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Power Systems

José Carlos Goulart de Siqueira

Benedito Donizeti Bonatto

Introduction
to Transients
in Electrical
Circuits
Analytical and Digital Solution Using an
EMTP-based Software
Power Systems
Electrical power has been the technological foundation of industrial societies for
many years. Although the systems designed to provide and apply electrical energy
have reached a high degree of maturity, unforeseen problems are constantly
encountered, necessitating the design of more efficient and reliable systems based
on novel technologies. The book series Power Systems is aimed at providing
detailed, accurate and sound technical information about these new developments in
electrical power engineering. It includes topics on power generation, storage and
transmission as well as electrical machines. The monographs and advanced
textbooks in this series address researchers, lecturers, industrial engineers and
senior students in electrical engineering.
**Power Systems is indexed in Scopus**

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/4622

José Carlos Goulart de Siqueira •

Benedito Donizeti Bonatto

Introduction to Transients
in Electrical Circuits
Analytical and Digital Solution Using
an EMTP-based Software

123
José Carlos Goulart de Siqueira Benedito Donizeti Bonatto
Institute of Electrical Systems and Energy Institute of Electrical Systems and Energy
Federal University of Itajubá Federal University of Itajubá
Itajubá, Brazil Itajubá, Brazil

ISSN 1612-1287 ISSN 1860-4676 (electronic)

Power Systems
ISBN 978-3-030-68248-4 ISBN 978-3-030-68249-1 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68249-1
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2021
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of
illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and
transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar
or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from
the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the
authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained
herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard
to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Preface

The book Introduction to Transients in Electrical Circuits: Analytical and Digital

Solution Using an EMTP-based Software integrates the analytical solution with the
digital solution through the ATP—Alternative Transients Program software (rec-
ognized for its use all over the world in academia and in the electric power industry)
in a didactic approach and mathematical and scientific rigour suitable for under-
graduate and graduate programs, as well as for industry professionals.
It is clear that many other classical and advanced books indeed cover more
extensive subjects in electromagnetic transients. This book fills a gap between
classic works in the field of electrical circuits and more advanced works in the field
of transients in electrical power systems, facilitating a full understanding of ana-
lytical and digital modelling and solution of transients in basic circuits. Therefore, it
fulfils its role as an introductory book, but completes in its learning proposal in
undergraduate and graduate courses. Finally, the book presents a significant number
of examples and proposed problems, all with answers, without exception. The book
fills an important gap between the analytical solution of traditional electrical circuits
with the digital solution using a well-established tool (the ATP program) in the
power engineering community. It may be particularly important when teaching
some basic power system transients that can be simulated with linear networks and
lumped parameters.
This book presents an approach to solving singular function differential equa-
tions representing the transient and steady-state dynamics of a circuit in a structured
manner and without the need for physical reasoning to set initial conditions to zero
plus (0+). The method indeed facilitates the mathematical solution. That does not
mean that physical reasoning and proper modelling are unimportant in engineering
education. Real applications may come after a strong background in these concepts.
It also presents, for each presented problem, the exact analytical solution as well as
the corresponding digital solution through a computer program based on the EMTP
—Electromagnetics Transients Program. The andragogical approach (science and
art in adult education) integrates existing knowledge and starts from the simple to
the complex, with rich exposure to a variety of problems solved (all with tested and
validated solutions).

v
vi Preface

The teacher and the apprentice are encouraged to use modern computational
tools used in the electrical power industry for the calculation of electromagnetic
transients, but are warned about their limitations and modelling constraints. This
integrates the “know-how” and “know why” necessary for the safe analysis of
simulated results. The teacher can direct students in solving specific problems in the
textbook or even propose that students present real day-to-day problems for solu-
tion, as the introductory methodology for modelling and calculation of digital and
analytical solution of circuit transients in electrical systems are fully presented in
the textbook. Technical–scientific articles should be consulted, as well as textbooks
for more advanced studies on transients in electrical power systems can be con-
sulted, depending on the interest and need of the problem to be solved.
It is important to clarify that the motivation and intent primacy of the main
author, Prof. José Carlos Goulart de Siqueira, are to leave a legacy to the teachers
and students of UNIFEI, where he magistrate with excellence for decades, having
been the first rector of UNIFEI-Federal University of Itajubá, which has been
completed, on November 23rd 2020, 107 years of history of contributions to higher
education in Brazil.
We think that the book is intended for engineering students who already have
been successfully approved in introductory circuit analysis, calculus and ordinary
differential equations courses. Our experience as educators is that, when it comes to
truly understand and apply the mathematical knowledge in electrical circuits tran-
sients, the majority of students have much more difficulties. Therefore, this book
supplies, in an integrated way, all the necessary knowledge and practice through
extensive examples.
This book is organized as follows: Chap. 1 presents an introduction to transients in
electrical circuits with a discussion about fundamentals of circuit analysis, physical
phenomena and the need for mathematical modelling and simulation. The student is
encouraged from the beginning to become familiar with Appendix A—processing at
the ATP. Chapter 2 presents singular functions for the analytical solution, and
Appendix B shows the main relations involving singular functions. Chapter 3 pre-
sents the solution of differential equations. It emphasizes the solution using the
classical method in the time domain. For the operational method in the complex
frequency domain using the Laplace transform, Appendix C—Laplace transform
properties, Appendix D—Laplace transform pairs and Appendix E—Heaviside
expansion theorem can be helpful.
Chapter 4 presents the digital solution of transients in basic electrical circuits.
The fundamental algorithm of EMTP-based program is introduced, and the problem
of numerical oscillations due to the trapezoidal method is briefly discussed. Chapter
5 presents transients in first-order circuits. Extensive number of examples are
provided with their analytical and digital solution using the ATPDraw. Chapter 6
Preface vii

presents transients in circuits of any order, exploring the solution methods con-
solidated so far. Finally, Chap. 7 introduces switching transients using the injection
of sources method. All chapters provide useful references to enhance the learning
process, as well as to instigate further investigation about advanced topics. Enjoy it!

Itajubá, Brazil José Carlos Goulart de Siqueira

Benedito Donizeti Bonatto

Acknowledgments We would like to express our gratitude to many people who have helped to
bring this book project to its conclusion. We deeply thank all members of our families, friends
(Antonio Eduardo Hermeto…), colleagues who by listening and encouraging have provided the
fundamental support and personal care. We give a special thanks to Alexa Bonelli Bonatto and
Aline Bonelli Bonatto for their work in the initial translation and editing. Professional editing was
provided by Springer’s team to whom we are deeply gratefull. Finally, we thank many students
who were challenged in their studies during their courses at UNIFEI by the many proposed
problems.
Contents

1 Introduction to Fundamental Concepts in Electric Circuit

Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Preliminary Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Electrical Quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4 Power and Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.5 Circuit Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.6 Kirchhoff’s Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
1.7 Analytical and Digital Circuit Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
1.8 Conclusions and Motivations for Electromagnetic Transients
Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 76
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 77
2 Singular Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
2.1 Single Step Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
2.2 Unitary Impulse Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
2.3 The Family of Singular Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
2.4 Causal Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
2.5 Derivative of an Ordinary Sectionally Continuous Function . . . . 111
2.6 Decomposition of a Function into Singular Functions . . . . . . . . . 112
2.7 The Distribution Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
2.8 The Unitary Impulse Function as Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
2.9 Initial Condition at t = 0+ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
2.10 Initial Decomposition of Functions in Steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
2.11 Decomposition of Functions into Impulses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
2.12 Convolution Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
2.13 Properties of the Convolution Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
2.14 Proposed Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
2.15 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

ix
x Contents

3 Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
3.2 Ordinary Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
3.2.1 Solution of the Homogeneous Differential Equation . . . . . 158
3.2.2 Considerations on Algebraic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
3.2.3 Solution of the Non-homogeneous Differential
Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
3.3 Differential Equations with Singular and Causal Forcing
Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
3.3.1 Step Type Forcing Function U
1 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
3.3.2 Forcing Function Type Impulse U0 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
3.3.3 Systematic Method for Calculating Initial Conditions
at t ¼ 0 þ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
3.4 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
4 Digital Solution of Transients in Basic Electrical Circuits . . . . . . . . . 207
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
4.2 Basic Algorithm for Computational Solution of EMTP-Based
Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
4.3 Solution of Differential Equations via Digital Integration . . . . . . 210
4.4 Digital Computational Model of the Elements with
Concentrated Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
4.4.1 Resistance R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
4.4.2 Inductance L . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
4.4.3 Capacitance C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
4.5 Numerical Oscillations in EMTP Due to the Trapezoidal
Integration Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
4.6 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
5 Transients in First Order Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
5.2 Continuity Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
5.3 Response to Impulse and Response to Step . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
5.4 Sequential Switching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
5.5 Magnetically Coupled Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
5.6 DuHamel Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
5.7 Proposed Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
5.8 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
6 Transients in Circuits of Any Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
6.2 Circuits Initially Deenergized . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
Contents xi

6.3 Thévenin and Norton Equivalents for Initially Energized

Capacitances and Inductances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
6.4 Circuits Initially Energized . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
6.5 Switching Transients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
6.6 Proposed Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
6.7 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
7 Switching Transients Using Injection of Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
7.2 Method of Voltage Source Injection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578
7.3 Current Source Injection Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606
7.4 Displacement of Current Source Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629
7.5 Proposed Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 638
7.6 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 652
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 652

Appendix A: Processing in the ATP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653

Appendix B: Main Relations Involving Singular Functions . . . . . . . . . . . 663
Appendix C: Laplace Transform Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 667
Appendix D: Laplace Transform Pairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669
Appendix E: Heaviside Expansion Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671
List of Figures

Fig. 1.1 a System input and output; b Mechanical system composed

of mass, spring and friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Fig. 1.2 Force F acting on q according to Coulomb’s law . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Fig. 1.3 Force lines of the point charge þ Q . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Fig. 1.4 Electrostatic field in an electric dipole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Fig. 1.5 Infinitesimal work dW associated with displacement dr . . . . . . 12
Fig. 1.6 Body moviment along the ABC path in the xy plane . . . . . . . . 13
Fig. 1.7 The electrostatic potential of point P . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Fig. 1.8 Two charges þ q being displaced against the electrostatic
field E, from the reference, one to position A and the other
one to position B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 16
Fig. 1.9 Electric current produced by the potential difference of the
battery applied to both ends of the conductor . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 19
Fig. 1.10 Reference arrow representing the direction assumed to be
positive for current iðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 20
Fig. 1.11 Graphic of current versus time, called the current
waveform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 21
Fig. 1.12 Waveform of the charge qðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 23
Fig. 1.13 Power absorbed by the circuit element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 24
Fig. 1.14 Voltage and current reference arrows and power and energy
being a consumed or b supplied by the circuit element . . . . .. 25
Fig. 1.15 Reference arrows for voltage between the terminal nodes
and current across a resistor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 29
Fig. 1.16 Resistance of most good conductors as a function
of temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 31
Fig. 1.17 Capacitor formed by two metallic plates, separated
by a thin layer of dielectric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 33
Fig. 1.18 Effect of dielectric on the electric field and the
capacitance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 36
Fig. 1.19 Capacitor formed by two hollow conductive cylinders,
coaxial and long . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 38

xiii
xiv List of Figures

Fig. 1.20 Capacitance per linear meter in a isolated conductive wire,

suspended on a metal chassis, or another grounded plane
and b between two parallel conductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 39
Fig. 1.21 Reference arrows for voltage between the terminal nodes
and current across a Capacitance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 41
Fig. 1.22 Waveforms for the capacitance C of Fig. 1.21, for a voltage,
b current, c power, and d energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Fig. 1.23 Repulsion or attraction between poles of magnets . . . . . . . . . . 46
Fig. 1.24 Magnetic dipoles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Fig. 1.25 Magnetic induction field B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Fig. 1.26 Magnetic induction field at point P . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Fig. 1.27 Magnetic force in a conductor carrying current—charge
q moving with speed v, immersed in an external magnetic
field B. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 50
Fig. 1.28 Magnetic flux through a circular surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 50
Fig. 1.29 a Electric current flowing through a conductor producing
a magnetic field around it; b Field of magnetic forces
in a plane perpendicular to the conductor [9] . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 52
Fig. 1.30 Right hand rule determining the relationship between
the direction of current flow in a wire and the direction
of the lines of force in the magnetic field around the
conductor [9] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 52
Fig. 1.31 Adjacent fingers indicating the direction of the current
and the thumb, the direction of the field, for conductive
wire in a closed path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 53
Fig. 1.32 Magnetic flux produced by a current across a coil with N
turns and with ferromagnetic core . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 53
Fig. 1.33 Permanent magnet moving to the right, with its north pole
approaching a coil with N turns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 57
Fig. 1.34 Permanent magnet moving to the right, with its north pole
approaching a coil with N turns, with the winding direction
of the coil inverted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 57
Fig. 1.35 Faraday and Lenz’s laws applied to a coil in an iron core . . .. 57
Fig. 1.36 Relationship between B and H depending on the material
from which the core is made . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 59
Fig. 1.37 Reference arrows for voltage between the terminal nodes
and current across an indutor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 60
Fig. 1.38 a Current across and b Voltage between the terminals
of a coil (inductor) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 66
Fig. 1.39 a Independent voltage source; b DC voltage source;
c Independent current source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 67
Fig. 1.40 a Common emitter NPN transistor; b Equivalent circuit
model for a common emitter NPN transistor . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 69
Fig. 1.41 RC series circuit, powered by a constant source . . . . . . . . . . .. 71
List of Figures xv

Fig. 1.42 RC series circuit, powered by a constant source, built

for the digital solution using the ATPDraw program . . . . . . .. 75
Fig. 1.43 RC series circuit transient response for voltage, current,
power and energy with digital solution using the ATPDraw
program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 76
Fig. 2.1 a Unitary step function U
1 ðtÞ; b Unitary step function
delayed of a: U
1 ðt
aÞ; c Amplitude k step
function kU
1 ðt
aÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 80
Fig. 2.2 a Pulse function; b Unitary step functions used to represent
the pulse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 80
Fig. 2.3 Triangular pulse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 81
Fig. 2.4 a Switching at time t ¼ 0; b Equivalent circuit with unit step
function U
1 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 81
Fig. 2.5 a Unitary ramp function U
2 ðtÞ; b Unitary ramp function
delayed of a: U
2 ðt
aÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 82
Fig. 2.6 a Unitary parabola function U
3 ðtÞ; b Unitary parabola
function delayed of a: U
3 ðt
aÞ. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 83
Fig. 2.7 Unitary impulse function U 0 ðtÞ defined as a rectangular
pulse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 86
Fig. 2.8 Unitary impulse function U 0 ðtÞ defined as a triangular
pulse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 87
Fig. 2.9 Unitary impulse function U 0 ðtÞ defined as a gaussian
function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 87
Fig. 2.10 a Unitary impulse function U0 ðtÞ; b Unitary Amplitude A
impulse function delayed of a: U 0 ðt
aÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 87
Fig. 2.11 a Approximate representation of a unitary step function;
b Approximate representation of a unitary impulse
function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 89
Fig. 2.12 a Triangular pulse function; b Derivative of pulse
of (a); c Unitary double function, U 1 ðtÞ; d graphic
representation that will be used here for a unitary double
function, U 1 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 91
Fig. 2.13 Synthetic representation of the family of singular functions,
having the unitary impulse function as a generator . . . . . . . . .. 92
Fig. 2.14 Function of Example 2.9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 99
Fig. 2.15 a Periodic function f 1 ðtÞ; b Alternating rectangular pulse
functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 99
Fig. 2.16 Function gðtÞ of Example 2.11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Fig. 2.17 Singular functions that make up gðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Fig. 2.18 a Unit step function U
1 ð
tÞ; b Function f ðtÞ;
c Composition of functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
0
Fig. 2.19 Graphical representation of g ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Fig. 2.20 Graphical representation of f ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Fig. 2.21 a Current iðtÞ applied to a capacitor; b Charge qðtÞ . . . . . . . . . 106
xvi List of Figures

Fig. 2.22 Graphical representation of current iðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

