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 16
Fig. 1.9 Electric current produced by the potential difference of the
battery applied to both ends of the conductor . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 19
Fig. 1.10 Reference arrow representing the direction assumed to be
positive for current iðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 20
Fig. 1.11 Graphic of current versus time, called the current
waveform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 21
Fig. 1.12 Waveform of the charge qðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 23
Fig. 1.13 Power absorbed by the circuit element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 24
Fig. 1.14 Voltage and current reference arrows and power and energy
being a consumed or b supplied by the circuit element . . . . .. 25
Fig. 1.15 Reference arrows for voltage between the terminal nodes
and current across a resistor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 29
Fig. 1.16 Resistance of most good conductors as a function
of temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 31
Fig. 1.17 Capacitor formed by two metallic plates, separated
by a thin layer of dielectric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 33
Fig. 1.18 Effect of dielectric on the electric field and the
capacitance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 36
Fig. 1.19 Capacitor formed by two hollow conductive cylinders,
coaxial and long . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 38

xiii
xiv List of Figures

Fig. 1.20 Capacitance per linear meter in a isolated conductive wire,

suspended on a metal chassis, or another grounded plane
and b between two parallel conductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 39
Fig. 1.21 Reference arrows for voltage between the terminal nodes
and current across a Capacitance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 41
Fig. 1.22 Waveforms for the capacitance C of Fig. 1.21, for a voltage,
b current, c power, and d energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Fig. 1.23 Repulsion or attraction between poles of magnets . . . . . . . . . . 46
Fig. 1.24 Magnetic dipoles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Fig. 1.25 Magnetic induction field B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Fig. 1.26 Magnetic induction field at point P . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Fig. 1.27 Magnetic force in a conductor carrying current—charge
q moving with speed v, immersed in an external magnetic
field B. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 50
Fig. 1.28 Magnetic flux through a circular surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 50
Fig. 1.29 a Electric current flowing through a conductor producing
a magnetic field around it; b Field of magnetic forces
in a plane perpendicular to the conductor [9] . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 52
Fig. 1.30 Right hand rule determining the relationship between
the direction of current flow in a wire and the direction
of the lines of force in the magnetic field around the
conductor [9] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 52
Fig. 1.31 Adjacent fingers indicating the direction of the current
and the thumb, the direction of the field, for conductive
wire in a closed path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 53
Fig. 1.32 Magnetic flux produced by a current across a coil with N
turns and with ferromagnetic core . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 53
Fig. 1.33 Permanent magnet moving to the right, with its north pole
approaching a coil with N turns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 57
Fig. 1.34 Permanent magnet moving to the right, with its north pole
approaching a coil with N turns, with the winding direction
of the coil inverted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 57
Fig. 1.35 Faraday and Lenz’s laws applied to a coil in an iron core . . .. 57
Fig. 1.36 Relationship between B and H depending on the material
from which the core is made . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 59
Fig. 1.37 Reference arrows for voltage between the terminal nodes
and current across an indutor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 60
Fig. 1.38 a Current across and b Voltage between the terminals
of a coil (inductor) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 66
Fig. 1.39 a Independent voltage source; b DC voltage source;
c Independent current source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 67
Fig. 1.40 a Common emitter NPN transistor; b Equivalent circuit
model for a common emitter NPN transistor . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 69
Fig. 1.41 RC series circuit, powered by a constant source . . . . . . . . . . .. 71
List of Figures xv

Fig. 1.42 RC series circuit, powered by a constant source, built

for the digital solution using the ATPDraw program . . . . . . .. 75
Fig. 1.43 RC series circuit transient response for voltage, current,
power and energy with digital solution using the ATPDraw
program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 76
Fig. 2.1 a Unitary step function U
1 ðtÞ; b Unitary step function
delayed of a: U
1 ðt
aÞ; c Amplitude k step
function kU
1 ðt
aÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 80
Fig. 2.2 a Pulse function; b Unitary step functions used to represent
the pulse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 80
Fig. 2.3 Triangular pulse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 81
Fig. 2.4 a Switching at time t ¼ 0; b Equivalent circuit with unit step
function U
1 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 81
Fig. 2.5 a Unitary ramp function U
2 ðtÞ; b Unitary ramp function
delayed of a: U
2 ðt
aÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 82
Fig. 2.6 a Unitary parabola function U
3 ðtÞ; b Unitary parabola
function delayed of a: U
3 ðt
aÞ. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 83
Fig. 2.7 Unitary impulse function U 0 ðtÞ defined as a rectangular
pulse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 86
Fig. 2.8 Unitary impulse function U 0 ðtÞ defined as a triangular
pulse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 87
Fig. 2.9 Unitary impulse function U 0 ðtÞ defined as a gaussian
function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 87
Fig. 2.10 a Unitary impulse function U0 ðtÞ; b Unitary Amplitude A
impulse function delayed of a: U 0 ðt
aÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 87
Fig. 2.11 a Approximate representation of a unitary step function;
b Approximate representation of a unitary impulse
function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 89
Fig. 2.12 a Triangular pulse function; b Derivative of pulse
of (a); c Unitary double function, U 1 ðtÞ; d graphic
representation that will be used here for a unitary double
function, U 1 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 91
Fig. 2.13 Synthetic representation of the family of singular functions,
having the unitary impulse function as a generator . . . . . . . . .. 92
Fig. 2.14 Function of Example 2.9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 99
Fig. 2.15 a Periodic function f 1 ðtÞ; b Alternating rectangular pulse
functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 99
Fig. 2.16 Function gðtÞ of Example 2.11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Fig. 2.17 Singular functions that make up gðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Fig. 2.18 a Unit step function U
1 ð
tÞ; b Function f ðtÞ;
c Composition of functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
0
Fig. 2.19 Graphical representation of g ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Fig. 2.20 Graphical representation of f ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Fig. 2.21 a Current iðtÞ applied to a capacitor; b Charge qðtÞ . . . . . . . . . 106
xvi List of Figures

Fig. 2.22 Graphical representation of current iðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