Fig. 2.23 a–c Alternative ways of conceiving Eq. (2.67) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Fig. 2.24 Function f ðtÞ sectionally continuous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Fig. 2.25 Function f ðtÞ for Example 2.23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Fig. 2.26 a first order derivative of f ðtÞ; b second order derivative
of f ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Fig. 2.27 a Function gðtÞ for Example 2.24; b first order derivative
of gðtÞ; c second order derivative of gðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Fig. 2.28 Function f ðtÞ for Example 2.25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Fig. 2.29 a first order derivative of f ðtÞ; b second order derivative
of f ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Fig. 2.30 Functions ðtÞ; f c ðtÞ, and AU
1 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Fig. 2.31 Functions f ðtÞ and £ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Fig. 2.32 Continuous function f ðtÞ approximate by “steps” . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Fig. 2.33 Function xðtÞ for decomposition into singular functions . . . . . . 127
Fig. 2.34 a First order derivative of function xðtÞ; b second order
derivative of function xðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Fig. 2.35 Function xðtÞ expressed as a sum of singular functions . . . . . . 128
Fig. 2.36 Function xðtÞ decomposition in singular functions . . . . . . . . . . 129
Fig. 2.37 Truncated ramp function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Fig. 2.38 Decomposition of function xðtÞ into sequential rectangular
pulses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Fig. 2.39 a Function f 1 ðtÞ; b function f 2 ðtÞ, to be convoluted . . . . . . . . . 135
Fig. 2.40 a Function f 2 ðt
kÞ; b function f 2 ðt
kÞ shifted
to the right . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Fig. 2.41 Curves of f 1 ðkÞ and f 2 ðt
kÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Fig. 2.42 Functions f 1 ðtÞ and f 2 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Fig. 2.43 Convolution function f ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Fig. 2.44 Functions f 1 ðtÞ and f 2 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Fig. 2.45 Convolution function f ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Fig. 2.46 Current iðtÞ in a capacitor initially de-energized . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Fig. 2.47 Function f 1 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Fig. 2.48 Function f 2 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Fig. 4.1 Simplified block diagram of the basic algorithm for solving
programs based on the EMTP [5] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Fig. 4.2 Trapezoidal integration method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Fig. 4.3 Backward Euler integration method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Fig. 4.4 Linear and time-invariant resistor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Fig. 4.5 Linear and time-invariant inductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Fig. 4.6 Thévenin equivalent digital model of the inductor, discretized
using the trapezoidal integration method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Fig. 4.7 Norton equivalent digital model of the inductor, discretized
using the trapezoidal integration method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Fig. 4.8 Linear and time-invariant capacitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
List of Figures xvii

Fig. 4.9 Thévenin equivalent digital model of the capacitor,

discretized using the trapezoidal integration method . . . . . . . . . 219
Fig. 4.10 Norton equivalent digital model of the capacitor, discretized
using the trapezoidal integration method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Fig. 4.11 Application of a current step source through an ideal
inductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Fig. 4.12 Digital solutions at each discrete time point for voltage
and current through the discretized inductor using
the trapezoidal integration method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Fig. 4.13 Digital solutions at each discrete time point for voltage
and current through the discretized inductor using the
Backward Euler integration method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Fig. 4.14 Digital solutions at each discrete time point for voltage
and current through the discretized inductor using
the CDA—Critical Damping Adjustment technique . . . . . . . . . 224
Fig. 5.1 Electric circuit of Example 5.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Fig. 5.2 Electric Circuit of Example 5.1 for the calculation of RTH . . . . 230
Fig. 5.3 Electric circuit of Example 5.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Fig. 5.4 Electric circuit of Example 5.2 for analytical solution
at t ¼ 0 þ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Fig. 5.5 Electric circuit of Example 5.2 for analytical solution
at t ! 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Fig. 5.6 Electric circuit of Example 5.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Fig. 5.7 Electric circuit of Example 5.3 for analytical solution
at t ¼ 0 þ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Fig. 5.8 Electric circuit of Example 5.3 for digital solution . . . . . . . . . . 233
Fig. 5.9 Transient voltage and current digital solution for circuit
of Example 5.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Fig. 5.10 Electric circuit of Example 5.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Fig. 5.11 Electric circuit of Example 5.4 for digital solution . . . . . . . . . . 235
Fig. 5.12 Transient voltage e(t) and current i(t) digital solution
for circuit of Example 5.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Fig. 5.13 Electric circuit of Example 5.4 for digital solution . . . . . . . . . . 236
Fig. 5.14 Transient power p(t) and energy W(t) digital solution
for circuit of Example 5.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
Fig. 5.15 Electric circuit of Example 5.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Fig. 5.16 Electric circuit of Example 5.5 for analytical solution
at t ! 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Fig. 5.17 Source conversion applied to electric circuit of Example 5.5
for analytical solution at t ! 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Fig. 5.18 Electric circuit of Example 5.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Fig. 5.19 Electric circuit of Example 5.6 for analytical solution
at t ¼ 0 þ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
xviii List of Figures

Fig. 5.20 Electric circuit of Example 5.6 for analytical solution

at t ! 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Fig. 5.21 Electric circuit of Example 5.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Fig. 5.22 Electric circuit of Example 5.7 for analytical solution
at t ¼ 0
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Fig. 5.23 Electric circuit of Example 5.7 for analytical solution
at t ¼ 0 þ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Fig. 5.24 Electric circuit of Example 5.7 for analytical solution
at t ! 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Fig. 5.25 Source conversion at electric circuit of Example 5.7
for analytical solution at t ! 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Fig. 5.26 Electric circuit of Example 5.7 for digital solution . . . . . . . . . . 241
Fig. 5.27 Transient current i2 ðtÞ digital solution for circuit
of Example 5.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Fig. 5.28 Zoom in transient current i2 ðtÞ digital solution for circuit
of Example 5.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Fig. 5.29 Transient current i1 ðtÞ digital solution for circuit
of Example 5.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Fig. 5.30 Electric circuit of Example 5.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Fig. 5.31 Electric circuit of Example 5.8 for analytical solution
at t ¼ 0 þ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Fig. 5.32 Electric circuit of Example 5.8 for digital solution . . . . . . . . . . 244
Fig. 5.33 Transient voltage and current digital solution for circuit
of Example 5.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Fig. 5.34 Electric circuit of Example 5.9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Fig. 5.35 Electric circuit of Example 5.9 for analytical solution
at t ¼ 0 þ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Fig. 5.36 Electric circuit of Example 5.9 for digital solution . . . . . . . . . . 247
Fig. 5.37 Transient voltage and current digital solution for circuit
of Example 5.9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Fig. 5.38 Electric circuit of Example 5.10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Fig. 5.39 Electric circuit of Example 5.10 for analytical solution
at t ¼ 0 þ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Fig. 5.40 Electric circuit of Example 5.11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Fig. 5.41 Electric circuit of Example 5.11 for analytical solution
at t ¼ 0 þ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Fig. 5.42 Electric circuit of Example 5.12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Fig. 5.43 Electric circuit of Example 5.12 for analytical solution
at t ¼ 0
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Fig. 5.44 Electric circuit of Example 5.12 for analytical solution
at t ¼ 0 þ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Fig. 5.45 Electric circuit of Example 5.13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Fig. 5.46 Electric circuit of Example 5.14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Fig. 5.47 Electric circuit of Example 5.15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
List of Figures xix

Fig. 5.48 Equivalent electric circuit of Example 5.15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

Fig. 5.49 Electric circuit of Example 5.16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Fig. 5.50 Equivalent electric circuit of Example 5.16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Fig. 5.51 Electric circuit of Example 5.17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Fig. 5.52 Electric circuit of Example 5.19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Fig. 5.53 Electric circuit of Example 5.19 for digital solution . . . . . . . . . 268
Fig. 5.54 Transient voltage and current digital solution for circuit
of Example 5.19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Fig. 5.55 Transient voltage and current digital solution for circuit
of Example 5.19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Fig. 5.56 Electric circuit of Example 5.21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Fig. 5.57 Electric circuit of Example 5.21 for analytical solution . . . . . . 271
Fig. 5.58 Electric circuit of Example 5.21 for digital solution . . . . . . . . . 272
Fig. 5.59 Transient voltage and current digital solution for circuit
of Example 5.21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Fig. 5.60 Transient voltage and current digital solution for circuit
of Example 5.21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Fig. 5.61 Numerical oscillation in the digital solution for circuit
of Example 5.21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Fig. 5.62 Zoom at numerical oscillation in the digital solution
for circuit of Example 5.21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
Fig. 5.63 Electric circuit of Example 5.22 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
Fig. 5.64 Electric circuit of Example 5.22 for analytical solution . . . . . . 275
Fig. 5.65 Equivalent electric circuit of Example 5.22 for analytical
solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Fig. 5.66 Electric circuit of Example 5.22 for digital solution . . . . . . . . . 276
Fig. 5.67 Transient voltage digital solution for circuit of
Example 5.22 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Fig. 5.68 Electric circuit of Example 5.23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Fig. 5.69 Electric circuit of Example 5.23 for digital solution . . . . . . . . . 278
Fig. 5.70 Transient current digital solution for circuit of
Example 5.23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Fig. 5.71 Zoom at transient current digital solution for circuit
of Example 5.23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Fig. 5.72 Transient voltage digital solution for circuit of
Example 5.23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Fig. 5.73 Electric circuit of Example 5.24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Fig. 5.74 Electric circuit of Example 5.24 for digital solution . . . . . . . . . 281
Fig. 5.75 Transient voltage and current digital solution for circuit
of Example 5.24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
Fig. 5.76 Electric circuit of Example 5.25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
Fig. 5.77 Electric circuit of Example 5.25 for analytical solution
at t ¼ 0
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
xx List of Figures

Fig. 5.78 Equivalent electric circuit of Example 5.25 for analytical

solution at t ¼ 0
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Fig. 5.79 Electric circuit of Example 5.25 for analytical solution
at t ¼ 0 þ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Fig. 5.80 Electric circuit of Example 5.25 for analytical solution . . . . . . 284
Fig. 5.81 Electric circuit of Example 5.26 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Fig. 5.82 Electric circuit of Example 5.26 for digital solution . . . . . . . . . 286
Fig. 5.83 Transient voltage and current digital solution for circuit
of Example 5.26 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Fig. 5.84 Transient current digital solution for circuit
of Example 5.26 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Fig. 5.85 Transient voltage digital solution for circuit
of Example 5.26 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Fig. 5.86 Transient voltage digital solution for circuit
of Example 5.26 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Fig. 5.87 Electric circuit of Example 5.27 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Fig. 5.88 Electric circuit of Example 5.27 for DC analytical solution
at t ¼ 0
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Fig. 5.89 Electric circuit of Example 5.27 for AC analytical solution
at t ¼ 0
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Fig. 5.90 Electric circuit of Example 5.28 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
Fig. 5.91 Electric circuit of Example 5.28 for analytical solution . . . . . . 291
Fig. 5.92 Electric circuit of Example 5.28 for digital solution . . . . . . . . . 292
Fig. 5.93 Transient voltage digital solution for circuit
of Example 5.28 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Fig. 5.94 Transient current digital solution for circuit
of Example 5.28 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Fig. 5.95 Electric circuit of Example 5.29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Fig. 5.96 Equivalent electric circuit of Example 5.29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
Fig. 5.97 Transient total current source digital solution for circuit
of Example 5.29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Fig. 5.98 Transient current digital solution for circuit
of Example 5.29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Fig. 5.99 Transient capacitor voltage digital solution for circuit
of Example 5.29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
Fig. 5.100 Transient capacitor current digital solution for circuit
of Example 5.29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
Fig. 5.101 Zoom at transient capacitor current digital solution
for circuit of Example 5.29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Fig. 5.102 Electric circuits of Example 5.30: a additive polarity;
b subtractive polarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
Fig. 5.103 Electric circuit of Example 5.31 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Fig. 5.104 Electric circuit of Example 5.31 for analytical solution . . . . . . 302
Fig. 5.105 Electric circuit of Example 5.32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
List of Figures xxi

Fig. 5.106 Electric circuit of Example 5.32 for analytical solution . . . . . . 303
Fig. 5.107 Electric circuit of Example 5.33 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
Fig. 5.108 Electric circuit of Example 5.34 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Fig. 5.109 Electric circuit of Example 5.35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
Fig. 5.110 Equivalent electric circuit of Example 5.35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
Fig. 5.111 Electric circuit of Example 5.35 for digital solution . . . . . . . . . 313
Fig. 5.112 Electric circuit of Example 5.35 for digital solution . . . . . . . . . 313
Fig. 5.113 Transient current i1 ðtÞ digital solution for circuit
of Example 5.35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
Fig. 5.114 Zoom at transient current i1 ðtÞ digital solution
for circuit of Example 5.35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
Fig. 5.115 Zoom at transient current i1 ðtÞ digital solution
for circuit of Example 5.35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Fig. 5.116 Transient current i2 ðtÞ digital solution for circuit
of Example 5.35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Fig. 5.117 Zoom at transient current i2 ðtÞ digital solution
for circuit of Example 5.35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Fig. 5.118 Transient current iL ðtÞ digital solution for circuit
of Example 5.35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Fig. 5.119 Zoom at transient current iL ðtÞ digital solution
for circuit of Example 5.35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Fig. 5.120 Transient current i1 ðtÞ digital solution for circuit
of Example 5.35 with damped numerical oscillations . . . . . . . . 318
Fig. 5.121 Zoom at transient current i1 ðtÞ digital solution for circuit
of Example 5.35 with damped numerical oscillations . . . . . . . . 318
Fig. 5.122 Transient current i2 ðtÞ digital solution for circuit
of Example 5.35 with damped numerical oscillations . . . . . . . . 319
Fig. 5.123 Zoom at transient current i2 ðtÞ digital solution for circuit
of Example 5.35 with damped numerical oscillations . . . . . . . . 319
Fig. 5.124 Electric circuit of Example 5.35 for digital solution . . . . . . . . . 320
Fig. 5.125 Transient digital voltage in the inductance of 60½mH . . . . . . . . 321
Fig. 5.126 Transient digital voltage in the inductance of 120½mH  . . . . . . . 321
Fig. 5.127 Transient digital voltage in the inductance of
40½mH  . . . . . . 322
Fig. 5.128 Zoom at transient digital voltage in the inductance
of 60½mH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Fig. 5.129 Zoom at transient digital voltage in the inductance
of 120½mH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Fig. 5.130 Zoom at transient digital voltage in the inductance
of
40½mH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
Fig. 5.131 Steady-state digital voltage in the inductance of 60½mH . . . . . 324
Fig. 5.132 Steady-state digital voltage in the inductance of 120½mH . . . . 325
Fig. 5.133 Steady-state digital voltage in the inductance
of
40½mH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
xxii List of Figures

Fig. 5.134 Transient voltage eL1 ðtÞ digital solution for circuit
of Example 5.35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
Fig. 5.135 Transient voltage eL2 ðtÞ digital solution for circuit
of Example 5.35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
Fig. 5.136 Zoom at transientvoltage eL1 ðtÞ digital solution for circuit
of Example 5.35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Fig. 5.137 Zoom at transientvoltage eL2 ðtÞ digital solution for circuit
of Example 5.35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Fig. 5.138 Linear and time-invariant (or fixed) circuit—CLI . . . . . . . . . . . 328
Fig. 5.139 a Invariance with time; b homogeneity property; c principle
of superposition; d DuHamel, Carson, Superposition Integral
or, simply, Convolution Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
Fig. 5.140 Electric circuit of Example 5.37 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
Fig. 5.141 Cascade or latter circuit of Example 5.38 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Fig. 5.142 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
Fig. 5.143 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
Fig. 5.144 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Fig. 5.145 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Fig. 5.146 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
Fig. 5.147 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
Fig. 5.148 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
Fig. 5.149 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
Fig. 5.150 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
Fig. 5.151 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
Fig. 5.152 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
Fig. 5.153 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
Fig. 5.154 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
Fig. 5.155 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
Fig. 5.156 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
Fig. 5.157 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Fig. 5.158 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Fig. 5.159 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Fig. 5.160 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
Fig. 5.161 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-22 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
Fig. 5.162 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
Fig. 5.163 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
Fig. 5.164 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Fig. 5.165 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-26 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Fig. 5.166 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-27 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
Fig. 5.167 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-28 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
Fig. 5.168 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
Fig. 5.169 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-30 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
Fig. 5.170 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
List of Figures xxiii