Fig. 2.23 a–c Alternative ways of conceiving Eq. (2.67) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Fig. 2.24 Function f ðtÞ sectionally continuous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Fig. 2.25 Function f ðtÞ for Example 2.23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Fig. 2.26 a first order derivative of f ðtÞ; b second order derivative
of f ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Fig. 2.27 a Function gðtÞ for Example 2.24; b first order derivative
of gðtÞ; c second order derivative of gðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Fig. 2.28 Function f ðtÞ for Example 2.25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Fig. 2.29 a first order derivative of f ðtÞ; b second order derivative
of f ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Fig. 2.30 Functions ðtÞ; f c ðtÞ, and AU
1 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Fig. 2.31 Functions f ðtÞ and £ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Fig. 2.32 Continuous function f ðtÞ approximate by “steps” . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Fig. 2.33 Function xðtÞ for decomposition into singular functions . . . . . . 127
Fig. 2.34 a First order derivative of function xðtÞ; b second order
derivative of function xðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Fig. 2.35 Function xðtÞ expressed as a sum of singular functions . . . . . . 128
Fig. 2.36 Function xðtÞ decomposition in singular functions . . . . . . . . . . 129
Fig. 2.37 Truncated ramp function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Fig. 2.38 Decomposition of function xðtÞ into sequential rectangular
pulses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Fig. 2.39 a Function f 1 ðtÞ; b function f 2 ðtÞ, to be convoluted . . . . . . . . . 135
Fig. 2.40 a Function f 2 ðt
kÞ; b function f 2 ðt
kÞ shifted
to the right . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Fig. 2.41 Curves of f 1 ðkÞ and f 2 ðt
kÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Fig. 2.42 Functions f 1 ðtÞ and f 2 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Fig. 2.43 Convolution function f ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Fig. 2.44 Functions f 1 ðtÞ and f 2 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Fig. 2.45 Convolution function f ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Fig. 2.46 Current iðtÞ in a capacitor initially de-energized . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Fig. 2.47 Function f 1 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Fig. 2.48 Function f 2 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Fig. 4.1 Simplified block diagram of the basic algorithm for solving
programs based on the EMTP [5] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Fig. 4.2 Trapezoidal integration method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Fig. 4.3 Backward Euler integration method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Fig. 4.4 Linear and time-invariant resistor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Fig. 4.5 Linear and time-invariant inductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Fig. 4.6 Thévenin equivalent digital model of the inductor, discretized
using the trapezoidal integration method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Fig. 4.7 Norton equivalent digital model of the inductor, discretized
using the trapezoidal integration method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Fig. 4.8 Linear and time-invariant capacitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
List of Figures xvii

Fig. 4.9 Thévenin equivalent digital model of the capacitor,

discretized using the trapezoidal integration method . . . . . . . . . 219
Fig. 4.10 Norton equivalent digital model of the capacitor, discretized
using the trapezoidal integration method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Fig. 4.11 Application of a current step source through an ideal
inductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Fig. 4.12 Digital solutions at each discrete time point for voltage
and current through the discretized inductor using
the trapezoidal integration method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Fig. 4.13 Digital solutions at each discrete time point for voltage
and current through the discretized inductor using the
Backward Euler integration method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Fig. 4.14 Digital solutions at each discrete time point for voltage
and current through the discretized inductor using
the CDA—Critical Damping Adjustment technique . . . . . . . . . 224
Fig. 5.1 Electric circuit of Example 5.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Fig. 5.2 Electric Circuit of Example 5.1 for the calculation of RTH . . . . 230
Fig. 5.3 Electric circuit of Example 5.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Fig. 5.4 Electric circuit of Example 5.2 for analytical solution
at t ¼ 0 þ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Fig. 5.5 Electric circuit of Example 5.2 for analytical solution
at t ! 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Fig. 5.6 Electric circuit of Example 5.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Fig. 5.7 Electric circuit of Example 5.3 for analytical solution
at t ¼ 0 þ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Fig. 5.8 Electric circuit of Example 5.3 for digital solution . . . . . . . . . . 233
Fig. 5.9 Transient voltage and current digital solution for circuit
of Example 5.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Fig. 5.10 Electric circuit of Example 5.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Fig. 5.11 Electric circuit of Example 5.4 for digital solution . . . . . . . . . . 235
Fig. 5.12 Transient voltage e(t) and current i(t) digital solution
for circuit of Example 5.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Fig. 5.13 Electric circuit of Example 5.4 for digital solution . . . . . . . . . . 236
Fig. 5.14 Transient power p(t) and energy W(t) digital solution
for circuit of Example 5.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
Fig. 5.15 Electric circuit of Example 5.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Fig. 5.16 Electric circuit of Example 5.5 for analytical solution
at t ! 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Fig. 5.17 Source conversion applied to electric circuit of Example 5.5
for analytical solution at t ! 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Fig. 5.18 Electric circuit of Example 5.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Fig. 5.19 Electric circuit of Example 5.6 for analytical solution
at t ¼ 0 þ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
xviii List of Figures

Fig. 5.20 Electric circuit of Example 5.6 for analytical solution

at t ! 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Fig. 5.21 Electric circuit of Example 5.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Fig. 5.22 Electric circuit of Example 5.7 for analytical solution
at t ¼ 0
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Fig. 5.23 Electric circuit of Example 5.7 for analytical solution
at t ¼ 0 þ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Fig. 5.24 Electric circuit of Example 5.7 for analytical solution
at t ! 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Fig. 5.25 Source conversion at electric circuit of Example 5.7
for analytical solution at t ! 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Fig. 5.26 Electric circuit of Example 5.7 for digital solution . . . . . . . . . . 241
Fig. 5.27 Transient current i2 ðtÞ digital solution for circuit
of Example 5.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Fig. 5.28 Zoom in transient current i2 ðtÞ digital solution for circuit
of Example 5.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Fig. 5.29 Transient current i1 ðtÞ digital solution for circuit
of Example 5.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Fig. 5.30 Electric circuit of Example 5.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Fig. 5.31 Electric circuit of Example 5.8 for analytical solution
at t ¼ 0 þ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Fig. 5.32 Electric circuit of Example 5.8 for digital solution . . . . . . . . . . 244
Fig. 5.33 Transient voltage and current digital solution for circuit
of Example 5.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Fig. 5.34 Electric circuit of Example 5.9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Fig. 5.35 Electric circuit of Example 5.9 for analytical solution
at t ¼ 0 þ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Fig. 5.36 Electric circuit of Example 5.9 for digital solution . . . . . . . . . . 247
Fig. 5.37 Transient voltage and current digital solution for circuit
of Example 5.9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Fig. 5.38 Electric circuit of Example 5.10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Fig. 5.39 Electric circuit of Example 5.10 for analytical solution
at t ¼ 0 þ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Fig. 5.40 Electric circuit of Example 5.11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Fig. 5.41 Electric circuit of Example 5.11 for analytical solution
at t ¼ 0 þ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Fig. 5.42 Electric circuit of Example 5.12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Fig. 5.43 Electric circuit of Example 5.12 for analytical solution
at t ¼ 0
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Fig. 5.44 Electric circuit of Example 5.12 for analytical solution
at t ¼ 0 þ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Fig. 5.45 Electric circuit of Example 5.13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Fig. 5.46 Electric circuit of Example 5.14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Fig. 5.47 Electric circuit of Example 5.15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
List of Figures xix

Fig. 5.48 Equivalent electric circuit of Example 5.15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

Fig. 5.49 Electric circuit of Example 5.16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Fig. 5.50 Equivalent electric circuit of Example 5.16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Fig. 5.51 Electric circuit of Example 5.17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Fig. 5.52 Electric circuit of Example 5.19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Fig. 5.53 Electric circuit of Example 5.19 for digital solution . . . . . . . . . 268
Fig. 5.54 Transient voltage and current digital solution for circuit
of Example 5.19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Fig. 5.55 Transient voltage and current digital solution for circuit
of Example 5.19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Fig. 5.56 Electric circuit of Example 5.21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Fig. 5.57 Electric circuit of Example 5.21 for analytical solution . . . . . . 271
Fig. 5.58 Electric circuit of Example 5.21 for digital solution . . . . . . . . . 272
Fig. 5.59 Transient voltage and current digital solution for circuit
of Example 5.21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Fig. 5.60 Transient voltage and current digital solution for circuit
of Example 5.21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Fig. 5.61 Numerical oscillation in the digital solution for circuit
of Example 5.21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Fig. 5.62 Zoom at numerical oscillation in the digital solution
for circuit of Example 5.21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
Fig. 5.63 Electric circuit of Example 5.22 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
Fig. 5.64 Electric circuit of Example 5.22 for analytical solution . . . . . . 275
Fig. 5.65 Equivalent electric circuit of Example 5.22 for analytical
solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Fig. 5.66 Electric circuit of Example 5.22 for digital solution . . . . . . . . . 276
Fig. 5.67 Transient voltage digital solution for circuit of
Example 5.22 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Fig. 5.68 Electric circuit of Example 5.23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Fig. 5.69 Electric circuit of Example 5.23 for digital solution . . . . . . . . . 278
Fig. 5.70 Transient current digital solution for circuit of
Example 5.23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Fig. 5.71 Zoom at transient current digital solution for circuit
of Example 5.23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Fig. 5.72 Transient voltage digital solution for circuit of
Example 5.23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Fig. 5.73 Electric circuit of Example 5.24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Fig. 5.74 Electric circuit of Example 5.24 for digital solution . . . . . . . . . 281
Fig. 5.75 Transient voltage and current digital solution for circuit
of Example 5.24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
Fig. 5.76 Electric circuit of Example 5.25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
Fig. 5.77 Electric circuit of Example 5.25 for analytical solution
at t ¼ 0
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
xx List of Figures

Fig. 5.78 Equivalent electric circuit of Example 5.25 for analytical

solution at t ¼ 0
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Fig. 5.79 Electric circuit of Example 5.25 for analytical solution
at t ¼ 0 þ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Fig. 5.80 Electric circuit of Example 5.25 for analytical solution . . . . . . 284
Fig. 5.81 Electric circuit of Example 5.26 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Fig. 5.82 Electric circuit of Example 5.26 for digital solution . . . . . . . . . 286
Fig. 5.83 Transient voltage and current digital solution for circuit
of Example 5.26 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Fig. 5.84 Transient current digital solution for circuit
of Example 5.26 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Fig. 5.85 Transient voltage digital solution for circuit
of Example 5.26 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Fig. 5.86 Transient voltage digital solution for circuit
of Example 5.26 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Fig. 5.87 Electric circuit of Example 5.27 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Fig. 5.88 Electric circuit of Example 5.27 for DC analytical solution
at t ¼ 0
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Fig. 5.89 Electric circuit of Example 5.27 for AC analytical solution
at t ¼ 0
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Fig. 5.90 Electric circuit of Example 5.28 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
Fig. 5.91 Electric circuit of Example 5.28 for analytical solution . . . . . . 291
Fig. 5.92 Electric circuit of Example 5.28 for digital solution . . . . . . . . . 292
Fig. 5.93 Transient voltage digital solution for circuit
of Example 5.28 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Fig. 5.94 Transient current digital solution for circuit
of Example 5.28 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Fig. 5.95 Electric circuit of Example 5.29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Fig. 5.96 Equivalent electric circuit of Example 5.29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
Fig. 5.97 Transient total current source digital solution for circuit
of Example 5.29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Fig. 5.98 Transient current digital solution for circuit
of Example 5.29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Fig. 5.99 Transient capacitor voltage digital solution for circuit
of Example 5.29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
Fig. 5.100 Transient capacitor current digital solution for circuit
of Example 5.29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
Fig. 5.101 Zoom at transient capacitor current digital solution
for circuit of Example 5.29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Fig. 5.102 Electric circuits of Example 5.30: a additive polarity;
b subtractive polarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
Fig. 5.103 Electric circuit of Example 5.31 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Fig. 5.104 Electric circuit of Example 5.31 for analytical solution . . . . . . 302
Fig. 5.105 Electric circuit of Example 5.32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
List of Figures xxi

Fig. 5.106 Electric circuit of Example 5.32 for analytical solution . . . . . . 303
Fig. 5.107 Electric circuit of Example 5.33 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
Fig. 5.108 Electric circuit of Example 5.34 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Fig. 5.109 Electric circuit of Example 5.35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
Fig. 5.110 Equivalent electric circuit of Example 5.35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
Fig. 5.111 Electric circuit of Example 5.35 for digital solution . . . . . . . . . 313
Fig. 5.112 Electric circuit of Example 5.35 for digital solution . . . . . . . . . 313
Fig. 5.113 Transient current i1 ðtÞ digital solution for circuit
of Example 5.35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
Fig. 5.114 Zoom at transient current i1 ðtÞ digital solution
for circuit of Example 5.35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
Fig. 5.115 Zoom at transient current i1 ðtÞ digital solution
for circuit of Example 5.35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Fig. 5.116 Transient current i2 ðtÞ digital solution for circuit
of Example 5.35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Fig. 5.117 Zoom at transient current i2 ðtÞ digital solution
for circuit of Example 5.35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Fig. 5.118 Transient current iL ðtÞ digital solution for circuit
of Example 5.35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Fig. 5.119 Zoom at transient current iL ðtÞ digital solution
for circuit of Example 5.35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Fig. 5.120 Transient current i1 ðtÞ digital solution for circuit
of Example 5.35 with damped numerical oscillations . . . . . . . . 318
Fig. 5.121 Zoom at transient current i1 ðtÞ digital solution for circuit
of Example 5.35 with damped numerical oscillations . . . . . . . . 318
Fig. 5.122 Transient current i2 ðtÞ digital solution for circuit
of Example 5.35 with damped numerical oscillations . . . . . . . . 319
Fig. 5.123 Zoom at transient current i2 ðtÞ digital solution for circuit
of Example 5.35 with damped numerical oscillations . . . . . . . . 319
Fig. 5.124 Electric circuit of Example 5.35 for digital solution . . . . . . . . . 320
Fig. 5.125 Transient digital voltage in the inductance of 60½mH . . . . . . . . 321
Fig. 5.126 Transient digital voltage in the inductance of 120½mH  . . . . . . . 321
Fig. 5.127 Transient digital voltage in the inductance of
40½mH  . . . . . . 322
Fig. 5.128 Zoom at transient digital voltage in the inductance
of 60½mH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Fig. 5.129 Zoom at transient digital voltage in the inductance
of 120½mH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Fig. 5.130 Zoom at transient digital voltage in the inductance
of
40½mH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
Fig. 5.131 Steady-state digital voltage in the inductance of 60½mH . . . . . 324
Fig. 5.132 Steady-state digital voltage in the inductance of 120½mH . . . . 325
Fig. 5.133 Steady-state digital voltage in the inductance
of
40½mH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
xxii List of Figures