Fig. 5.171 Capacitor voltage eC ðtÞ and current iðtÞ of Problem

P.5-32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
Fig. 5.172 Source eðtÞ, resistor eR ðtÞ and capacitor eC ðtÞ voltages
of Problem P.5-32. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
Fig. 5.173 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-33 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
Fig. 5.174 Capacitor current iðtÞ of Problem P.5-33 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
Fig. 5.175 Source voltage eðtÞ and Voltage at resistor eR ðtÞof Problem
P.5-33 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
Fig. 5.176 Capacitor voltage eC ðtÞ of Problem P.5-33 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Fig. 5.177 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-34 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Fig. 5.178 Inductor current iðtÞ of Problem P.5-34 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
Fig. 5.179 Source, resistor, inductor voltages of Problem P.5-34 . . . . . . . . 354
Fig. 5.180 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Fig. 5.181 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-36 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Fig. 5.182 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-36 for digital solution . . . . . . . . 356
Fig. 5.183 Inductor voltage eL ðtÞ of Problem P.5-36 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
Fig. 5.184 Resistor voltage eR ðt) of Problem P.5-36 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
Fig. 5.185 Current iðtÞ of Problem P.5-36 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
Fig. 5.186 Current iT ðtÞ, which flows through the voltage eðtÞ source
of Problem P.5-36. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
Fig. 5.187 Current iC ðtÞ, which flows through the voltage source
of Problem P.5-36. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
Fig. 5.188 Power pL ðtÞ in the inductorof Problem P.5-36 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
Fig. 5.189 Energy W L ðtÞ in the inductorof Problem P.5-36 . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
Fig. 5.190 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-37 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
Fig. 5.191 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-37 for digital solution . . . . . . . . 360
Fig. 5.192 Voltage e1 ðtÞ and Voltage e2 ðtÞ of Problem P.5-37 . . . . . . . . . 361
Fig. 5.193 Zoom at current in switch 3 of Problem P.5-37 . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
Fig. 5.194 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-38 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
Fig. 5.195 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-39 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
Fig. 5.196 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-40 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
Fig. 5.197 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-41 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
Fig. 5.198 Electric circuit of Problem P.5-42 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
Fig. 6.1 Electric circuit of Example 6.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
Fig. 6.2 Electric circuit of Example 6.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
Fig. 6.3 Voltage e0 ðtÞ, voltage at left capacitance, source
voltage eðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
Fig. 6.4 Current at right capacitance, current at left capacitance . . . . . . 373
Fig. 6.5 Electric circuit of Example 6.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
Fig. 6.6 Electric circuit of Example 6.6 for the numerical solution
by the ATPDraw program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
Fig. 6.7 Voltage e0 ðtÞ, source voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
Fig. 6.8 Current i0 ðtÞ, Current i1 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
Fig. 6.9 Electric circuit of Example 6.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
xxiv List of Figures

Fig. 6.10 Electric circuit of Example 6.9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382

Fig. 6.11 Equivalent electric circuit of Example 6.9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
Fig. 6.12 Electric circuit of Example 6.10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
Fig. 6.13 Electric circuit of Example 6.11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
Fig. 6.14 Electric circuit of Example 6.11 for the numerical solution
by the ATPDraw program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
Fig. 6.15 Current iðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
Fig. 6.16 Voltage eL ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
Fig. 6.17 Voltage eC ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
Fig. 6.18 Electric circuit of Example 6.12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
Fig. 6.19 Electric circuit of Example 6.12 for the numerical solution
by the ATPDraw program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
Fig. 6.20 Current iðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
Fig. 6.21 Supply voltage, voltage eR ðtÞ, voltage eL ðtÞ, voltage eC ðtÞ . . . . 393
Fig. 6.22 Electric circuit of Example 6.13 for the numerical solution
by the ATPDraw program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
Fig. 6.23 Voltage in the elements, current in the resistance . . . . . . . . . . . 394
Fig. 6.24 Current at inductance, current at capacitance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
Fig. 6.25 Electric circuit of Example 6.14 for the numerical solution
by the ATPDraw program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
Fig. 6.26 Inductance power, capacitance power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
Fig. 6.27 Energy in inductance, energy in capacitance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
Fig. 6.28 Electric circuit of Example 6.15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
Fig. 6.29 Equivalent electric circuit of Example 6.15 for the numerical
solution by the ATPDraw program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
Fig. 6.30 Rectangular pulse of the voltage source eðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
Fig. 6.31 Zoom on the rectangular pulse of the voltage source eðtÞ . . . . . 400
Fig. 6.32 Response to the impulse “hðtÞ” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
Fig. 6.33 Electric circuit of Example 6.16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
Fig. 6.34 Equivalent electric circuit of Example 6.16 for the numerical
solution by the ATPDraw program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
Fig. 6.35 Current at inductance iðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
Fig. 6.36 Current injected by sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
Fig. 6.37 Voltage e1 ðtÞ in R, L and C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
Fig. 6.38 Electric circuit of Example 6.17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
Fig. 6.39 Electric circuit of Example 6.17 for the numerical solution
by the ATPDraw program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
Fig. 6.40 Voltage at capacitance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
Fig. 6.41 Zoom at the capacitance voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
Fig. 6.42 A closer zoom at the capacitance voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
Fig. 6.43 Current at capacitance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Fig. 6.44 Voltage and current at the 400 ½mH inductance . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Fig. 6.45 Current in the resistors of 20 [X] and 10 [X] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
Fig. 6.46 Source voltage e1 ðtÞ and e2 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
List of Figures xxv

Fig. 6.47 Electric circuit with a a capacitance C with an initial voltage

eð0
Þ; b Thévenin equivalent with capacitance C, now
initially de-energized; c Norton equivalent with capacitance
C, now initially de-energized . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
Fig. 6.48 Electric circuit with a an inductance L with an initial current
ið0
Þ; b Norton equivalent with inductance L, now initially
de-energized; c Thévenin equivalent with inductance L, now
initially de-energized . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
Fig. 6.49 Electric circuit of Example 6.18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
Fig. 6.50 Equivalent electric circuit of Example 6.18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
Fig. 6.51 Electric circuit of Example 6.19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
Fig. 6.52 Equivalent electric circuit of Example 6.19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
Fig. 6.53 Electric circuit of Example 6.20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
Fig. 6.54 Equivalent electric circuit of Example 6.20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
Fig. 6.55 Electric circuit of Example 6.20 for the numerical solution
by the ATPDraw program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
Fig. 6.56 Voltage e1 ðtÞ, Voltage e2 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
Fig. 6.57 Electric circuit of Example 6.21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
Fig. 6.58 Equivalent electric circuit of Example 6.21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
Fig. 6.59 Electric circuit of Example 6.21 for the numerical solution
by the ATPDraw program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
Fig. 6.60 Voltage eðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
Fig. 6.61 Current iðtÞ ffi i2 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
Fig. 6.62 Currents i1 ðtÞ and i2 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
Fig. 6.63 Current zooms i1 ðtÞ. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
Fig. 6.64 Voltage eðtÞ and current iðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
Fig. 6.65 Current iðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
Fig. 6.66 Zoom in current iðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
Fig. 6.67 Current i2 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
Fig. 6.68 Current i1 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
Fig. 6.69 Zoom in current i1 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
Fig. 6.70 Voltage eðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
Fig. 6.71 Current iðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
Fig. 6.72 Zoom at current iðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
Fig. 6.73 Current iðtÞ with manually altered scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
Fig. 6.74 Current i1 ðtÞ with manually altered scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
Fig. 6.75 Zoom at current i1 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
Fig. 6.76 Current i2 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
Fig. 6.77 Electric circuit of Example 6.23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
Fig. 6.78 Electric circuit of Example 6.23 for the numerical solution
by the ATPDraw program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
Fig. 6.79 Voltage e1 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
Fig. 6.80 Zoom in voltage e1 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
Fig. 6.81 Voltage e4 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
xxvi List of Figures

Fig. 6.82 Zoom in voltage e4 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437

Fig. 6.83 Current i2 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
Fig. 6.84 Zoom in current i2 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
Fig. 6.85 Current i3 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
Fig. 6.86 Zoom in current i3 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
Fig. 6.87 Electric circuit of Example 6.24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
Fig. 6.88 Equivalent electric circuit of Example 6.24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
Fig. 6.89 Electric circuit of Example 6.24 for the numerical solution
by the ATPDraw program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
Fig. 6.90 Current iðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
Fig. 6.91 Zoom at current iðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
Fig. 6.92 Current iðtÞ in the range 50 ½ms  t  60 ½ms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
Fig. 6.93 Voltage eR ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
Fig. 6.94 Zoom in voltage eR ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
Fig. 6.95 Voltage eC ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
Fig. 6.96 Zoom in voltage eC ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
Fig. 6.97 Voltage eC ðtÞ in the range 90 ½ms  t  100 ½ms . . . . . . . . . . . 446
Fig. 6.98 Electric circuit of Example 6.25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
Fig. 6.99 Equivalent electric circuit of Example 6.25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
Fig. 6.100 Electric circuit of Example 6.25 for the numerical solution
by the ATPDraw program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
Fig. 6.101 Voltages e1 ðtÞ ¼ e2 ðtÞ, eR ðtÞ and the source E . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
Fig. 6.102 Current iR ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
Fig. 6.103 Current i1 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
Fig. 6.104 Current ik ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
Fig. 6.105 Zoom in current i1 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
Fig. 6.106 Zoom in current ik ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
Fig. 6.107 Electric circuit of Example 6.26 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
Fig. 6.108 Equivalent electric circuit of Example 6.26 for the numerical
solution by ATPDraw program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
Fig. 6.109 Electric circuit of Example 6.27 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
Fig. 6.110 Equivalent electric circuit of Example 6.27 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
Fig. 6.111 Electric circuit of Example 6.27 for the numerical solution
by the ATPDraw program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
Fig. 6.112 Source voltage, voltage e1 ðtÞ voltage eL ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
Fig. 6.113 Voltage ek ðtÞ and voltage eLD ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
Fig. 6.114 Zoom in voltage ek ðtÞ and voltage eLD ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
Fig. 6.115 Current iL ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
Fig. 6.116 Electric circuit of Example 6.28 for the numerical solution
by the ATPDraw program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
Fig. 6.117 Voltage in R1 ; voltage in C; voltage in C=2, source
voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
Fig. 6.118 Voltage in R2 , voltage in C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
Fig. 6.119 Current in R1 -C Current in C2 Current in R2 -C . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
List of Figures xxvii

Fig. 6.120 Electric circuit of Example 6.29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465

Fig. 6.121 Equivalent electric circuit of Example 6.29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
Fig. 6.122 Electric circuit of Example 6.29 for the numerical solution
by the ATPDraw program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
Fig. 6.123 Current i1 ðtÞ, Current i2 ðtÞ; Current iC ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
Fig. 6.124 Source voltage voltage eR ðtÞ Voltage eL ðtÞ Volltage eC ðtÞ . . . . 473
Fig. 6.125 Voltage eR1 ðtÞ Voltage ek ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
Fig. 6.126 Electric circuit of Example 6.30 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
Fig. 6.127 Electric circuit of Example 6.30 for DC steady-state
solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
Fig. 6.128 Equivalent electric circuit of Example 6.30 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
Fig. 6.129 Electric circuit of Example 6.30 for the numerical solution
by the ATPDraw program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
Fig. 6.130 Source voltage, Voltage eC ðtÞ, Voltage ek ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
Fig. 6.131 Current i2 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
Fig. 6.132 Voltage in the open switch eCh ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
Fig. 6.133 Zoom at voltage in the open switch eCh ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
Fig. 6.134 Electric circuit of Example 6.31 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
Fig. 6.135 Electric circuit of Example 6.31 for the numerical solution
by the ATPDraw program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
Fig. 6.136 Voltage E, Voltage eC ðtÞ, Voltage ek ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
Fig. 6.137 Voltage eCh ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
Fig. 6.138 Zoom in voltage eCh ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
Fig. 6.139 Current i1 ðtÞ, Current i2 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
Fig. 6.140 Electric circuit of Example 6.32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
Fig. 6.141 Equivalent electric circuit of Example 6.32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
Fig. 6.142 Electric circuit of Example 6.32 for the numerical solution
by the ATPDraw program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
Fig. 6.143 Voltage eR ðtÞ, Voltage eL ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
Fig. 6.144 Voltage eC ðtÞ, Voltage iC ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
Fig. 6.145 Current iðtÞ, Current i2 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
Fig. 6.146 Electric circuit of Example 6.33 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
Fig. 6.147 Electric circuit of Example 6.33 for the numerical solution
by the ATPDraw program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
Fig. 6.148 Current iðtÞ, Source Voltage eðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
Fig. 6.149 Electric circuit of Example 6.33 for the numerical solution
by the ATPDraw program, when switch k is closed
at t ¼ 0, in the worst condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
Fig. 6.150 Current iðtÞ, with the most intense transient phenomenon . . . . . 494
Fig. 6.151 Zoom at current iðtÞ, with the most intense transient
phenomenon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
Fig. 6.152 Zoom at current iðtÞ, with the most intense transient
phenomenon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
xxviii List of Figures

Fig. 6.153 Current iðtÞ for switch k closing at t ¼ 3:979 ms; current iðtÞ
for switch k closing at t ¼ 8:146 ms; voltage eðtÞ
of the inusoidal source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
Fig. 6.154 Zoom in Fig. 6.153 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
Fig. 6.155 Electric circuit of Example 6.34 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
Fig. 6.156 Electric circuit of Example 6.35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
Fig. 6.157 Electric circuit of Example 6.35 for AC steady-state
solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
Fig. 6.158 Equivalent electric circuit of Example 6.35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
Fig. 6.159 Electric circuit of Example 6.36 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
Fig. 6.160 Equivalent electric circuit of Example 6.36 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
Fig. 6.161 Electric circuit of Example 6.36 for the numerical solution
by the ATPDraw program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
Fig. 6.162 Source voltage eðtÞ and Voltage in switch ek ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
Fig. 6.163 Current in the left loop iðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
Fig. 6.164 Voltage eðtÞ, Voltage ek ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
Fig. 6.165 Current in the left loop iðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
Fig. 6.166 Electric circuit of Example 6.37 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
Fig. 6.167 Electric circuit of Example 6.37 for t [ 0 solution . . . . . . . . . . 509
Fig. 6.168 Electric circuit of Example 6.37 for the numerical solution
by the ATPDraw program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
Fig. 6.169 e1 ðtÞ, e2 ðtÞ, eðtÞ; ik ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
Fig. 6.170 Electric circuit of Example 6.38 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
Fig. 6.171 Electric circuit of Example 6.38 for t [ 0 solution . . . . . . . . . . 512
Fig. 6.172 Electric circuit of Example 6.38 for the numerical solution
by the ATPDraw program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
Fig. 6.173 eðtÞ, ek ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
Fig. 6.174 ik ðtÞ, iL ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
Fig. 6.175 Electric circuit of Example 6.39 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
Fig. 6.176 Electric circuit of Example 6.39 for the numerical solution
by the ATPDraw program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
Fig. 6.177 Load energizing current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
Fig. 6.178 Zoom at the start of the load energizing current . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
Fig. 6.179 Load energizing current, but now for tmax ¼ 250 ms ¼
0:25 ½s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
Fig. 6.180 Zoom at the end of Fig. 6.179 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
Fig. 6.181 Voltages eR ðtÞ and eL ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
Fig. 6.182 Zoom at the beginning of Fig. 6.181 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
Fig. 6.183 Result of new zooms in Fig. 6.181 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
Fig. 6.184 Voltages eR ðtÞ e eL ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
Fig. 6.185 Zoom at the end of Fig. 6.184 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
Fig. 6.186 Industrial load voltage eA ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524
Fig. 6.187 Zoom at the beginning of Voltage eA ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524
List of Figures xxix

Fig. 6.188 Result of new zooms in Fig. 6.187 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525

Fig. 6.189 Zoom at the end of Fig. 6.186 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
Fig. 6.190 Voltage and current in industrial load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526
Fig. 6.191 Zoom at the Fig. 6.190 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
Fig. 6.192 Instantaneous power, pR ðtÞ, in the load resistance . . . . . . . . . . . 528
Fig. 6.193 Zoom in the transient phase of the instantaneous
power pR ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528
Fig. 6.194 Zoom in the steady-state phase of the instantaneous
power pR ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
Fig. 6.195 Instantaneous power, pL ðtÞ, at load inductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
Fig. 6.196 Zoom in the transient phase of the instantaneous
power pL ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530
Fig. 6.197 Zoom in the steady-state phase of the instantaneous
power pL ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530
Fig. 6.198 System supply current iðtÞ with switches k1 and k2 closed . . . . 532
Fig. 6.199 Zoom in the supply current iðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
Fig. 6.200 New zoom in the supply current iðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
Fig. 6.201 Steady-state supply current iðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
Fig. 6.202 Voltage eC ðtÞ and current iC ðtÞ of energization
of the capacitor bank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534
Fig. 6.203 Zoom at Fig. 6.203 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534
Fig. 6.204 Current iF ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
Fig. 6.205 Zoom at current iF ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
Fig. 6.206 Load voltage eA ðtÞ and supply current iðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
Fig. 6.207 Zoom in the steady-state regime of the curves
of Fig. 6.206 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
Fig. 6.208 Instantaneous power pR ðtÞ in the load resistor . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
Fig. 6.209 Zoom on the load resistance power curve, pR ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
Fig. 6.210 Energy WL ðtÞ and WC ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540
Fig. 6.211 Zoom applied at the end of Fig. 6.210 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540
Fig. 6.212 Power triangles pre and post power factor correction . . . . . . . . 542
Fig. 6.213 Electric circuit of Example 6.40 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
Fig. 6.214 Electric circuit of Example 6.40, when the two switches
are closed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
Fig. 6.215 Electric circuit of Problem P.6-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560
Fig. 6.216 Electric circuit of Problem P.6-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
Fig. 6.217 Electric circuit of Problem P.6-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
Fig. 6.218 Electric circuit of Problem P.6-5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
Fig. 6.219 Electric circuit of Problem P.6-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
Fig. 6.220 Electric circuit of Problem P.6-7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
Fig. 6.221 Electric circuit of Problem P.6-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
Fig. 6.222 Electric circuit of Problem P.6-9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
Fig. 6.223 Electric circuit of Problem P.6-10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
Fig. 6.224 Electric circuit of Problem P.6-11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
xxx List of Figures