Fig. 5.134 Transient voltage eL1 ðtÞ digital solution for circuit
of Example 5.35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
Fig. 5.135 Transient voltage eL2 ðtÞ digital solution for circuit
of Example 5.35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
Fig. 5.136 Zoom at transientvoltage eL1 ðtÞ digital solution for circuit
of Example 5.35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Fig. 5.137 Zoom at transientvoltage eL2 ðtÞ digital solution for circuit
of Example 5.35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Fig. 5.138 Linear and time-invariant (or fixed) circuit—CLI . . . . . . . . . . . 328
Fig. 5.139 a Invariance with time; b homogeneity property; c principle
of superposition; d DuHamel, Carson, Superposition Integral
or, simply, Convolution Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
Fig. 5.140 Electric circuit of Example 5.37 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
Fig. 5.141 Cascade or latter circuit of Example 5.38 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Fig. 5.142 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
Fig. 5.143 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
Fig. 5.144 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Fig. 5.145 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Fig. 5.146 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
Fig. 5.147 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
Fig. 5.148 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
Fig. 5.149 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
Fig. 5.150 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
Fig. 5.151 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
Fig. 5.152 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
Fig. 5.153 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
Fig. 5.154 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
Fig. 5.155 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
Fig. 5.156 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
Fig. 5.157 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Fig. 5.158 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Fig. 5.159 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Fig. 5.160 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
Fig. 5.161 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-22 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
Fig. 5.162 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
Fig. 5.163 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
Fig. 5.164 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Fig. 5.165 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-26 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Fig. 5.166 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-27 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
Fig. 5.167 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-28 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
Fig. 5.168 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
Fig. 5.169 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-30 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
Fig. 5.170 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
List of Figures xxiii

Fig. 5.171 Capacitor voltage eC ðtÞ and current iðtÞ of Problem

P.5-32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
Fig. 5.172 Source eðtÞ, resistor eR ðtÞ and capacitor eC ðtÞ voltages
of Problem P.5-32. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
Fig. 5.173 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-33 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
Fig. 5.174 Capacitor current iðtÞ of Problem P.5-33 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
Fig. 5.175 Source voltage eðtÞ and Voltage at resistor eR ðtÞof Problem
P.5-33 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
Fig. 5.176 Capacitor voltage eC ðtÞ of Problem P.5-33 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Fig. 5.177 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-34 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Fig. 5.178 Inductor current iðtÞ of Problem P.5-34 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
Fig. 5.179 Source, resistor, inductor voltages of Problem P.5-34 . . . . . . . . 354
Fig. 5.180 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Fig. 5.181 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-36 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Fig. 5.182 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-36 for digital solution . . . . . . . . 356
Fig. 5.183 Inductor voltage eL ðtÞ of Problem P.5-36 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
Fig. 5.184 Resistor voltage eR ðt) of Problem P.5-36 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
Fig. 5.185 Current iðtÞ of Problem P.5-36 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
Fig. 5.186 Current iT ðtÞ, which flows through the voltage eðtÞ source
of Problem P.5-36. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
Fig. 5.187 Current iC ðtÞ, which flows through the voltage source
of Problem P.5-36. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
Fig. 5.188 Power pL ðtÞ in the inductorof Problem P.5-36 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
Fig. 5.189 Energy W L ðtÞ in the inductorof Problem P.5-36 . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
Fig. 5.190 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-37 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
Fig. 5.191 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-37 for digital solution . . . . . . . . 360
Fig. 5.192 Voltage e1 ðtÞ and Voltage e2 ðtÞ of Problem P.5-37 . . . . . . . . . 361
Fig. 5.193 Zoom at current in switch 3 of Problem P.5-37 . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
Fig. 5.194 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-38 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
Fig. 5.195 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-39 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
Fig. 5.196 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-40 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
Fig. 5.197 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-41 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
Fig. 5.198 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-42 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
Fig. 6.1 Electric circuit of Example 6.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
Fig. 6.2 Electric circuit of Example 6.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
Fig. 6.3 Voltage e0 ðtÞ, voltage at left capacitance, source
voltage eðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
Fig. 6.4 Current at right capacitance, current at left capacitance . . . . . . 373
Fig. 6.5 Electric circuit of Example 6.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
Fig. 6.6 Electric circuit of Example 6.6 for the numerical solution
by the ATPDraw program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
Fig. 6.7 Voltage e0 ðtÞ, source voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
Fig. 6.8 Current i0 ðtÞ, Current i1 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
Fig. 6.9 Electric circuit of Example 6.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
xxiv List of Figures

Fig. 6.10 Electric circuit of Example 6.9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382

Fig. 6.11 Equivalent electric circuit of Example 6.9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
Fig. 6.12 Electric circuit of Example 6.10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
Fig. 6.13 Electric circuit of Example 6.11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
Fig. 6.14 Electric circuit of Example 6.11 for the numerical solution
by the ATPDraw program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
Fig. 6.15 Current iðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
Fig. 6.16 Voltage eL ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
Fig. 6.17 Voltage eC ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
Fig. 6.18 Electric circuit of Example 6.12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
Fig. 6.19 Electric circuit of Example 6.12 for the numerical solution
by the ATPDraw program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
Fig. 6.20 Current iðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
Fig. 6.21 Supply voltage, voltage eR ðtÞ, voltage eL ðtÞ, voltage eC ðtÞ . . . . 393
Fig. 6.22 Electric circuit of Example 6.13 for the numerical solution
by the ATPDraw program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
Fig. 6.23 Voltage in the elements, current in the resistance . . . . . . . . . . . 394
Fig. 6.24 Current at inductance, current at capacitance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
Fig. 6.25 Electric circuit of Example 6.14 for the numerical solution
by the ATPDraw program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
Fig. 6.26 Inductance power, capacitance power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
Fig. 6.27 Energy in inductance, energy in capacitance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
Fig. 6.28 Electric circuit of Example 6.15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
Fig. 6.29 Equivalent electric circuit of Example 6.15 for the numerical
solution by the ATPDraw program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
Fig. 6.30 Rectangular pulse of the voltage source eðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
Fig. 6.31 Zoom on the rectangular pulse of the voltage source eðtÞ . . . . . 400
Fig. 6.32 Response to the impulse “hðtÞ” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
Fig. 6.33 Electric circuit of Example 6.16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
Fig. 6.34 Equivalent electric circuit of Example 6.16 for the numerical
solution by the ATPDraw program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
Fig. 6.35 Current at inductance iðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
Fig. 6.36 Current injected by sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
Fig. 6.37 Voltage e1 ðtÞ in R, L and C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
Fig. 6.38 Electric circuit of Example 6.17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
Fig. 6.39 Electric circuit of Example 6.17 for the numerical solution
by the ATPDraw program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
Fig. 6.40 Voltage at capacitance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
Fig. 6.41 Zoom at the capacitance voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
Fig. 6.42 A closer zoom at the capacitance voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
Fig. 6.43 Current at capacitance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Fig. 6.44 Voltage and current at the 400 ½mH inductance . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Fig. 6.45 Current in the resistors of 20 [X] and 10 [X] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
Fig. 6.46 Source voltage e1 ðtÞ and e2 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
List of Figures xxv