Fig. 6.225 Electric circuit of Problem P.6-12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563

Fig. 6.226 Electric circuit of Problem P.6-12 for the numerical
solution by the ATPDraw program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
Fig. 6.227 Voltage in the left capacitor and current across the switch
of Fig. 6.226 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
Fig. 6.228 Voltage and current in the left inductor of Fig. 6.226 . . . . . . . . 565
Fig. 6.229 Voltage and current in the right inductor of Fig. 6.226. . . . . . . 565
Fig. 6.230 Voltage at the right capacitor of Fig. 6.226 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566
Fig. 6.231 Electric circuit of Problem 6-13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566
Fig. 6.232 Electric circuit of Problem 6-14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
Fig. 6.233 Electric circuit of Problem 6-15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
Fig. 6.234 Electric circuit of Problem 6-16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
Fig. 6.235 Electric circuit of Problem 6-17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568
Fig. 6.236 Electric circuit of Problem 6-18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568
Fig. 6.237 Electric circuit of Problem 6-19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568
Fig. 6.238 Electric circuit of Problem 6-20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
Fig. 6.239 Electric circuit of Problem 6-21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
Fig. 6.240 Electric circuit of Problem 6-22 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570
Fig. 6.241 Voltages at capacitances and resistance of Fig. 6.240 . . . . . . . . 570
Fig. 6.242 Power at capacitances and resistance of Fig. 6.240 . . . . . . . . . . 571
Fig. 6.243 Electric circuit of Problem 6-23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
Fig. 6.244 Electric circuit of Problem 6-24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
Fig. 6.245 Voltages at inductance for C ¼ 10½lF of Fig. 6.244 . . . . . . . . 572
Fig. 6.246 Voltages at inductance for C ¼ 40½lF of Fig. 6.244 . . . . . . . . 572
Fig. 6.247 Voltages at inductance for C ¼ 100½lF of Fig. 6.244 . . . . . . . 573
Fig. 6.248 Electric circuit of Problem 6-25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574
Fig. 6.249 Electric circuit of Problem 6-26 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574
Fig. 6.250 Electric circuit of Problem 6-27 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574
Fig. 6.251 Electric circuit of Problem 6-28 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
Fig. 6.252 Electric circuit of Problem 6-29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
Fig. 6.253 Electric circuit of Problem 6-30 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
Fig. 7.1 Circuit with switch k open . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578
Fig. 7.2 Circuit in Fig. 7.1 with switch k open, replaced
by the ideal voltage source F 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
Fig. 7.3 Circuit after the closing of switch k, simulated
with the injection of the voltage source F 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
Fig. 7.4 Circuit reduced to passive for the calculation of voltages and
currents produced exclusively by the source
F 2 , for t [ t0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580
Fig. 7.5 Electric circuit for Example 7.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581
Fig. 7.6 Electric circuit of Example 7.1 with the exclusive
performance of the F2 source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582
Fig. 7.7 Electric circuit for Example 7.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582
List of Figures xxxi

Fig. 7.8 Electric circuit of Example 7.2 with the steady-state

solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
Fig. 7.9 Electric circuit of Example 7.2 for calculating the exclusive
effects of the (injected) source F 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
Fig. 7.10 Transformed circuit of from that of Fig. 7.9, in the domain
of the complex frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
Fig. 7.11 Electric circuit for Example 7.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584
Fig. 7.12 Electric circuit of Example 7.3 for steady-state solution . . . . . . 585
Fig. 7.13 Electric circuit of Example 7.3 with the injection
of the source F 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
Fig. 7.14 Electric circuit for Example 7.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
Fig. 7.15 Electric circuit of Example 7.4 with the injection
of the source F 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588
Fig. 7.16 Electric circuit for Example 7.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588
Fig. 7.17 Transformed circuit of Example 7.5, after the insertion
of the F 2 source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589
Fig. 7.18 Transformed circuit of Example 7.5, combining the
operational impedances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589
Fig. 7.19 Electric circuit for Example 7.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590
Fig. 7.20 Transformed circuit of Example 7.6, in the domain of the
complex frequency with the injected voltage source F 2 . . . . . . 591
Fig. 7.21 Electric circuit for Example 7.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593
Fig. 7.22 Electric circuit of Example 7.7 for AC steady-state
solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593
Fig. 7.23 Circuit of Example 7.7, after the insertion of the F 2
source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595
Fig. 7.24 Transformed circuit of Example 7.7, after the insertion
of the F 2 source, to the domain of the complex frequency . . . . 596
Fig. 7.25 Electric circuit of Example 7.7 for the numerical solution
by the ATPDraw program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598
Fig. 7.26 Voltage eðtÞ voltage ek ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598
Fig. 7.27 Current iðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599
Fig. 7.28 Current ik ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599
Fig. 7.29 Electric circuit for Example 7.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600
Fig. 7.30 Electric circuit for Example 7.8, for steady-state solution . . . . . 600
Fig. 7.31 Electric circuit of Example 7.8 for calculating the exclusive
effects of the (injected) source F 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601
Fig. 7.32 Transformed circuit of Example 7.8, in the domain of the
complex frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 602
Fig. 7.33 Electric circuit of Example 7.8 for the numerical solution
by the ATPDraw program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604
Fig. 7.34 Source voltage F 2 and current ik ðtÞ in the switch . . . . . . . . . . . 605
Fig. 7.35 Electric circuit for the calculation of steady-state digital
solution from Example 7.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605
xxxii List of Figures

Fig. 7.36 Steady-state digital solution for switch voltage ek ðtÞ

and inductor current iðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606
Fig. 7.37 Circuit before opening the switch at time t ¼ t0 . . . . . . . . . . . . 606
Fig. 7.38 Circuit in Fig. 7.37 with switch k closed, replaced
by the current source F 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607
Fig. 7.39 Circuit after opening the switch k, simulated by injecting
the current source F 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 608
Fig. 7.40 Circuit reduced to passive for the calculation of voltages
and currents produced exclusively by the current
source F2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 608
Fig. 7.41 Electric circuit for Example 7.9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609
Fig. 7.42 Adapted electric circuit for Example 7.9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610
Fig. 7.43 Electric circuit of Example 7.9 with switch k, closed, replaced
by an ideal current source F 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610
Fig. 7.44 Electric circuit of Example 7.9 with an ideal current source
F 2 injected in parallel with F 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611
Fig. 7.45 Electric circuit of Example 7.9 for calculating the exclusive
effects of the (injected) source F 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611
Fig. 7.46 Electric circuit for Example 7.10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612
Fig. 7.47 Electric circuit of Example 7.10 for steady-state solution . . . . . 613
Fig. 7.48 Electric circuit of Example 7.10 for calculating the exclusive
effects of the (injected) source F 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613
Fig. 7.49 Electric circuit for Example 7.11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614
Fig. 7.50 Electric circuit of Example 7.11 for calculating the exclusive
effects of the (injected) source F 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614
Fig. 7.51 Transformed circuit of Example 7.11, in the domain
of the complex frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615
Fig. 7.52 Electric circuit for Example 7.12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616
Fig. 7.53 Electric circuit of Example 7.12 for AC steady-state
solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616
Fig. 7.54 Electric circuit of Example 7.12 with the injection
of the source F 2 , for t [ 0 (new origin) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618
Fig. 7.55 Electric circuit of Example 7.12 for the numerical
solution by the ATPDraw program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620
Fig. 7.56 Source voltage eðtÞ, current in switch ik ðtÞ, and voltage
in switch ek ðtÞ. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 621
Fig. 7.57 Alternative circuit for the numerical solution with injection
of the current source F 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622
Fig. 7.58 Voltage ek ðtÞ, injected current i2 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622
Fig. 7.59 Electric circuit for Example 7.13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622
Fig. 7.60 Electric circuit of Example 7.13 for calculating the exclusive
effects of the (injected) source F 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624
Fig. 7.61 Electric circuit of Example 7.13 for the numerical solution by
the ATPDraw program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 626
List of Figures xxxiii

Fig. 7.62 Voltage ek ðtÞ, switch current ik ðtÞ, source voltage eðtÞ . . . . . . . 627
Fig. 7.63 Alternative circuit for the numerical solution with injection
of the current source F 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628
Fig. 7.64 Voltage ek ðtÞ, injected current i2 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628
Fig. 7.65 Illustration of the displacement of current source
method—original electric circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629
Fig. 7.66 Illustration of the displacement of current source
method—equivalent electric circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629
Fig. 7.67 Electric circuit of Example 7.14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630
Fig. 7.68 Electric circuit of Example 7.14 for AC steady-state
solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631
Fig. 7.69 Electric circuit of Example 7.14 for calculating the exclusive
effects of the (injected) source F 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 632
Fig. 7.70 Equivalent electric circuit of Example 7.14 with displacement
of the (injected) current source F 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 632
Fig. 7.71 Electric circuit of Example 7.14 for the numerical solution
by the ATPDraw program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636
Fig. 7.72 Voltages eðtÞ, ek ðtÞ and current ik ðtÞ accross the switch
for this case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636
Fig. 7.73 Voltages eðtÞ, ek ðtÞ and current ik ðtÞ accross the switch
for this case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637
Fig. 7.74 Voltages eðtÞ, ek ðtÞ and current ik ðtÞ accross the switch
for this case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 638
Fig. 7.75 Electric circuit for Problem P.7-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639
Fig. 7.76 Electric circuit for Problem P.7-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639
Fig. 7.77 Electric circuit for Problem P.7-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639
Fig. 7.78 Electric circuit for Problem P.7-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 640
Fig. 7.79 Electric circuit for Problem P.7-5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 640
Fig. 7.80 Electric circuit for Problem P.7-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 640
Fig. 7.81 Electric circuit for Problem P.7-7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 641
Fig. 7.82 Electric circuit for Problem P.7-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 641
Fig. 7.83 Electric circuit for Problem P.7-9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 641
Fig. 7.84 Electric circuit for Problem P.7-10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 642
Fig. 7.85 Electric circuit for Problem P.7-11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 642
Fig. 7.86 Electric circuit for Problem P.7-12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643
Fig. 7.87 Electric circuit for Problem P.7-13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643
Fig. 7.88 Electric circuit for Problem P.7-14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643
Fig. 7.89 Electric circuit for Problem P.7-15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644
Fig. 7.90 Electric circuit for Problem P.7-16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644
Fig. 7.91 Electric circuit for Problem P.7-17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644
Fig. 7.92 Electric circuit for Problem P.7-18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645
Fig. 7.93 ik ðtÞ; iL1 ðtÞ; iC1 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 646
Fig. 7.94 eL1 ðtÞ; eC1 ðtÞ ¼ eL2 ðtÞ; ek ðtÞ; eðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647
Fig. 7.95 eL2 ðtÞ; ek ðtÞ; eC1 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647
xxxiv List of Figures

Fig. 7.96 Zoom in iL2 ðtÞ and eL2 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648

Fig. 7.97 eL2 ðtÞ; ek ðtÞ ¼ eC1 ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648
Fig. 7.98 eL2 ðtÞ; ek ðtÞ; eC1 ðtÞ, for k p ¼ 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649
Fig. 7.99 eL2 ðtÞ; ek ðtÞ; eC1 ðtÞ, for k p ¼ 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649
Fig. 7.100 Electric circuit for Problem P.7-19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 650
Fig. 7.101 ek ðtÞ, for k p ¼ 0 in L2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 650
Fig. 7.102 ek ðtÞ, for k p ¼ 10 in L2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651
Fig. 7.103 ek ðtÞ, for k p ¼ 10 in L2 , after changing the scale . . . . . . . . . . . 651
Fig. A.1 ATPDraw workspace window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654
Fig. A.2 ATPDraw menu window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654
Fig. A.3 Placing circuit components in ATPDraw window . . . . . . . . . . 655
Fig. A.4 Moving circuit components in ATPDraw window . . . . . . . . . . 656
Fig. A.5 Connecting circuit elements in ATPDraw window . . . . . . . . . 656
Fig. A.6 Circuit components and node name identification in
ATPDraw window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657
Fig. A.7 Label identification in ATPDraw window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 658
Fig. A.8 Picture resulting from the operation Run Plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659
Fig. A.9 Selecting the variables for plotting and running the Plot
program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660
Fig. A.10 Plotting results from the transient simulation
with ATPDraw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660
Fig. A.11 Detailed results from the transient simulation
with ATPDraw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 661
Fig. A.12 Plotted curves from the transient simulation
with ATPDraw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 662
Fig. A.13 Zoom on plotted curves from the transient simulation
with ATPDraw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 662
Fig. B.1 Ilustrative representation of singular functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663
List of Tables

Table 1.1 Resistivity of some materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 30

Table 1.2 Inferred absolute temperature for zero resistance for some
common conductive materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 31
Table 1.3 Approximate dielectric constants of some materials . . . . . . . . .. 36
Table 1.4 Duality of electrical elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 64
Table 3.1 Number of positive, negative real roots and complex
conjugated roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Table 3.2 Number of positive real roots and complex
conjugated roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Table 3.3 Number of positive, negative or complex conjugated roots . . . . 166
Table 3.4 Location of the range containing at least one real root . . . . . . . . 167
Table 4.1 Comparative synthesis of precision and stability of integration
methods for discretizing integral-differential equations [5] . . . . . 222
Table 4.2 Digital solutions at each discrete time point for voltage
and current through the discretized inductor using the
trapezoidal integration method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Table 4.3 Digital solutions at each discrete time point for voltage
and current through the discretized inductor using
the Backward Euler integration method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Table 4.4 Digital solutions at each discrete time point for voltage
and current through the discretized inductor using
the CDA—Critical Damping Adjustment technique . . . . . . . . . . 224
Table 6.1 Values for D and F ðDÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467

xxxv
Chapter 1
Introduction to Fundamental Concepts
in Electric Circuit Analysis

1.1 Introduction

This opening chapter has two main objectives. The first of them, which has a
strictly revisionary character, is to approach fundamental concepts of physics, as
well as laws, equations and formulas of electricity and electromagnetism. The
second is to anticipate, through an example, the real raison d'être of this book,
which is the solution, both analytical and digital, of transient phenomena in linear,
invariant and concentrated circuits. This chapter presents then the main elements of
an electrical circuit with concentrated parameters that do not vary with the fre-
quency, as well as the dynamic response of basic circuits when disturbances occur,
such as energizing or de-energizing switches, enabling a physical understanding of
the phenomena and the need for mathematical modelling and computer simulations.
However, it is assumed that the reader already has fundamental knowledge of
analysis of electrical circuits, laws, theorems and methods of solution, as well as of
solving ordinary differential equations. Thus, this chapter aims to create the moti-
vations for the study of mathematical and computational techniques and solutions
presented in the following chapters.
The challenges associated with overvoltages and overcurrents caused by external
and internal disturbances to the electrical networks require an understanding of the
phenomena, their adequate modelling, simulation and interpretation of the results in
the search for solutions that minimize the damage to equipment and that in certain
more critical cases, are causing major interruptions (blackouts), with catastrophic
social and economic impacts. Fundamental knowledge on circuit analysis [1–9] is
essential for a better understanding of the growing complexity of modern power
systems.
In the emerging scenario of greater penetration of renewable and distributed
energy sources (DER—Distributed Energy Resources) in current electrical systems,
which tend to become more intelligent electrical networks (Smart Grids), the
challenges are even greater and more complex, as they also require considering the

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 1

J. C. Goulart de Siqueira and B. D. Bonatto, Introduction to Transients
in Electrical Circuits, Power Systems, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68249-1_1
2 1 Introduction to Fundamental Concepts in Electric Circuit Analysis

phenomena and effects of integrated power electronics, telecommunications and

control systems on the performance of the interconnected power grid. The complete
understanding of the modelling and simulation of transients in basic electrical
circuits is fundamental to the approach aiming at understanding phenomena in more
complex circuits, such as, for example, power electronics converter circuits (DC/
DC, DC/AC, AC/AC) used at the interfaces between renewable sources and elec-
trical systems, or transient in HVDC or AC transmission lines in high or extra-high
voltage, or transients in electrical machines (transformers, generators and motors)
including effects of couplings as well as effects of non-linearity (due to lightning
arresters, surge arresters, saturation in transformers, etc.), and also the consideration
of the variation of parameters (resistance, inductance) with frequency. For these and
several complex studies, there are very advanced technical-scientific books and
articles available in the world literature.
There are indeed classical books and new ones covering more detailed and
extensive subjects about electromagnetic transients in electric power systems. This
book fills a gap between classic works in the field of electrical circuits and more
advanced works in the field of transients in electrical power systems, facilitating a
full understanding of digital and analytical modelling and solution of transients in
basic circuits. Therefore, it fulfils its role as an introductory book, but complete in
its learning proposal in undergraduate and graduate courses.
In Sect. 1.2, the concepts of linear, analogous, dual, time-invariant and concen-
trated systems are reviewed. In Sect. 1.3, under the generic title of electrical quantities,
fundamental ideas associated with the electric charge are reviewed—Coulomb’s law
and the concept of electrostatic field are discussed. The important concepts of work
and electrostatic potential are remembered, defining, next, a difference in potential or
voltage. Then, this section ends dealing with the electric current in all its aspects. In
Sect. 1.4, the important concepts of power and energy are reviewed, emphasizing the
conventions used to distinguish the supply and absorption of power and energy.
In Sect. 1.5, under the title of circuit elements, the electrical resistance is initially
addressed—in addition to Ohm’s law, the issue of increasing resistance with
increasing temperature in conductive materials is addressed, as well as decreasing it
in semiconductor materials. Then a detailed survey is made on capacitors and
capacitance, including by discussing, throughout an example, the issue of the
between voltage and current for sinusoidal signals, in addition to the issue of
polarization of the capacitor dielectric. Before focusing on inductance, a wide
approach is made to permanent magnets, taking advantage of the opportunity to
introduce the concept of magnetic field and define the magnetic induction vector B
and the magnetic flux U. Then, Oersted’s experience and Faraday’s law of
induction are discussed, as well as Lenz’s law, used to determine the polarity of the
induced electromotive force. Only then is the inductance defined, initially on a coil
and then generalizing. Closing the section, comments are made on the voltage and
current sources, both independent, controlled or linked.
Section 1.6 is dedicated to Kirchhoff’s laws, currents and voltages, discussing
their limitations on the applicability to concentrated for elements, as well as on the
issue of obtaining linearly independent equations, taking advantage of the definition
of branch, node, loop and mesh. In Sect. 1.7, a complete example of energizing a
1.1 Introduction 3

capacitance, linear and invariant over time, it is presented by a constant voltage

source, that is, by a battery. The analytical solution is initially presented in great
detail using the nodal method to obtain voltage, current, power and energy in all
elements of the circuit. Then, the corresponding digital solution of the same circuit
is made using the software ATPDraw, for the given numerical values. Finally,
Sect. 1.8 presents the conclusions with the main motivations for electromagnetic
transients’ studies in modern power systems analysis.

1.2 Preliminary Concepts

System
A system is a collection of different interconnected components subject to one or
more inputs, also called stimuli or excitations, and which produce one or more
outputs, also called responses. In Fig. 1.1a is represented, symbolically, a system
subject to an input x(t) and that produces an output y(t). In Fig. 1.1b, as an example,
a mechanical system composed of mass, spring and friction is shown, in which the
only input is the applied force, and whose output may be the speed resulting from
the mass or the potential energy stored in the spring. Note, therefore, that the term
output refers to the magnitude to be observed in the dynamics of the system.
Model
In the development of mathematical methods of analysis of physical systems two
steps are fundamental. The first is the mathematical description of the individual
components or elements of the system. The second is the establishment of a
mathematical description of the effect of the interconnection of the different com-
ponents, formulating the so-called interconnection laws—in the case of electrical
circuits, these are Kirchhoff’s laws. Thus, a given physical system can then be
described, approximately, by an idealized model or system. After that, the input–
output relationships can then be established, using known mathematical methods.
Linear System
Systems can be classified by placing restrictions on the input–output
relationship. A system is called linear when it satisfies two principles. The first is

Spring
Mass Force

x(t) System y(t) xxxxxxxxxxxx friction

(a)
(b)

Fig. 1.1 a System input and output; b Mechanical system composed of mass, spring and friction
4 1 Introduction to Fundamental Concepts in Electric Circuit Analysis

that of homogeneity, and the second is that of superposition. The homogeneity

principle states that:
When the input x(t) of a system is multiplied by a factor k, then the output y(t) is multiplied
by the same factor k.

And the principle of superposition establishes the following:

If two entries are applied, simultaneously or not, to the same system, then the total response
will be the sum of the individual responses to each of the entries.

If y1 ðtÞ and y2 ðtÞ denote the responses corresponding to the independent entries
x1 ðtÞ and x2 ðtÞ, then a system will be linear if, and only if, the response to

xðtÞ ¼ k1 x1 ðtÞ þ k2 x2 ðtÞ ð1:1Þ

is
yðtÞ ¼ k1 y1 ðtÞ þ k2 y2 ðtÞ; ð1:2Þ

for all entries and for all values of the constants k1 and k2 .
Note, for example, that for k2 ¼ 0 Eqs. 1.1 and 1.2 speak of homogeneity. And
that when k1 ¼ k2 ¼ 1 they speak of superposition. Note, too, that linearity does not
necessarily imply that the output time function must have the same waveform as the
input. In another way, it can be said that a linear system is one whose behavior is
described by linear equations, whether algebraic equations, or differential equations.
Therefore, a non-linear system will always be described by non-linear equa-
tions, which are much more difficult to solve. The system described by
yðtÞ ¼ xðtÞ:½dxðtÞ=dt, for example, is non-linear, because when doubling the input
xðtÞ the output yðtÞ is quadrupled, contrary to the property of homogeneity.
Analog and Dual Systems
Sometimes the same equation describes a number of different physical situations. In
such cases, the different physical systems are called analogues. Therefore, two or more
systems are analogous when they are described by the same equation. When, however,
the analogy occurs between physical systems of the same nature, such as two electrical
circuits for example, although they have different physical functioning, they are called
dual. Therefore, duality means analogy between two physical systems of the same
nature. The systems described by Eqs. 1.3 and 1.4 are analogous, because although
the letters are different, mathematically they are saying the same thing, namely: that
one quantity is proportional to the derivative of the other. But the systems described by
Eqs. 1.4 and 1.5 are dual, since in both the quantities inserted are electric.

d
f ðtÞ ¼ M vð t Þ ð1:3Þ
dt
d
eðtÞ ¼ L iðtÞ ð1:4Þ
dt
1.2 Preliminary Concepts 5

d
iðtÞ ¼ C eð t Þ ð1:5Þ
dt

Time Invariant or Fixed System

Delaying a function f ðtÞ of a value t0 corresponds to shifting its waveform (curve)
to the right of a value equal to t0 and replacing the independent variable t, in the
expression that describes it, by t  t0 . An input system xðtÞ and output yðtÞ is called
a time-invariant or fixed if its input–output relationship is independent of time. That
is, if your input xðtÞ is delayed by t0 , your output yðtÞ will simply be delayed by the
same t0 , but maintaining its waveform and amplitude. Thus, for a time-invariant
system, the response to input xðt  t0 Þ must be yðt  t0 Þ, as long as the response to
xðtÞ is yðtÞ. The system described by the input–output ratio yðtÞ ¼ t dtd xðtÞ is not
invariant, since the output corresponding to input xðt  t0 Þ is given by

d dxðt  t0 Þ d ðt  t0 Þ dxðt  t0 Þ
y1 ðtÞ ¼ t xð t  t 0 Þ ¼ t : ¼ ðt  t0 þ t0 Þ : ð 1  0Þ
dt d ðt  t0 Þ dt d ðt  t0 Þ
dxðt  t0 Þ dxðt  t0 Þ dxðt  t0 Þ
¼ ðt  t0 Þ þ t0 : ¼ yðt  t0 Þ þ t0 : 6¼ yðt  t0 Þ:
d ðt  t 0 Þ d ðt  t0 Þ d ðt  t 0 Þ

In time-varying systems, the form and amplitude of the response depends on the
instant in which the input is applied. Thus, the response to xðt  t0 Þ is not yðt  t0 Þ.
Concentrated Systems and Distributed Systems
Obviously, systems with concentrated parameters are those consisting of concen-
trated elements; the same can be said of systems with distributed parameters. The
fundamental property associated with the concentrated elements is their small size,
compared to the wavelength k of their natural frequency of operation f  with
v ¼ kf , where v is the wave propagation speed. As T ¼ 1=f , it can also be written
that T ¼ k=v, with the period T corresponding to the time necessary for the wave to
propagate a distance exactly equal to the wavelength k. Thus, for a circuit element
of length l the propagation time will be s, so that s ¼ l=v. Therefore, the condition
for a circuit element of length l to be considered as concentrated is that l  k,
or that s  T.
In other words, a circuit element is considered to be concentrated when the
propagation time of the electrical signal through it can be considered negligible.
This means that the actions are instantaneous; there is simultaneity. At any moment,
whatever is happening at the beginning of a concentrated circuit element will be
happening at the end. In a circuit with concentrated parameters, therefore, the
electrical quantities are functions exclusively of time t, and the equations obtained
from it are ordinary differential equations. In the case of systems with distributed
parameters, as in electrical transmission lines, when propagation time cannot be
neglected, and unidirectional propagation is assumed, electrical quantities are
functions of distance and time, respectively x and t. Therefore, the equations
obtained are partial differential equations.
6 1 Introduction to Fundamental Concepts in Electric Circuit Analysis

In summary, what defines whether a circuit element is concentrated or dis-

tributed is its size and the frequency of the signal to which it is subjected, for the
same propagation speed. A small cable l ¼ 1½m in length transmitting a sinusoidal
signal at frequency f ¼ 500 ½MHz, with a propagation speed close to that of light,
v ¼ 300; 000 ½km=s ¼ 3  108 ½m=s, corresponding to a wavelength k ¼ v=f ¼
3  108 =500  106 ¼ 0:6 ½m, cannot be treated as a concentrated element, since
l > k. But, itself, with a signal at frequency f ¼ 60 ½Hz and wavelength k ¼ v=f ¼
3  108 =60 ¼ 5; 000 ½km must be treated as a concentrated component, because
l  k.

1.3 Electrical Quantities

Electric Charge
The existence of the electric charge dates from approximately 600 years B.C., when
the Greeks observed that amber rubbed with wool could attract small light objects,
such as pieces of dry straw, for example.
Matter, which is something that has volume and mass, is made up of very small
particles called atoms. Every atom is made up of a nucleus and its surroundings,
called the electrosphere. Protons and neutrons are located in the nucleus. In the
electrosphere, electrons. The electron is the fundamental negative charge of
electricity, since it is indivisible. The proton is the fundamental positive charge
of electricity. And the neutron, as the name implies, is the fundamental neutral
charge of electricity. In their natural state, the atom of each chemical element
contains an equal number of electrons and protons, called an atomic number. Since
the negative charge of each electron has the same absolute value as the positive
charge of each proton, the totals of positive and negative charges are canceled. And
an atom in this condition is called electrically neutral or in equilibrium.
Electrons orbit the nucleus of the atom in what are called quantized layers of
energy, for a total of seven. They are the layers K; L; M; N; O; P; Q. Each energy
layer of an atom can contain only a certain maximum number of electrons. In a
copper atom, for example, with atomic number 29, 29 protons are electrically
neutralized by 29 electrons, which fill the K layer with 2 electrons and the L layer
with 8 electrons. The remaining 19 electrons fill the M layer with 18, leaving 1
electron in the N layer. In an equilibrium or stable atom, the amount of energy is
equal to the sum of the energies of its electrons. And the energy level of an
electron is proportional to its distance from the nucleus. Therefore, the energy
levels of electrons in layers farther from the atom’s nucleus are higher than those of
electrons in layers closer to it. The electrons located in the outermost energy layer
of an atom are called valence electrons. And the outermost energy layer of an atom
can contain a maximum of 8 electrons.
When external energy is applied to certain materials in the form of heat, light or
electrical energy, electrons acquire energy, and this can cause them to move to a
1.3 Electrical Quantities 7

higher energy layer. It is said, then, that an atom in which this happened is in an
excited state. An atom in this condition is unstable. When the electron is displaced
to the outermost energy layer of an atom, it is minimally attracted by the positive
charges of the protons in its nucleus. Therefore, if sufficient energy is applied to the
atom, some valence electrons will abandon the atom. These electrons are called free
electrons. It is the movement of these free electrons that produces the electric
current in the metallic conductors.
Atomic electrons are attached to their nuclei by forces that, while reasonably
intense, are not insuperable. Therefore, they can be transferred from one body to
another when their substances come into contact. Thus, in the process of friction of
two bodies, many electrons can be transferred from one to another. When this
happens, one of the bodies is left with an excess of electrons, while the other is left
with a deficiency of them. The one with excess electrons is negatively charged, and
the one with lack of electrons is positively charged. Therefore, the amount of
electrical charge that a body has is determined by the difference between the
number of protons and the number of electrons that the body contains. It is
worth remembering that the electric charge of a body is quantized, that is, that it
appears as a whole number of electronic charges.
In his experiments, Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) showed that:
1. The rubbing of cat skin with hard rubber causes the cat skin to transfer electrons
to the rubber. Thus, the cat’s skin is left with excess of protons and the hard
rubber with excess of electrons. It is said, then, that the cat’s fur is positively
charged ð þ Þ and that the rubber is negatively charged ðÞ.
2. Rubbing silk with glass causes the glass to transfer electrons to the silk. Thus,
silk has an excess of negative charges and the glass has an excess of positive
charges. It is said, then, that the glass is positively charged ð þ Þ and that the silk
is negatively charged ðÞ.
As described above, Benjamin Franklin defined, in a completely arbitrary
way, the charge of the electrified hard rubber as negative and the charge of the
electrified glass as positive. These conventions persist to this day, although perhaps
it would have been more appropriate to have adopted the inverse convention, as this
would avoid the need to work with the conventional direction of electric current,
assuming that it is the positive charges that move in the metallic conductors.
When a pair of bodies contains the same type of charge, that is, both positive
ð þ Þ or both negative ðÞ, the two bodies are said to have equal charges. When a
pair of bodies contain different charges, that is, one is positively charged ð þ Þ and
the other is negatively charged ðÞ, they are said to have opposite or unequal
charges.
A fundamental law of electrical charge, called the law of charges, is as follows:
Equal charges repel, opposite charges attract.

In addition, in the electrical circuits there is the principle of charge conser-

vation, which means that the total electrical charge remains constant—the
electrical charge cannot be generated or destroyed.
8 1 Introduction to Fundamental Concepts in Electric Circuit Analysis

The charge of an electron or proton, while fundamental to electricity, is too small

to be the basic unit of charge. Thus, the charge unit in SI (acronym SI, from the
French Système International d'unités), the International System of Units, is
Coulomb, with the symbol of unit C. Thus, the combined charge of 6:242  1018
electrons is equal to 1 ½C. And that of 6:242  1018 protons is equal to þ 1 ½C.
Conversely, the charge of an electron is 1:602  1019 ½C and that of a proton is
þ 1:602  1019 ½C.