Fig. 6.47 Electric circuit with a a capacitance C with an initial voltage

eð0
Þ; b Thévenin equivalent with capacitance C, now
initially de-energized; c Norton equivalent with capacitance
C, now initially de-energized . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
Fig. 6.48 Electric circuit with a an inductance L with an initial current
ið0
Þ; b Norton equivalent with inductance L, now initially
de-energized; c Thévenin equivalent with inductance L, now
initially de-energized . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
Fig. 6.49 Electric circuit of Example 6.18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
Fig. 6.50 Equivalent electric circuit of Example 6.18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
Fig. 6.51 Electric circuit of Example 6.19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
Fig. 6.52 Equivalent electric circuit of Example 6.19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
Fig. 6.53 Electric circuit of Example 6.20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
Fig. 6.54 Equivalent electric circuit of Example 6.20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
Fig. 6.55 Electric circuit of Example 6.20 for the numerical solution
by the ATPDraw program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
Fig. 6.56 Voltage e1 ðtÞ, Voltage e2 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
Fig. 6.57 Electric circuit of Example 6.21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
Fig. 6.58 Equivalent electric circuit of Example 6.21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
Fig. 6.59 Electric circuit of Example 6.21 for the numerical solution
by the ATPDraw program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
Fig. 6.60 Voltage eðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
Fig. 6.61 Current iðtÞ ffi i2 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
Fig. 6.62 Currents i1 ðtÞ and i2 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
Fig. 6.63 Current zooms i1 ðtÞ. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
Fig. 6.64 Voltage eðtÞ and current iðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
Fig. 6.65 Current iðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
Fig. 6.66 Zoom in current iðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
Fig. 6.67 Current i2 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
Fig. 6.68 Current i1 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
Fig. 6.69 Zoom in current i1 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
Fig. 6.70 Voltage eðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
Fig. 6.71 Current iðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
Fig. 6.72 Zoom at current iðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
Fig. 6.73 Current iðtÞ with manually altered scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
Fig. 6.74 Current i1 ðtÞ with manually altered scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
Fig. 6.75 Zoom at current i1 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
Fig. 6.76 Current i2 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
Fig. 6.77 Electric circuit of Example 6.23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
Fig. 6.78 Electric circuit of Example 6.23 for the numerical solution
by the ATPDraw program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
Fig. 6.79 Voltage e1 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
Fig. 6.80 Zoom in voltage e1 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
Fig. 6.81 Voltage e4 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
xxvi List of Figures

Fig. 6.82 Zoom in voltage e4 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437

Fig. 6.83 Current i2 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
Fig. 6.84 Zoom in current i2 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
Fig. 6.85 Current i3 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
Fig. 6.86 Zoom in current i3 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
Fig. 6.87 Electric circuit of Example 6.24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
Fig. 6.88 Equivalent electric circuit of Example 6.24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
Fig. 6.89 Electric circuit of Example 6.24 for the numerical solution
by the ATPDraw program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
Fig. 6.90 Current iðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
Fig. 6.91 Zoom at current iðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
Fig. 6.92 Current iðtÞ in the range 50 ½ms  t  60 ½ms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
Fig. 6.93 Voltage eR ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
Fig. 6.94 Zoom in voltage eR ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
Fig. 6.95 Voltage eC ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
Fig. 6.96 Zoom in voltage eC ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
Fig. 6.97 Voltage eC ðtÞ in the range 90 ½ms  t  100 ½ms . . . . . . . . . . . 446
Fig. 6.98 Electric circuit of Example 6.25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
Fig. 6.99 Equivalent electric circuit of Example 6.25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
Fig. 6.100 Electric circuit of Example 6.25 for the numerical solution
by the ATPDraw program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
Fig. 6.101 Voltages e1 ðtÞ ¼ e2 ðtÞ, eR ðtÞ and the source E . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
Fig. 6.102 Current iR ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
Fig. 6.103 Current i1 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
Fig. 6.104 Current ik ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
Fig. 6.105 Zoom in current i1 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
Fig. 6.106 Zoom in current ik ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
Fig. 6.107 Electric circuit of Example 6.26 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
Fig. 6.108 Equivalent electric circuit of Example 6.26 for the numerical
solution by ATPDraw program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
Fig. 6.109 Electric circuit of Example 6.27 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
Fig. 6.110 Equivalent electric circuit of Example 6.27 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
Fig. 6.111 Electric circuit of Example 6.27 for the numerical solution
by the ATPDraw program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
Fig. 6.112 Source voltage, voltage e1 ðtÞ voltage eL ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
Fig. 6.113 Voltage ek ðtÞ and voltage eLD ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
Fig. 6.114 Zoom in voltage ek ðtÞ and voltage eLD ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
Fig. 6.115 Current iL ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
Fig. 6.116 Electric circuit of Example 6.28 for the numerical solution
by the ATPDraw program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
Fig. 6.117 Voltage in R1 ; voltage in C; voltage in C=2, source
voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
Fig. 6.118 Voltage in R2 , voltage in C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
Fig. 6.119 Current in R1 -C Current in C2 Current in R2 -C . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
List of Figures xxvii

Fig. 6.120 Electric circuit of Example 6.29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465