Coulomb’s Law
The French physicist Charles Augustin de Coulomb (1736–1806), in 1784, estab-
lished the law that quantitatively expresses the force between two point charges,
that is, charges of infinitesimally small bodies, which contain mass, but with
negligible volumes. He found that the force between the charges q1 and q2 is
directly proportional to the modulus of each of the charges and inversely propor-
tional to the square of the distance between them. He also noted that the force is
directed along the straight line that passes through the point charges. Logically, the
meaning is given by the law of charges. Mathematically speaking, Coulomb’s law
is expressed by Eq. 1.6.
q1 q2
F¼k ð1:6Þ
d2

If q1 ¼ q2 ¼ q ¼ 1 ½C and d ¼ 1 ½m, then F ¼ 8:98742 ½N. Therefore, the

proportionality constant is k ¼ 8:98742 ½N m2 =C2 .
Thus, one can define, indirectly, 1 ½C with that total punctual charge that when
separated by 1 ½m of a similar charge generates a force of 8:98742 ½N.
It must be emphasized that Coulomb’s law applies strictly only to point charges.
They are, however, necessary to deduce the expressions of forces between large
distributions of charges or in large bodies. Furthermore, Coulomb’s law is universal
and also applies to the force between two electrons or between an electron and a
proton.
Electrostatic Field
The electric charge has a very important property, which is the ability to create
a vector field of forces in the space that surrounds it, and that field, in turn,
transmits forces to other bodies also electrically charged immersed in it and,
therefore, affect their movements. Therefore, in the case of electric fields, electric
charges constitute the sources of these fields. Thus, the utility of the electric field
comes from its action as an intermediate agent in the transmission of forces from one
or more charged bodies to others. The electrostatic field refers to the electric field
created by charges at rest. Moving electric charges can also establish magnetic
fields in space and these, in turn, can exert forces on charged objects in motion.
At any spatial point, characterized by its orthogonal Cartesian coordinates
ðx; y; zÞ, the electric field vector E is defined as the quotient of the force F acting on
a positive test charge q and itself. Like this,
1.3 Electrical Quantities 9

Fðx; y; zÞ
Eðx; y; zÞ ¼ ð q ! 0Þ ð1:7Þ
q

The observation that the test charge q is infinitesimally small ðq ! 0Þ is

intended to alert that, in a measurement process, it cannot influence the charge
(s) that created the force field. In other words, you need to ensure that E is always
independent of q. An alternative way of expressing this requirement is to define the
electrostatic field as

lim F
E¼ ð1:8Þ
q!0 q

Evidently, in SI, the electric field unit is ½N=C.

Example 1.1 A point charge þ Q is located at the origin of an orthogonal
Cartesian coordinate system, as shown in Fig. 1.2. Find the electrostatic field it
produces.

Fig. 1.2 Force F acting on q z

according to Coulomb’s law
KqQ
q F= ir
r2

ir
y
Q

Solution
First, it is necessary to obtain the force that a test charge q located at a distance r
from the origin experiences due to the charge þ Q. According to Coulomb’s law,
Eq. 1.6, the force F acting on q is given by

qQ qQ r
F¼k 2
ir ¼ k 2 : ð1:9Þ
r r r
10 1 Introduction to Fundamental Concepts in Electric Circuit Analysis

In Eq. 1.9, ir ¼ rr is a unit vector pointing outwards, from the origin, where the
charge þ Q is located, towards the observation point, where the test charge q is
located. So, according to Eq. 1.7,

F Q
E¼ ¼ k 2 ir ð1:10Þ
q r

Therefore, the electrostatic field E also points radially outward, and is spheri-
cally symmetrical, since its modulus depends only on the distance r from the origin,
for a given generator charge þ Q. And that its modulus varies in inverse proportion
to the square of the distance r.
It was the British physicist Michael Faraday (1791–1867) who proposed the
adoption of the so-called field lines or lines of force, as a geometric means of
representing the electric field, and which allow to illustrate how the electric fields
behave. The construction of these field lines follows the rules:
1. The lines of force are drawn and oriented in the direction of the force that a
positive test charge would experience at each spatial point in the field.
2. The density of the field lines, expressed by the number of lines crossing a unit of
area perpendicular to their direction, is a measure of the intensity of the electric
field. Thus, higher density of lines of force means more intense electric field.
3. The field lines can never intercept. As the force at any point can have only one
direction, it is evident that the field lines can never intersect.
Figure 1.3 shows the field lines of the point charge þ Q in Example 1.1, which
extend radially out of the point load. It is easy to intuit that the number of lines per
unit area varies inversely with the square of the distance from the charge (origin).
Knowing the electric field produced in the whole space by a single charge, as in
Example 1.1, or due to a distribution of charges, the Coulomb force exerted on any
point charge q can always be calculated using the expression F ¼ qE.
When two electrically charged bodies, with opposite polarities, are placed close
to each other, constituting what is called an electric dipole, the electrostatic field is
concentrated in the region between them, as indicated by the lines of force in the
illustration shown in Fig. 1.4.
It can be demonstrated that the electric field produced outside a hollow spherical
shell, of very thin thickness, and of radius R, with a uniform charge density, totaling
a charge þ Q, presents an electric field outside the sphere, at a distant point r from
its center, given exactly by Eq. 1.10. On the other hand, the electric field at any
point within the spherical shell charged with uniform charge density is identically
zero. It is also possible to demonstrate that any spherically symmetric charge dis-
tribution produces an electric field outside the charge distribution identical to the
field that would be produced if the entire charge were placed in the center of the
charge distribution.
1.3 Electrical Quantities 11

Fig. 1.3 Force lines of the point charge þ Q

+ -

Fig. 1.4 Electrostatic field in an electric dipole

Regarding the electrostatic field, it can be added that:

(a) The electric field within any conductor in equilibrium is zero.
(b) Any total charge produced by a conductor resides on its surface.
(c) The electric field exactly outside a conductor is normal to its surface at each
point.
Voltage or Potential Difference
Work
Mechanical work can be performed by any moving force. Therefore, if there is force
but there is no movement caused by it, there is no work. In this way, a person
Discovering Diverse Content Through
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 "And she, the mother of thy boys.
Will, by her pilgrim-circled hearth,
Talk of thy doom without a sigh;
For thou art Freedom's now, and Fame's;
One of the few, the immortal names
That were not born to die,"—

these lines, and his own parting scene with their author in New York
harbor, flashed into his mind, and he felt as if this incident alone
were enough to repay him for his whole journey.
On his return once more to Paris, in a letter to his friend Leggett he
sketches in epitome the ground he has been over. An extract follows:
"Since I saw you, I have indeed been in strange lands, and seen
strange sights. I have traversed the Baltic and the wide dominions of
the ambitious Autocrat,—crossed the Euxine and dipped into Asia
and European Turkey,—'kept due onwards to the Propontic and
Hellespont,'—wandered amid the faultless fragments of the 'bright
clime of battle and of song,'—sailed by the Ionian Isles,—visited the
chief towns of the Germanic Confederation,—and here I am at last,
safe and sound, in the ever-gay capital of France. I thank Heaven
my travelling in the 'far East' is at an end. One is badly
accommodated there in railroads and steamers. However, take it for
all in all, I have every reason to be satisfied with the voyage, for
there is no kind of information but must be purchased with some
painstaking, and one day I shall fully enjoy all this in calm
retrospection from the bosom of the unpruned woods of my own
country. Yes, the sight of the city of Moscow alone would amply
repay one for all risks and fatigues at sea. Never shall I forget my
sensations when, from the great tower of the Kremlin, one bright,
sunny day, I looked down upon that beautiful city. The numberless
domes, beaming with azure and with gold, the checkered roofs, the
terraces, the garden slopes, the mingling of all the styles and
systems of architectural construction, now massive and heavy, now
brilliant and light, and everywhere fresh and original, enchanted me.
I am free to confess Russia astonished me. I have sailed down the
mighty Mississippi,—I have been in the dark and silent bosom of our
own forest homes,—I have been under the eye of Mont Blanc and
Olympus,—I grew familiar with Rome and with London,—without
experiencing the same degree of wonder which fastened upon me in
Russia. I thought there to have encountered with hordes of semi-
barbarians, yet I found a people raised, as it were, at once from a
state of nature to our level of civilization. Nor have they apparently,
in their rapid onward course, neglected the means to render their
progress sure. And then, what an army,—a million of men! and the
best forms of men,—the best disciplined, and able to endure the
'labored battle sweat' by their constant activity, the rigor of their
climate, and their ignorance of all pleasures which serve to
effeminate. The navy, too, though in an imperfect state compared
with the army (in sailors, not ships), will doubtless soon hold a
distinguished rank. Only think of such a power, increasing every day,
—stretching out wider and wider, and all confessing one duty,—
obedience to the will of the absolute sovereign!"
About this time two significant entries are found in his diary. The
first one is: "Received intelligence of the death of Edwin Forrest
Goodman, the infant son of a friend.

'All his innocent thoughts

Like rose-leaves scattered.'"

The second is this: "And so Jane Placide is dead. The theatrical

people of New Orleans then have lost much. She imparted a grace
and a force and dignity to her rôle which few actresses have been
able so admirably to combine. She excelled in a profession in the
arduous sphere of which even to succeed requires uncommon gifts,
both mental and physical. Her disposition was as lovely as her
person. Heaven lodge and rest her fair soul!"
The reader will recollect Miss Placide as the friend about whom
young Forrest quarrelled with Caldwell and withdrew from his
service. How strangely the millions of influences or spirits that weave
our fate fly to and fro with the threads of the weft and woof! While
he was writing the above words in the capital of France, her remains
were sleeping in a quiet cemetery of the far South, on the other side
of the world, with the inscription on the slab above her,—

"There's not an hour

Of day or dreamy night but I am with thee;
There's not a wind but whispers o'er thy name,
And not a flower that sleeps beneath the moon
But in its hues of fragrance tells a tale
Of thee."

He passed over to England again, to visit a few spots sacred in his

imagination which he had not seen in his former journey there. Chief
among these were the house and grave of Shakspeare, at Stratford-
upon-Avon. With the eagerness and devotion arising from the
lifelong enthusiasm of all his professional studies and experience,
reinforced by the feeling of the accumulated homage paid at that
shrine by mankind at large, he wandered and mused in the places
once so familiar with the living presence of the poet, and still
seeming to be suffused with his invisible presence. In the day he
had made a careful exploration of the church where the
unapproachable dramatist lies sepulchred. Late in the evening, when
the moon was riding half-way up the heaven, he clambered over the
fence, and, while the gentle current of Avon was lapping the sedges
on its shore almost at his feet, gazed in at the window and saw the
moonbeams silvering the bust of the dead master on the wall, and
the carved letters of the quaint and dread inscription on his tomb,—

"Good friend, for Jesus' sake forbear

To dig the dust encloséd here.
Blessed be he who spares these stones,
And cursed be he who moves my bones."

What a contrast the picture of him in this night-scene at the church-

window would have made for those familiar with his appearance on
the stage in the wrath of Coriolanus, the remorse of Macbeth, the
sneer of Richard, the horror of Othello, or the tempest of Lear!
It now lacked but a few days of being two years since Forrest left
America, and he began to feel powerfully drawn homewards. It had
been a period of unalloyed satisfaction, and he had much improved
in many ways, from his intercourse with different forms and classes
of society, from his contemplation of natural scenery in many lands,
from his study of the masterpieces of art, from his criticism of the
performances of the distinguished actors and actresses whom he
saw, and from his reading of many valuable books, including, among
lighter volumes, such works as those of Locke and Spinoza. In this
long tour and deliberate tarry abroad, wisely chosen in his early
manhood, before his nature had hardened in routine, with plenty of
money, leisure, health, freedom, and aspiration, he had drunk his fill
of joy. His brain and spine and ganglia saturated with an amorous
drench of elemental force, drunk with every kind of potency, he
swayed on his centres in revelling fulness of life. He had been in
these two exempted years like Hercules in Olympus, with abundance
of ambrosia and nectar and Hebe on his knee. But now his heart
cried out for home, and the sense of duty urged him to gird up his
loins for work again. Something of his feeling may be guessed from
the fact that he had copied into his journal these lines of Byron:

"What singular emotions fill

Their bosoms who have been induced to roam,
With fluttering doubts if all be well or ill,
With love for many and with tears for some;
All feelings which o'erleap the years long lost,
And bring our hearts back to the starting-post."

He took passage in the Poland, and, with no notable adventure on

the voyage, arrived at New York on the 5th of August, 1836, to be
received with cheers into the open arms of a crowd of his friends as
he stepped ashore, prouder than ever of his birthright of American
citizenship.
 CHAPTER XI.
PROFESSIONAL TOUR IN GREAT BRITAIN.

Two weeks of rest in his Philadelphia home, in delightful reunion

with his mother and sisters, and two weeks more devoted to the
banquets and parties with which his rejoicing friends there and in
New York celebrated his return, passed quickly. He had now to
prepare to say good-bye again. For overtures of such a flattering
character had been made to him while in England to return and give
a series of performances in the principal British theatres, that he had
accepted them, and was engaged to be there early in October. The
desire, however, after his long absence, to see him on the stage was
so general, and was urged so eagerly, that he determined to appear
for a few nights. Accordingly, he played the parts of Damon, Othello,
and Spartacus for five nights in the Chestnut Street Theatre, in
Philadelphia, and the same parts, with the addition of Lear, in the
Park Theatre, in New York. The crowd and the excitement on the
opening night were almost unprecedented, all the passages to the
house being blocked with applicants two hours before the rising of
the curtain. At the first glimpse of the actor in his stately senatorial
garb, the multitude that filled the entire auditorium with a packed
mass of faces rose as by one impulse and hailed him with deafening
applause, kept up until it seemed as if it was not to end. He had
never played better, by general consent, than he did this night. And
when the play closed, and the enthusiastic ovation which had
saluted his entrance was repeated, he certainly had every reason to
feel in truth what he expressed in words:
"Ladies and gentlemen, for this warm peal of hands and hearts I
have only strength in my present exhausted state to say, I thank
you. It convinces me that neither time nor distance has been able to
alienate from me your kind regards. I am unable to speak what I
wish; but I can sincerely say that you make me proud this evening.
And the remembrance of the cordial greeting, after no common
absence, given me here in this city of my birth and my affection, will
go down with me to my latest hour as one of the happiest scenes of
my professional life."
A similar reception, only, if possible, still more flattering in the
vastness of the throng and the fervor of the tributes, awaited him in
New York. Box tickets were sold at auction for twenty-five dollars
each,—a fact to which there had not at that time been anything like
a parallel known in this country. For his six performances he received
three thousand dollars, and the profit of the manager was estimated
at six thousand dollars. The public greeted his strong points with a
warmth which seemed to show that their admiration had grown
during his absence, and the critics spoke of an evident improvement
in his acting,—that it was less boisterous and more thoughtful than
formerly. Called out at the conclusion of the play, Othello, on the
occasion of his farewell, he alluded with deep emotions to the night,
some ten years before, when he had made his first appearance
before a New York audience. Then, a mere youth, just emerging
from severe hardships, and still oppressed by poverty and a dark
prospect, with scarcely a friend, he had tremblingly ventured to
enact the part of Othello for the benefit of a distressed brother-actor.
The generous approbation then given him had lent a new zeal to his
ambition and a new strength to his motives. From that hour his
course had been one of unbroken prosperity, for which he desired to
return his most heartfelt thanks to his countrymen, and to assure
them that he would do his best not to dishonor them in the mother-
country, to which he was then bound. "I shall carry with me," he
added, "an indelible remembrance of your kindness; and I hope that
the recollection will be mutual, so that I may say, with the divine
Shakspeare,—