Fig. 6.121 Equivalent electric circuit of Example 6.29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
Fig. 6.122 Electric circuit of Example 6.29 for the numerical solution
by the ATPDraw program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
Fig. 6.123 Current i1 ðtÞ, Current i2 ðtÞ; Current iC ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
Fig. 6.124 Source voltage voltage eR ðtÞ Voltage eL ðtÞ Volltage eC ðtÞ . . . . 473
Fig. 6.125 Voltage eR1 ðtÞ Voltage ek ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
Fig. 6.126 Electric circuit of Example 6.30 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
Fig. 6.127 Electric circuit of Example 6.30 for DC steady-state
solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
Fig. 6.128 Equivalent electric circuit of Example 6.30 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
Fig. 6.129 Electric circuit of Example 6.30 for the numerical solution
by the ATPDraw program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
Fig. 6.130 Source voltage, Voltage eC ðtÞ, Voltage ek ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
Fig. 6.131 Current i2 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
Fig. 6.132 Voltage in the open switch eCh ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
Fig. 6.133 Zoom at voltage in the open switch eCh ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
Fig. 6.134 Electric circuit of Example 6.31 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
Fig. 6.135 Electric circuit of Example 6.31 for the numerical solution
by the ATPDraw program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
Fig. 6.136 Voltage E, Voltage eC ðtÞ, Voltage ek ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
Fig. 6.137 Voltage eCh ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
Fig. 6.138 Zoom in voltage eCh ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
Fig. 6.139 Current i1 ðtÞ, Current i2 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
Fig. 6.140 Electric circuit of Example 6.32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
Fig. 6.141 Equivalent electric circuit of Example 6.32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
Fig. 6.142 Electric circuit of Example 6.32 for the numerical solution
by the ATPDraw program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
Fig. 6.143 Voltage eR ðtÞ, Voltage eL ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
Fig. 6.144 Voltage eC ðtÞ, Voltage iC ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
Fig. 6.145 Current iðtÞ, Current i2 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
Fig. 6.146 Electric circuit of Example 6.33 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
Fig. 6.147 Electric circuit of Example 6.33 for the numerical solution
by the ATPDraw program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
Fig. 6.148 Current iðtÞ, Source Voltage eðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
Fig. 6.149 Electric circuit of Example 6.33 for the numerical solution
by the ATPDraw program, when switch k is closed
at t ¼ 0, in the worst condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
Fig. 6.150 Current iðtÞ, with the most intense transient phenomenon . . . . . 494
Fig. 6.151 Zoom at current iðtÞ, with the most intense transient
phenomenon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
Fig. 6.152 Zoom at current iðtÞ, with the most intense transient
phenomenon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
xxviii List of Figures

Fig. 6.153 Current iðtÞ for switch k closing at t ¼ 3:979 ms; current iðtÞ
for switch k closing at t ¼ 8:146 ms; voltage eðtÞ
of the inusoidal source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
Fig. 6.154 Zoom in Fig. 6.153 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
Fig. 6.155 Electric circuit of Example 6.34 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
Fig. 6.156 Electric circuit of Example 6.35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
Fig. 6.157 Electric circuit of Example 6.35 for AC steady-state
solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
Fig. 6.158 Equivalent electric circuit of Example 6.35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
Fig. 6.159 Electric circuit of Example 6.36 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
Fig. 6.160 Equivalent electric circuit of Example 6.36 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
Fig. 6.161 Electric circuit of Example 6.36 for the numerical solution
by the ATPDraw program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
Fig. 6.162 Source voltage eðtÞ and Voltage in switch ek ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
Fig. 6.163 Current in the left loop iðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
Fig. 6.164 Voltage eðtÞ, Voltage ek ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
Fig. 6.165 Current in the left loop iðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
Fig. 6.166 Electric circuit of Example 6.37 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
Fig. 6.167 Electric circuit of Example 6.37 for t [ 0 solution . . . . . . . . . . 509
Fig. 6.168 Electric circuit of Example 6.37 for the numerical solution
by the ATPDraw program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
Fig. 6.169 e1 ðtÞ, e2 ðtÞ, eðtÞ; ik ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
Fig. 6.170 Electric circuit of Example 6.38 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
Fig. 6.171 Electric circuit of Example 6.38 for t [ 0 solution . . . . . . . . . . 512
Fig. 6.172 Electric circuit of Example 6.38 for the numerical solution
by the ATPDraw program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
Fig. 6.173 eðtÞ, ek ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
Fig. 6.174 ik ðtÞ, iL ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
Fig. 6.175 Electric circuit of Example 6.39 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
Fig. 6.176 Electric circuit of Example 6.39 for the numerical solution
by the ATPDraw program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
Fig. 6.177 Load energizing current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
Fig. 6.178 Zoom at the start of the load energizing current . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
Fig. 6.179 Load energizing current, but now for tmax ¼ 250 ms ¼
0:25 ½s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
Fig. 6.180 Zoom at the end of Fig. 6.179 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
Fig. 6.181 Voltages eR ðtÞ and eL ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
Fig. 6.182 Zoom at the beginning of Fig. 6.181 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
Fig. 6.183 Result of new zooms in Fig. 6.181 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
Fig. 6.184 Voltages eR ðtÞ e eL ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
Fig. 6.185 Zoom at the end of Fig. 6.184 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
Fig. 6.186 Industrial load voltage eA ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524
Fig. 6.187 Zoom at the beginning of Voltage eA ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524
List of Figures xxix

Fig. 6.188 Result of new zooms in Fig. 6.187 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525

Fig. 6.189 Zoom at the end of Fig. 6.186 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
Fig. 6.190 Voltage and current in industrial load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526
Fig. 6.191 Zoom at the Fig. 6.190 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
Fig. 6.192 Instantaneous power, pR ðtÞ, in the load resistance . . . . . . . . . . . 528
Fig. 6.193 Zoom in the transient phase of the instantaneous
power pR ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528
Fig. 6.194 Zoom in the steady-state phase of the instantaneous
power pR ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
Fig. 6.195 Instantaneous power, pL ðtÞ, at load inductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
Fig. 6.196 Zoom in the transient phase of the instantaneous
power pL ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530
Fig. 6.197 Zoom in the steady-state phase of the instantaneous
power pL ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530
Fig. 6.198 System supply current iðtÞ with switches k1 and k2 closed . . . . 532
Fig. 6.199 Zoom in the supply current iðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
Fig. 6.200 New zoom in the supply current iðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
Fig. 6.201 Steady-state supply current iðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
Fig. 6.202 Voltage eC ðtÞ and current iC ðtÞ of energization
of the capacitor bank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534
Fig. 6.203 Zoom at Fig. 6.203 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534
Fig. 6.204 Current iF ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
Fig. 6.205 Zoom at current iF ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
Fig. 6.206 Load voltage eA ðtÞ and supply current iðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
Fig. 6.207 Zoom in the steady-state regime of the curves
of Fig. 6.206 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
Fig. 6.208 Instantaneous power pR ðtÞ in the load resistor . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
Fig. 6.209 Zoom on the load resistance power curve, pR ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
Fig. 6.210 Energy WL ðtÞ and WC ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540
Fig. 6.211 Zoom applied at the end of Fig. 6.210 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540
Fig. 6.212 Power triangles pre and post power factor correction . . . . . . . . 542
Fig. 6.213 Electric circuit of Example 6.40 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
Fig. 6.214 Electric circuit of Example 6.40, when the two switches
are closed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
Fig. 6.215 Electric circuit of Problem P.6-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560
Fig. 6.216 Electric circuit of Problem P.6-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
Fig. 6.217 Electric circuit of Problem P.6-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
Fig. 6.218 Electric circuit of Problem P.6-5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
Fig. 6.219 Electric circuit of Problem P.6-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
Fig. 6.220 Electric circuit of Problem P.6-7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
Fig. 6.221 Electric circuit of Problem P.6-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
Fig. 6.222 Electric circuit of Problem P.6-9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
Fig. 6.223 Electric circuit of Problem P.6-10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
Fig. 6.224 Electric circuit of Problem P.6-11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
xxx List of Figures

Fig. 6.225 Electric circuit of Problem P.6-12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563

Fig. 6.226 Electric circuit of Problem P.6-12 for the numerical
solution by the ATPDraw program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
Fig. 6.227 Voltage in the left capacitor and current across the switch
of Fig. 6.226 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
Fig. 6.228 Voltage and current in the left inductor of Fig. 6.226 . . . . . . . . 565
Fig. 6.229 Voltage and current in the right inductor of Fig. 6.226. . . . . . . 565
Fig. 6.230 Voltage at the right capacitor of Fig. 6.226 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566
Fig. 6.231 Electric circuit of Problem 6-13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566
Fig. 6.232 Electric circuit of Problem 6-14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
Fig. 6.233 Electric circuit of Problem 6-15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
Fig. 6.234 Electric circuit of Problem 6-16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
Fig. 6.235 Electric circuit of Problem 6-17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568
Fig. 6.236 Electric circuit of Problem 6-18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568
Fig. 6.237 Electric circuit of Problem 6-19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568
Fig. 6.238 Electric circuit of Problem 6-20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
Fig. 6.239 Electric circuit of Problem 6-21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
Fig. 6.240 Electric circuit of Problem 6-22 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570
Fig. 6.241 Voltages at capacitances and resistance of Fig. 6.240 . . . . . . . . 570
Fig. 6.242 Power at capacitances and resistance of Fig. 6.240 . . . . . . . . . . 571
Fig. 6.243 Electric circuit of Problem 6-23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
Fig. 6.244 Electric circuit of Problem 6-24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
Fig. 6.245 Voltages at inductance for C ¼ 10½lF of Fig. 6.244 . . . . . . . . 572
Fig. 6.246 Voltages at inductance for C ¼ 40½lF of Fig. 6.244 . . . . . . . . 572
Fig. 6.247 Voltages at inductance for C ¼ 100½lF of Fig. 6.244 . . . . . . . 573
Fig. 6.248 Electric circuit of Problem 6-25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574
Fig. 6.249 Electric circuit of Problem 6-26 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574
Fig. 6.250 Electric circuit of Problem 6-27 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574
Fig. 6.251 Electric circuit of Problem 6-28 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
Fig. 6.252 Electric circuit of Problem 6-29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
Fig. 6.253 Electric circuit of Problem 6-30 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
Fig. 7.1 Circuit with switch k open . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578
Fig. 7.2 Circuit in Fig. 7.1 with switch k open, replaced
by the ideal voltage source F 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
Fig. 7.3 Circuit after the closing of switch k, simulated
with the injection of the voltage source F 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
Fig. 7.4 Circuit reduced to passive for the calculation of voltages and
currents produced exclusively by the source
F 2 , for t [ t0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580
Fig. 7.5 Electric circuit for Example 7.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581
Fig. 7.6 Electric circuit of Example 7.1 with the exclusive
performance of the F2 source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582
Fig. 7.7 Electric circuit for Example 7.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582
List of Figures xxxi