'Our separation so abides and flies

That yon, remaining here, yet go with me,
And I, hence fleeting, still remain with you.'"
The audience responded to his speech with tempestuous huzzas,
and he withdrew, carrying this flattering scene fresh in his memory
as he set sail for his courageous enterprise on the other side of the
sea.
It was a courageous and somewhat ominous adventure. For it is to
be remembered that the relationships of England and the United
States were very different in 1836 from what they are in our day.
The memories of the Revolutionary war and of the war of 1812 were
still keen and bitter; and the feelings of intellectual inferiority and
literary vassalage to the mother-country among the Americans
engendered a sense of wounded pride or irritable jealousy
excessively sensitive to British criticism, which, on the other hand,
was generally marked by a tone of complacent arrogance or
condescending patronage. No American actor, at least none of any
note, had yet appeared on the boards in England. All such
international favors were on the other side,—and they had been
most numerous and long-continued. The illustrious Cooper, an
Englishman by birth and education, though so long domesticated in
this country both as citizen and actor as to be almost considered an
American, had been ignominiously hooted down on the most famous
stage in London amidst opprobrious cries of "Away with the Yankee!
Send him back!" What reception now would be vouchsafed to an
American tragedian, fresh from nature and the woods of the West,
and all untrained in the methods of the schools, who should dare
essay to rival the glorious traditions of old Drury Lane within her
own walls?—this was a question which caused many wise heads to
shake with misgivings, and might well have deterred any less
fearless spirit than that of Forrest from putting it to the test. But he
believed, obvious as the antipathies and jealousies between the two
countries were, that the fellow-feeling and the love of fair play were
far stronger. In a speech delivered in his native city the evening
before his departure, he expressed himself thus:
"The engagement which I am about to fulfil in London was not of
my seeking. While I was in England I was repeatedly importuned
with solicitations, and the most liberal offers were made to me. I
finally consented, not for my own sake, for my ambition is satisfied
with the applauses of my own countrymen, but partly in compliance
with the wishes of a number of American friends, and partly to solve
a doubt which is entertained by many of our citizens, whether
Englishmen would receive an American actor with the same favor
which is here extended to them. This doubt, so far as I have had an
opportunity of judging, is, I think, without foundation. During my
residence in England, I found among the English people the most
unbounded hospitality, and the warmest affection for my beloved
country and her institutions. With this impression, I have resolved to
present to them an American tragedy, supported by the humble
efforts of the individual who stands before you. If I fail—I fail. But,
whatever may be the result, the approbation of that public which
first stamped the native dramatist and actor will ever be my
proudest recollection."
Of all the friends to whom Forrest bade adieu, not one beside was
so dear to him as Leggett. The heart-ties between them had been
multiplied, enriched, and tightened by unwearied mutual acts of
kindness and service, and a thousand congenial interchanges of soul
in intimate hours when the world was shut out and their bosoms
were opened to each other without disguise or reserve. The letter
here added speaks for itself:
"Office of the Evening Post,
"New York, Sept. 19th, 1836.
"Dear Madam,—I had the pleasure of accompanying your son Edwin
yesterday as far as Sandy Hook, and seeing him safely on his way
for Liverpool, with a fine breeze, in a fine ship, and with a fine set of
fellow-passengers. He was accompanied down the bay by a large
number of his friends, who, on the steamboat parting from the ship,
expressed their warm feelings for him in many rounds of loud and
hearty cheers. We kept in sight of the vessel till near sundown, by
which time she had made a good offing. Andrew Allen had gone on
board with his baggage the day previous, and everything was
prepared for him in the most comfortable manner. While we were on
board the vessel with him, we were invited by the captain to sit
down to a collation prepared for the occasion, and had the
satisfaction of drinking to his health and prosperous voyage, not only
across the Atlantic Ocean, but across the ocean of life also, in a
glass of sparkling champagne. It would have given me the most
unbounded happiness to have been able to accompany him to
Europe, as he desired; but circumstances rendered it impossible for
me to gratify that wish. I am with him in heart, however, and shall
look most eagerly for the tidings of his safe arrival and triumphant
reception. Whatever news I get concerning him which I think may
be of interest to you, I shall take pleasure in immediately
communicating. Mrs. Leggett bade me remember her most
affectionately to you and your daughters, and to say that, should
you visit New York at any time during your son's absence, she shall
expect you to make her house your home. In this wish I most fully
concur. Allow me to assure you, madam, that
"With great respect,
"I am your obed't serv't,
"Wm. Leggett.
"Mrs. Rebecca Forrest."
James K. Paulding, a close and dear friend of Forrest, met him one
sunshiny day in New York at the corner of Nassau and Ann Streets,
and expostulated with him against going across the sea to play.
"Washington," he said, "never went to Europe to gain an immortality.
Jackson never went there to extend his fame. Many others of our
greatest and most original men never visited the other hemisphere
to add lustre to their names. And why should you? Stay here, and
build yourself an enduring place in the mind of your own country
alone. That is enough for any man!" He spoke with extreme
eloquence, heedless of the busy throng who hurried by absorbed in
so different a world from that whose prospects kindled the idealistic
and ambitious friends. When Forrest was sailing out of the harbor,
he recalled these words with strong emotion, and felt for a moment
as if he were guilty of a sort of treachery to his own land in thus
leaving it. Though the whole incident, as here set down, may appear
overstrained, it is a true glimpse of life.
Forrest made his first professional appearance in England in Drury
Lane Theatre, on the evening of the 17th of October, 1836, in the
rôle of Spartacus, before an audience which crowded the house in
every part to its utmost capacity. His great American fame had
preceded him, and there was an intense curiosity felt as to the result
of his experiment. The solicitude was especially keen among the two
or three hundred of his countrymen who were present, and who
knew the extreme democratic quality of the play of the Gladiator.
The tremendous bursts of applause which his entrance called out
soon put an end to all doubt or anxiety. The favor in advance
certified by the unanimous and long-continued cheers he confirmed
at every step of the performance, and wrought to an extraordinary
pitch at the close, when he was recalled before the curtain and
greeted with overwhelming plaudits. He returned his thanks for the
honor done him, and was loudly applauded when he said he was
sure that England and America were joined by the closest good-will,
and that the more enlightened portion of their population were
superior to any feeling of national jealousy. But on attempting to
include the author of the Gladiator in the approving verdict which
the audience had given himself, he was interrupted by numerous
protests and repeated cries, "Let us see you in some of Shakspeare's
characters!"
The Courier of the next morning said,—
"America has at length vindicated her capability of producing a
native dramatist of the highest order, whose claims should be
unequivocally acknowledged by the Mother Country; and has
rendered back some portion of the dramatic debt so long due to us
in return for the Cookes, the Keans, the Macreadys, the Knowleses,
and the Kembles, whom she has, through a long series of years,
seduced, at various times, to her shores,—the so long doubted
problem being happily solved by Mr. Edwin Forrest, the American
tragedian, who made his first appearance last night on these boards,
with a success as triumphant as could have been desired by his most
enthusiastic admirers on the other side of the Atlantic. Of the
numerous striking situations and touching passages in the play, Mr.
Forrest availed himself with great tact, discrimination, and effect;
now astounding all eyes and ears by the overwhelming energy of his
physical powers, and now subduing all hearts by the pathos of his
voice, manner, and expression. The whole weight of the piece rests
upon him alone, and nobly does he sustain it. His action is easy,
graceful, and varied; and his declamation is perfectly free from the
usual stage chant, catchings, and points. Indeed, nature alone
seems to have been his only model."
The "Sun" of the same date said,—
"Mr. Edwin Forrest, who has long held the first rank as a tragic actor
in America, made his first appearance here last night in a new
drama, also of American growth, entitled the Gladiator. The acting of
Mr. Forrest as Spartacus was throughout admirable. His very figure
and voice were in his favor, the one being strongly muscular, the
other replete with a rough music befitting one who in his youth has
dwelt, a free barbarian, among the mountains. He electrified his
audience; indeed, we have not heard more enthusiastic bursts of
applause shake the walls of an English theatre since Othello expired
with poor Kean. The great recommendations of Mr. Forrest as a
tragedian we take to be strong passion, and equally strong
judgment. In the whirlwind of his emotions he never loses sight of
self-control. He is the master, not the slave, of his feelings. He
appeals to no fastidious coterie for applause; he is not remarkable
for the delivery of this or that pretty tinkling poetic passage; still less
is he burdened with refined sensibility, which none but the select few
can understand; far otherwise; he gives free play to those rough
natural passions which are intelligible all the world over. His pathos is
equally sincere and unsophisticated. His delivery of the passage,—
 'And one day hence,
My darling boy, too, may be fatherless,'—

was marked by the truest and tenderest sensibility. Equally

successful was he in that pleasing pastoral idea,—

'And Peace was tinkling in the shepherd's bells,

And singing with the reapers;'

which, had it been written in Claude's days, that great painter would
undoubtedly have made the subject of one of his best landscapes.

'Famine shrieked in the empty corn-fields,'—

a striking image, which immediately follows the preceding one, was

given by Mr. Forrest with an energy amounting almost to the
sublime. Not less impressive was his delivery of

'There are no Gods in heaven,'

which bursts from him when he hears of the murder of his wife and
child by the Roman cohorts. Mr. Forrest has made such a hit as has
not been made since the memorable 1814, when Edmund Kean
burst on England in Shylock. America may well feel proud of him; for
though he is not, strictly speaking, what is called a classical actor,
yet he has all the energy, all the indomitable love of freedom that
characterizes the transatlantic world. We say this because there
were many republican allusions in the play where the man spoke out
quite as much as the actor, if not more. Having seen him in
Spartacus, we no longer wonder at his having electrified the New
World. A man better fitted by nature and art to sustain such a
character, and a character better fitted to turn the heads of a nation
which was the other day in arms against England, never appeared
on the boards of a theatre. At the fall of the curtain he received such
a tempest of approbation as we have not witnessed for years."
The Morning Advertiser said,—
"When to the facts of a new play and a new actor is superadded the
circumstance that both the author and the player of the new tragedy
are Americans, and the first who ever tempted the intellectual taste
of the British public by a representation on the English stage, the
crowds which last night surrounded the doors long before they were
thrown open are easily accounted for. The applause which Mr.
Forrest received on his entrée must have been very cheering to that
gentleman. He possesses a countenance well marked and classical;
his figure, a model for stage effect, with 'thew and sinew' to boot.
His enunciation, which we had anticipated to be characterized by
some degree of that patois which distinguishes most Americans,
even the best educated, was almost perfect 'to the last recorded
syllable,' and fell like music on the ears. We here especially point to
the less declamatory passages of the drama; in those portions of it
where he threw his whole power of body and soul into the
whirlwind, as it were, of his fury, his display of physical strength was
prodigious, without 'o'erstepping the modesty of nature.' The
inflections of his voice frequently reminded one of Kean in his
healthiest days, yet there did not appear the manner of a copyist.
He was crowned with loud and unanimous plaudits at least a dozen
times during the representation."
The Court Journal gave its judgment thus:
"This chief of American performers is most liberally endowed by
nature with all the finest qualities for an actor. With a most graceful
and symmetrical person, of more than the ordinary stature, he has a
face capable of the sternest as of the nicest delineations of passion,
and a voice of deep and earnest power. We have never witnessed a
presence more noble and commanding,—one that, at the first
moment, challenged greater respect, we may write, admiration. As
an actor, Mr. Forrest is fervent, passionate, and active: there is no
child's play in whatever he does; but in the most serious, as in the
slightest development of feeling, he puts his whole heart into the
matter, and carries us away with him in either the subtlety or the
strength of his emotion. With powers evidently enabling him to
outroar a whirlwind, he is never extravagant,—he is never of 'Ercles'
vein; his passion is always from the heart, and never from the lungs.
His last two scenes were splendidly acted, from the strength, the
self-abandonment of the performer; he looked and moved as if he
could have cut down a whole cohort, and died like a Hercules. The
reception of Mr. Forrest was most cordial; and the applause
bestowed upon him throughout the play unbounded. At the
conclusion of the tragedy he was called for, and most rapturously
greeted."
The Times described the figure, face, and voice of the actor, gave a
long abstract of the play, and said,—
"He played with his whole heart, and seemed to be so strongly
imbued with the part that every tone and gesture were perfectly
natural, and full of that fire and spirit which, engendered by true
feeling, carry an audience along with the performer. He made a
powerful impression on the audience, and must be regarded as an
able performer who to very considerable skill in his profession adds
the attraction of a somewhat novel and much more spirited style of
playing than any other tragic actor now on our stage."
The following extract is from the Atlas:
"If we were to estimate Mr. Forrest's merits by his performance of
the Gladiator, we should, probably, underrate, or, perhaps, mistake
the true character of his genius. The very qualities which render him
supreme in such a part would, if he possessed no other requisites,
unfit him for those loftier conceptions that constitute the highest
efforts of the stage. It would be impossible to produce a more
powerful performance, or one in all respects more just and
complete, than his representation of the moody savage Thracian.
But nature has given him peculiar advantages which harmonize with
the demands of the part, and which, in almost any other character in
the range of tragedy, would either encumber the delineation or be of
no avail. His figure is cast in the proportions of the Farnese Hercules.
The development of the muscles, indeed, rather exceeds the ideal of
strength, and, in its excess, the beauty of symmetrical power is in
some degree sacrificed. His head and neck are perfect models of
grandeur in the order to which they belong. His features are boldly
marked, full of energy and expression, and, although not capable of
much variety, they possess a remarkable tone of mental vigor. His
voice is rich and deep, and susceptible of extraordinary transitions,
which he employs somewhat too frequently as the transitions of
feeling pass over his spirit. The best way, perhaps, of describing its
varieties is to say that it reminded us occasionally of Kean,
Vandenhoff, and Wallack, but not as they would be recalled by one
who, in the dearth of his own resources, imitated them for
convenience, but by one in whom such resemblances are natural
and unpremeditated. Mr. Forrest's action is bold, unconscious, and
diversified; and the predominant sentiment it inspires is that of
athletic grace. In the part of Spartacus all these characteristics were
brought out in the most favorable points of view; and the
performance, exhausting from its length and its internal force, was
sustained to the close with undiminished power. There is certainly no
actor on the English stage who could have played it with a tithe of
Mr. Forrest's ability."
In response to the invitation or challenge to appear in some of the
great Shakspearean rôles, Forrest appeared many nights
successively in Othello, Macbeth, and Lear, and in them all was
crowned with most decisive and flattering triumphs. The praise of
him by the press was generous, and its chorus scarcely broken by
the few dissenting voices, whose tone plainly betrayed an animus of
personal hostility. A few examples of the newspaper notices may fitly
be cited,—enough to give a fair idea of the general impression he
made.
The Globe, of October 25th:
"Mr. Forrest selected as his second character the fiery Othello, 'who
loved not wisely, but too well.' There was something nobly daring in
this flight, so soon, too, after he whose voice still dwells in our ears
had passed from among us. To essay before an English audience any
character in which Edmund Kean was remembered was itself no
trifling indication of that self-confidence which, when necessary, true
genius can manifest. To make that attempt in Othello was indeed
daring. And nobly, we feel proud to say, did the performance bear
out the promise. In the Senate scene his colloquial voice told well in
the celebrated address to the Seniors of Venice. He did not speak as
if the future evils of his life had even then cast their shadows upon
him. The calm equability of the triumphant general and successful
lover pervaded his performance throughout the first two acts, with
the exception of the scene of the drunken brawl in the second,
where he first gave token of the fiery elements within him. The third
act was a splendid presentment throughout. He had evidently
studied the character with the judgment of a scholar, 'and a ripe and
good one:' each shade of the jealous character of the easy Moor,
from the first faint guessings at his tempter's meaning to the full
conviction of his wife's dishonesty, was brought out with the touch of
a master-hand, and embodied with a skill equalling that of any actor
whom we have seen, and far, very far superior to the manner in
which any other of our living performers could attempt it. This third
act alone would have placed Mr. Forrest in the foremost rank of his
profession had he never done anything else; and so his kindling
audience seemed to feel, as much in the deep watching silence of
their attention as in the tremendous plaudits which hailed what on
the stage are technically called 'the points' he made.
"In the two succeeding acts he was equally great in the passages
which called forth the burning passions of his fiery soul; but we shall
not at present particularize; where all was good it would be difficult,
and we have already nearly run through the dictionary of panegyric.
In accordance with a burst of applause such as seldom follows the
fall of the curtain, Othello was announced for repetition on
Wednesday and Friday."
The commendation of the London Sun was still stronger:
"Mr. Forrest last night made his appearance here in the arduous
character of Othello. The experiment was a bold one, but was
completely successful. We entertain a vivid recollection of Kean in
this part; we saw his Moor when the great actor was in the meridian
vigor of his powers, and also when he was in his decline and could
do justice only to the more subdued and pathetic parts of the
character; and even with these recollections on our mind, we feel
ourselves justified in saying that Mr. Forrest's Othello, if here and
there inferior in execution to Kean's, was in conception far superior.
There is an elevation of thought and sentiment,—a poetic grandeur,
—a picturesqueness, if we may use such an expression, in Mr.
Forrest's notion of the character, which Kean could never reach. The
one could give electrical effect to all its more obvious points, turn to
admirable account all that lay on its surface; the other sounds its
depths,—turns it inside out,—apprehends it in a learned and
imaginative spirit, and shows us not merely the fiery, generous
warrior, the creature of impulse, but the high-toned, chivalrous
Moor; lofty and dignified in his bearing, and intellectual in his nature,
—such a Moor, in short, as we read of in the old Spanish chronicles
of Granada,—and who perpetrates an act of murder not so much
from the headstrong, animal promptings of revenge, as from an idea
that he is offering up a solemn and inevitable sacrifice to justice. In
the earlier portion of the character Mr. Forrest was rather too
drawling and measured in his delivery; his address to the Senators
was judicious, but not quite familiar enough; it should have been
more colloquial. It was evident, however, that throughout this scene
the actor was laboring under constraint; he had yet to establish
himself with his audience, and was afraid of committing himself
prematurely. Henceforth he may dismiss this apprehension; for he
has proved that he is, beyond all question, the first tragedian of the
age.... We have spoken of this gentleman's Othello in high terms of
praise, but have not commended it beyond its deserts. In manly and
unaffected vigor; in terrific force of passion, where such a display is
requisite; but, above all, in heartfelt tenderness, it is fully equal to
Kean's Othello; in sustained dignity, and in the absence of all stage-
trick and undue gesticulation, it is superior. Perhaps here and there it
was a little too elaborate; but this is a trivial blemish, which practice
will soon remedy. On the whole, Mr. Forrest is the most promising
tragedian that has appeared in our days. He has, evidently, rare
intellectual endowments; a noble and commanding presence; a
countenance full of varying expression; a voice mellow, flexible, and
in its undertones exquisitely tender, and a discretion that never fails
him. If any one can revive the half-extinct taste for the drama, he is
the man."
The Carlton Chronicle said,—
"It is impossible that any actor could, in person, bearing, action, and
utterance, better fulfil your fair-ideal of the noble Moor. All the
passages of the part evincing Will and Power are delivered after a
manner to leave the satisfied listener no faculty except that of
admiration. His bursts of passion are terrifically grand. There is no
grimace,—no exaggeration. They are terrible in their downright
earnestness and apparent truth. Nothing could be more heart-
thrilling than the noble rage with which he delivered the well-known
passage,—

'I had rather be a toad,

And live upon the vapor of a dungeon,
Than keep a corner in the thing I love,
For others' uses;'

nothing more glorious than the burst in which he volleyed forth the
following passage, suppressed by the barbarians of our theatres,—

'Like to the Pontic Sea,

Whose icy current and compulsive course
Ne'er feels retiring ebb, but keeps due on
To the Propontic and the Hellespont;
Even so my bloody thoughts, with violent pace,
Shall ne'er look back, ne'er ebb to humble love,
Till that a capable and wide revenge
Swallow them up.'