Fig. 7.8 Electric circuit of Example 7.2 with the steady-state

solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
Fig. 7.9 Electric circuit of Example 7.2 for calculating the exclusive
effects of the (injected) source F 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
Fig. 7.10 Transformed circuit of from that of Fig. 7.9, in the domain
of the complex frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
Fig. 7.11 Electric circuit for Example 7.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584
Fig. 7.12 Electric circuit of Example 7.3 for steady-state solution . . . . . . 585
Fig. 7.13 Electric circuit of Example 7.3 with the injection
of the source F 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
Fig. 7.14 Electric circuit for Example 7.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
Fig. 7.15 Electric circuit of Example 7.4 with the injection
of the source F 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588
Fig. 7.16 Electric circuit for Example 7.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588
Fig. 7.17 Transformed circuit of Example 7.5, after the insertion
of the F 2 source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589
Fig. 7.18 Transformed circuit of Example 7.5, combining the
operational impedances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589
Fig. 7.19 Electric circuit for Example 7.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590
Fig. 7.20 Transformed circuit of Example 7.6, in the domain of the
complex frequency with the injected voltage source F 2 . . . . . . 591
Fig. 7.21 Electric circuit for Example 7.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593
Fig. 7.22 Electric circuit of Example 7.7 for AC steady-state
solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593
Fig. 7.23 Circuit of Example 7.7, after the insertion of the F 2
source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595
Fig. 7.24 Transformed circuit of Example 7.7, after the insertion
of the F 2 source, to the domain of the complex frequency . . . . 596
Fig. 7.25 Electric circuit of Example 7.7 for the numerical solution
by the ATPDraw program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598
Fig. 7.26 Voltage eðtÞ voltage ek ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598
Fig. 7.27 Current iðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599
Fig. 7.28 Current ik ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599
Fig. 7.29 Electric circuit for Example 7.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600
Fig. 7.30 Electric circuit for Example 7.8, for steady-state solution . . . . . 600
Fig. 7.31 Electric circuit of Example 7.8 for calculating the exclusive
effects of the (injected) source F 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601
Fig. 7.32 Transformed circuit of Example 7.8, in the domain of the
complex frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 602
Fig. 7.33 Electric circuit of Example 7.8 for the numerical solution
by the ATPDraw program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604
Fig. 7.34 Source voltage F 2 and current ik ðtÞ in the switch . . . . . . . . . . . 605
Fig. 7.35 Electric circuit for the calculation of steady-state digital
solution from Example 7.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605
Random documents with unrelated
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They watched the group around the captain disperse at some word
from the doctor; their tension mounted as the psychiatrist talked to
Daneshaw and Wyckoff; and the hatted man gestured toward the
door through which he had entered the room.
When Samuel Wyckoff straightened up from leaning over Captain
Daneshaw, absolute quiet preceded the first of his clear confident
tones.
"Matt Carey, here, wants me to tell you that he's awfully sorry he
alarmed you. He did overhear Mr. White tell Mr. Avery something
which sounded ... well ... disturbing. But we must all realize that
many a slight accident has seemed disastrous at its first reporting.
And we haven't even had an official report of any kind."
A woman somewhere began to sob.
"Come now," Wyckoff said reproachfully, "we are not children!"
A nervous giggle sounded from another quarter.
Wyckoff continued more forcefully. "Dr. Marquith, Carey and I are
going down to the pilot-room to find out what we can for you, so
keep your shirts (I mean costumes) on, and don't forget to make
Captain Daneshaw's recovery celebration a gay as well as a
memorable one." He patted Tim's shoulder familiarly, beckoned to the
two others to precede him across the floor.
At the door, he saw the tray of glasses and turned. "You fellows
better bring another round of drinks. I could stand one myself." He
stooped, lifted a glass, drank, and followed the others out.
Men rose automatically from the groups, collecting empty and half-ful
glasses alike, and headed in a mass for the door; but the first few
attempts to revive conversation sounded so loud that when the room
finally filled with sound, it was the rustle and sibilance of whispering.
The self-appointed investigating committee of three stood in the
pilot-room door.
El Avery's crisp voice was snapping at White the new equation to be
set into the B calculator, rattling out the key for the data Powell
handed him to be fed to C by North in the intervals of rest while A
calculator assimilated and digested. The floor of the computation
area was littered with the yards of coils of paper ribbon Avery had
ripped from the roll of gyro record to find the original deviation
(minus the bits which Carruthers, Fifth Astrogator, had taken to the
enlargement room for micro-measurements). At the accepted break
for complete clearing of the A calculator banks, Avery's precision
broke to a growl.
"Damned earthbound whelps!" he muttered. "Don't even bother to
discover major factors like light pressure in their measly little tubs!"
He jerked to a stand, stripped off his braidjac and flung it into the
midst of the insubstantial paper snake. He sat down with a thump
and bent back over the calculator keyboard. "Those babies don't care
what they lose or how!"
He set to work again with White's eighth set of solutions forming
them into factors of equations of his own. Powell, passing around the
welter of paper, was the first to notice the observers and yelled at
them, "You boys round up the engine room crew, quick. Get them
into the boom room and tell 'em to stand by for intermittent rocket
and main tube fire! Beat it!"
Jack White looked up from his keyboard, "And get the passengers
into bed for turnover, too!"
"You take Matt, Doc," said Wyckoff, authoritatively. "Don't make an
announcement, just go the rounds and call out engine crew as if it
were a piece of routine. Matt, you stand out in the hall and tell them
there to report to the boom room presto. When you get 'em all out,
Doc, go and tell Tim Daneshaw I'll be down to report in a minute.
Jolly 'em up a bit if you can."
Wyckoff himself advanced a couple of steps into the pilot-room.
Powell passed him again on his way back to the massive data spitter
and said, "Thought we asked you to clear out."
His rudeness seemed not to affect the easy poise of the slim old man.
Wyckoff's voice was conciliatory, "I've got to make some sort of
report on this beehive to the captain. It's the general impression that
we're in the middle of disaster."
Powell roared, "Avery! Who let this out? The passengers are rioting!"
"Not rioting—praying more likely," corrected the man at the door.
"That'll keep 'em out of trouble," Avery flipped back, his pencil
moving feverishly across a scratch pad.
Wyckoff called across the clatter of the spitter, now operating with a
ferocious din, "What'll we tell 'em, Avery? They've got to know
something or there will be a riot or worse. Is there really any
danger?"
"There's always danger," Avery was growling again, "when some
unmitigated unweaned engineers on an unmentionable planet cook
up a foolproof system of astrogation."
He handed the scratch pad to Jack White and waved a hand at A
calculator. "Take off these and add them into the firing times. I'll send
Wilman and Adams up and put them on the intercom for porthole
reports during firing. I'm going with Sam and stop the rush for the
life-boats we don't have."
Donning his jak, he arose and kicked his way defiantly through the
welter of paper and stamped free of it as he reached the door. He
hurried up the corridor to the elevator, eight or ten paces in advance
of Wyckoff, and jabbed the button. "Sam my boy," he barked
impatiently, waiting for the car, "the worst cause of panic is panic.
I've been on the market and I know!"
The elevator door slid shut and Wyckoff repeated his earlier question,
"Is it really bad, El?"
"Probably nothing a little prompt action can't fix," Avery replied. "It's
going to take two more turnovers, though. You know we haven't any
jets in the nose to amount to anything, and we'll have to tack back
across our charted course like bats out of you know where.
Carruthers will have to whip up a new batch of charts for the sky-
watchers, too, but we can still outsmart those idiots on earth and
land on Venus if we want to."
"If we want to?" The car stopped and the two got out.
"I said if we want to, and that's what I meant," Avery replied tartly,
heading up the Saloon floor corridor. "I'll bet most of us didn't want
or expect much more than to cut loose from our old lives and
problems; and that's completely accomplished. Most of us just
wanted to crawl away and die with some decent measure of privacy.
We can do that, too, if we want to."
Through the thin panel of the saloon door the music came, singing
weakly at first, then growing, tremulously....

Eternal Father, God of Grace,

Whose hand hath set the stars in place,

"We've changed our minds, Elbert," said Samuel Wyckoff.

Who biddst the planets turn and sweep

To Thine appointed orbits keep,
Oh hear us when to Thee we cry
For those in peril in the sky!

A moment's silence through the door. Wyckoff pushed it open for

Avery and followed him into the room.
The hundreds of people standing in the room, looking at Captain
Daneshaw in the center, did not notice the two until they had almost
reached him. Hundreds of breaths, thousands of muscles clenched,
they awaited the word. Avery gave one furtive, almost guilty look
around at the staring faces; then, his jauntiness returning, he took
the last few steps to the captain's side. Tim Daneshaw raised his
hand, unnecessarily, for silence. Avery spoke.
"With your assistance, we shall land on Venus on schedule."
A great sigh from hundreds of lips.
Avery continued, "We are off course because of a factor that was
overlooked in building the Colonia. But there is no reason why we
can't meet our new home when she gets there. There is no reason
why we can't do a better job than the engineers and Space
Commission expected of us." No reason. There were more ways of
outsmarting young fools than tying their feet with high tension wire.
He gestured at Sam Wyckoff. "Tell 'em what to do next, trouble
shooter."
Wyckoff took up, "There will be two more turnovers, the first within a
couple of hours, I expect. You've just been through one and know
what to do as far as remaining in your cabins with a good supply of
solid food in your kits and plenty of packaged water. As Mr. Avery
expresses it, we shall have to run to catch up with our course, so
there will be acceleration, too. The gravitators will be switched on
again immediately after turnover, but, since acceleration may be
intermittent the ship may seem bumpy until a constant acceleration
has been reached. All of you who are not essential crew or involved
with food service or care of animals had better go for rations at once
and then strap into your bunks with a sedative and maybe a good
book. Food services go hand out ration packs and report back here.
Crew members still in the hall meet with Mr. Avery by the stage." He
paused for breath. "And before you walk not run to the nearest food
hatch," (tension in the Great Saloon was a new thing, alert,
responsive), "let's have three rousing cheers for a better man with a
calculator than any on earth! Hip! Hip!..."
"Hoo-ray!" Deafening.
"Hip!... Hip!..."
"Hoo-ray!"
The third cheer was a wave of noise that had no beginning but
dimmed suddenly when a woman near the captain folded her hands
and bowed her head. The crowd followed the example like one being.
Avery, too, bowed his head for a moment, fierce triumph fading from
his face; then he strode down the floor to the stage as the throng
moved in orderly departure to the doors around the room, a man
here and there following him.
Tim Daneshaw grasped Sam Wyckoff's hand with a quick, friendly
shake. "Grow old along with me, The best is yet to be," he quoted
musingly; and both men followed the little line leading the way to
Avery and action.
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