Throughout the part, as he enacted it, there were several new

readings, in the player's phrase. They were all good,—they all
conveyed to us, who love Shakspeare, new ideas. Forrest, apart
from his playing, is no common man. In many scenes of the play, in
which it was the fashion to rant, Forrest contented himself with the
appropriate display of dignified and quiet power. This was beyond
praise."
The following extract is from the notice in the John Bull:
"It is where Iago first attempts to rouse the jealousy of Othello, and,
having created the spark, succeeds in fanning it to a consuming fire,
that Mr. Forrest may be said to have been truly great. Slowly he
appeared to indulge the suspicion of his wife's infidelity; in silent
agony the conviction seemed to be creeping upon him,—his iron
sinews trembling with dreadful and conflicting emotions,—rapid as
thought were his denunciations; and, with all the weakness of
woman, he again relapsed into tenderness,—pain had a respite, and
hope a prospect. Then came his fearful and startling challenge to
Iago, ending,—

'If thou dost slander her, and torture me,

Never pray more: abandon all remorse;
On horror's head horrors accumulate:
Do deeds to make heaven weep, all earth amazed;
For nothing canst thou to damnation add
Greater than that.'

"The almost savage energy with which this passage was delivered
produced an indescribable effect. Three long and distinct rounds of
applause testified how highly the audience was delighted with this
master-effort; and the most prejudiced must have been convinced
that they were witnessing the acting of no ordinary man."
The critique in the Albion was a notable one:
"Mr. Forrest made his first appearance on our boards on Monday
last, in the part of Othello. Mr. Forrest possesses a fine person, an
excellent thing in either man or woman; but, though this has been
much dwelt upon by the London critics, it is but a very minor affair
when speaking of such a man as Mr. Forrest. He carries himself with
exceeding grace and dignity, and his tread is easy and majestic: he
dresses with taste and magnificence. The picture which he
presented of the Moor was one of the most perfect which we have
witnessed. He gave us to see, like Desdemona, 'Othello's visage in
his mind,' of which he furnished us with a beautiful and highly-
finished portrait. Not content with acting each scene well, he gave
us a consistent transcript of the whole matter. Each succeeding
scene was in strict keeping with those that had preceded it, showing
that the actor had grasped the whole plot from beginning to end,
and that, from commencement to catastrophe, he had embodied
himself into strict identity with the person represented. His early
scenes were distinguished by a quiet and calm dignity of demeanor,
which, concomitant with the deepest tenderness of feeling, and a
high tone of manliness, he seems to have conceived the basis of the
Moor's character. In his address to the Senate, this dignified self-
possession, and a sense of what was due to himself, he made
particularly conspicuous. As the interest of the tragedy advanced, we
saw, with exceeding pleasure, that Mr. Forrest was determined to
depend for success upon the precept set forth by Shakspeare, 'To
hold the mirror up to nature.' With proper confidence in his own
powers, he disdained to overstep the prescribed bound for the sake
of producing effects equally at variance with nature and heterodox
to good taste. In the scene where he quells the drunken brawl, his
acting throughout was strikingly impressive of reality. Some of his
ideas were novel, and beautifully accordant with the tone of the
character which he wished to develop. Such was his recitation of the
passage,—

'Silence that dreadful bell! it frights the isle

From her propriety.'

From the general group he turned to a single attendant who stood at

his elbow, and delivered the command in a subdued tone, as though
it were not intended for the ear of the multitude. This, though
effective, was judicious, and not overstrained. His dismissal of Cassio
was equally illustrative of the spirit to which we have alluded. The
audience testified their approbation by a loud burst of applause. The
final scene with Iago was beautifully played: the gradual workings of
his mind from calmness to jealousy were displayed with striking
effect. The transitions of emotion in the following splendid passage
were finely marked:

'If I do prove her haggard,

Though that her jesses were my dear heartstrings,
I'd whistle her off, and let her down the wind,
To prey at fortune. Haply, for I am black,
And have not those soft parts of conversation
That chamberers have: Or, for I am declined
Into the vale of years; yet that's not much:
She's gone: I am abused: and my relief
Must be to loathe her. O the curse of marriage,
That we can call these delicate creatures ours,
And not their appetites! I'd rather be a toad,
And live upon the vapor of a dungeon,
Than keep a corner in the thing I love,
For other's uses.
Desdemona comes!'

The burst of mixed passions with which he uttered the first of these
sentences was terrific. His voice then sank into tones the most
touching, expressive of complaining regret. The conclusion seemed
to have excited him to the most extreme pitch of loathing and
disgust, and, as he sees Desdemona advancing, he, for a few
moments, gazed upon her with horror. The feeling gave way, and all
his former tenderness seemed to return as he exclaimed,—

'If she be false, O then Heaven mocks itself,—

I'll not believe it.'

The subsequent scene with Iago, a trial of physical as well as mental

strength, was well sustained. It is here that Iago, by a series of
artful manœuvres, screws the Moor up to the sticking-place. To the
conclusion of the scene the vehement passions are continually
increasing, and the difficulty is for an actor so to manage his powers
as to give full effect to the whole, without sinking into apparent
tameness in the last imprecation. We will not attempt any
description of the bedchamber scene. The reiterated and protracted
plaudits of the audience showed how highly it was appreciated. The
dying-scene was equally novel and excellent. At the fall of the
curtain the audience testified their delight and approbation by the
most marked and vehement applause, which continued for several
minutes."
The London Journal gave a long account of Forrest's Lear, of which
this extract contains the substance:
"We have been much amused by the conflict of opinion respecting
this representation. Some describe it as one of the most magnificent
triumphs of this or any age. Another denounces the performance as
an idle and false imposition, and the actor as an ignorant empiric,
who has crossed the Atlantic solely to practise on the gullibility of
John Bull. We do not think John quite so gullible; we do not believe
that in matters of intellectual recreation he is so apt to take

'Those tenders for true pay

Which are not sterling.'

We consider it may be pretty safely taken as a general rule that the

large popularity of any artist is here synonymous only with great
talent. We had also seen quite enough of Mr. Forrest to convince us
that he is a man of real talent, with very little, if any, mere trickery in
his acting, so that to stigmatize him as a quack or an impostor was
as great a violation of truth as of good feeling. At the same time, it
is right we should remark that the estimate we had formed of his
genius, from his previous representations, was not sufficiently high
to induce a belief in all that his eulogists pronounced on his Lear.
We, therefore, came to the conclusion that in this case, as in others
where opinions are so remote from each other, the truth would,
probably, be found midway between the two extremes; and, on
seeing and judging for ourselves on Monday night, found our
conclusion fully warranted. The general conception of the 'poor old
king' is most accurately taken, and his general execution of it fervid,
earnest, and harmonious. He has evidently grappled with the
character manfully, and he never lets go his hold. The carefulness of
his study is sometimes a little too obvious, giving an injurious
hardness and over-precision. The awful malediction of Goneril—that
fearful curse, which can scarcely be even read without trembling—
was delivered by Mr. Forrest with a power and intensity we never
saw surpassed by any actor of Lear. It was an exhibition likely to
follow a young play-goer to his pillow and mix itself with his dreams.
Shakspeare has here given us a wild burst of uncontrolled and
uncontrollable rage, mixed with a deep pathos, which connects the
very terms of the curse with the cause of the passion,—an awful
prayer for a retribution as just as terrible. All this Mr. Forrest
evidently understood and felt; and he therefore made his audience
feel it with him. The almost supernatural energy with which Lear
seems to be carried on to the very termination of the malediction,
when the passion exhausts itself and him, was portrayed by Mr.
Forrest with fearful reality and effect. He also greatly excelled in the
passage,—

'No, you unnatural hags,

I will have such revenges on you both,
That all the world shall—I will do such things,—
What they are yet, I know not; but they shall be
The terrors of the earth.'

His delivery of these lines was marked with the same truth and
power as the curse, and very finely displayed the energy of will and
impotence of action which form so touching a combination in Lear's
character. But perhaps the very best point in Mr. Forrest's Lear,
because the most delicate and difficult passage for an actor to
realize, was his manner of giving the lines,—
 'My wits begin to turn.—
Come on, my boy: how dost, my boy? Art cold?
I am cold myself....
Poor fool and knave, I have one part in my heart
That's sorry yet for thee.'

This beautiful passage is extremely touching, and Mr. Forrest fully

felt and adequately illustrated its pathos and its beauty."
Another of the authorities in British journalism, whose title the writer
cannot recover, wrote thus:
"If Mr. Forrest is great in Othello, we do not hesitate to say he is
much greater in Lear. Here the verisimilitude is perfect. From the
moment of his entrance to the finely-portrayed death, every passion
which rages in that brain—the love, the madness, the ambition, the
despair—is given the more forcibly that it flashes through the
feebleness of age. In that powerful scene where the bereaved
monarch laments over his dead daughter, Mr. Forrest acted pre-
eminently well. He bears in her lifeless body and makes such a moan
over it as would force tears from a Stoic. None, we think, who heard
him put the plaintive but powerful interrogatory,—

'Why should a dog, a horse, a rat, have life,

And thou no breath at all?'—

followed by the bitter and melancholy reflection,—

'O! thou wilt come no more,

Never! never! never! never! never!'

will ever forget the anguish depicted on Mr. Forrest's features, or the
heart-piercing melancholy of his tones. Mr. Forrest evinced,
throughout, a fine conception of the character. He did not surprise
us by a burst of genius now and then. His performance was equable,
—it was distinguished in every part by deep and intense feeling. The
curse levelled against Goneril (one of the most fearful passages ever
penned by man) was given with awful force. The last member of the
speech—

'That she may feel

How sharper than a serpent's tooth it is
To have a thankless child!'—

was poured forth with an unrestrained but natural energy that acted
like an electric shock on the audience; a momentary silence
succeeded it; but immediately afterwards a simultaneous burst of
applause attested the great triumph of the actor. His mad-scenes,
when, delighting in a crown and sceptre of straw, Lear proclaims
himself 'every inch a king,' were admirably conceived, and no less
admirably acted. There was no straining after effect,—there was no
grimacery. We saw before us the 'poor, weak, and despised old
man,'—the 'more sinned against than sinning,'—reduced to a state
of second childhood, and paying the too severe penalty which his
folly and his credulity, in listening to the hyperboles of his elder
daughters and rejecting the true filial affection of his youngest and
once his most beloved child, exacted from him."
It may be well, also, to quote what was said by the "London Times"
of November 5th:
"The part of Lear is one which many otherwise eminent actors have
found above, or at least unsuited to, their capacities. Mr. Forrest
played it decidedly better than anything he has as yet essayed in this
country. His conception of the character is accurate, and his
execution was uncommonly powerful and effective. If it be, as it
cannot be disputed that it is, a test of an actor's skill that he is able
to rivet the attention of the audience, and so to engage their
thoughts and sympathies that they have not leisure even to applaud
on the instant, he may be said to have succeeded most completely
last night. From the beginning of the play to the end, it was obvious
that he exercised this power over the spectators. While he was
speaking, the most profound silence prevailed, and it was not until
he had concluded that the delight of the audience vented itself in
loud applause. This was particularly remarkable in his delivery of
Lear's curse upon his daughters, the effect of which was more
powerful than anything that has lately been done on the stage. It is
not, however, upon particular passages that the excellence of the
performance depended; its great merit was that it was a whole,
complete and finished. The spirit in which it began was equally
sustained throughout, and, as a delineation of character and
passion, it was natural, true, and vigorous, in a very remarkable
degree. The mad-scenes were admirably played; and the last painful
scene, so painful that it might well be dispensed with, was given
with considerable power. The great accuracy and fidelity with which
the decrepitude of the aged monarch was portrayed was not among
the least meritorious parts of the performance. The palsied head and
quivering limbs were so correctly given as to prove that the actor's
attention has been sedulously devoted to the attempt to make the
performance as perfect as possible. A striking proof of his sense of
the propriety of keeping up the illusion he had created was
manifested in his reappearance, in obedience to the loud and
general call of the audience, at the end of the tragedy. He came on,
preserving the same tottering gait which he had maintained
throughout, and bowed his thanks as much in the guise of Lear as
he had acted in the drama. This would have been almost ridiculous
in any but a very skilful actor: in him it served to prevent too sudden
a dissipation of the dramatic illusion."
The critical notices of the Macbeth of Forrest were of the same
average as the foregoing estimates of his other parts, though the
faults pointed out were generally of a description the exact opposite
of those currently ascribed to his acting. He was considered too
subdued and tame in the part:
"Mr. Forrest essayed the difficult character of Macbeth, for the first
time in this country, on Wednesday evening. We are inclined to think
that this highly-gifted actor has not often attempted this part;
because, though his performance displayed many noble traits of
genius, yet it could not, as a whole, boast of that equally-sustained
excellence by which his personation of Lear and of Othello was
distinguished. We were highly gratified by his exertions in that part
of the second act which commences with the 'dagger soliloquy,' and
ends with Macbeth's exit, overwhelmed with fear, horror, and
remorse. There is no man on the stage at present who could, in this
scene, produce so terrific an effect. Never did we see the bitterness
of remorse, the pangs of guilt-condemning conscience, so powerfully
portrayed. The storm of feeling by which the soul of Macbeth is
assailed, spoke in the agitated limbs of Mr. Forrest, and in the wild,
unearthly glare of his eye, ere he had uttered a word. On his
entrance after his bloody mission to Duncan's chamber, Mr. Forrest
introduced a new and a very striking point. Absorbed in the
recollection of the crime which he has committed, he does not
perceive Lady Macbeth till she seizes his arm. Then, acting under the
impulse of a mind fraught with horror, he starts back, uttering an
exclamation of fear, as if his way had been barred by some
supernatural power. This fine touch, so true to the scene and to
nature, drew down several rounds of applause. In the banquet
scene, too, his acting was very fine; and the greater part of the fifth
act was supported with extraordinary energy. That passage in which,
having heard that 'a wood does come toward Dunsinane,' Macbeth
exclaims to the messenger,—

'If thou speak'st false,

Upon the next tree shalt thou hang alive,
Till famine cling thee:—if thy speech be sooth,
I care not if thou dost for me as much,'—

was delivered with astonishing force. Mr. Forrest gave those

melancholy reminiscences which occasionally float over the
saddened mind of Macbeth with intense and searching feeling. There
was, however, in many parts of his performance a lack of power. Mr.
Forrest was too subdued,—too colloquial. The speech of Macbeth,
after the discovery of the murder,—
 'Had I but died an hour before this chance,
I had lived a blessed time,'—

was delivered with most inappropriate calmness. Macbeth would

have here 'assumed a virtue though he had it not,' and poured forth
his complainings in a louder tone. Again, Macbeth's answer to
Macduff, who demands why he has slain the sleepy grooms,—

'Who can be wise, amazed, temperate and furious,

Loyal and neutral, in a moment?—No man!'—

was wholly deficient in spirit, until Mr. Forrest came to the last
member of the sentence, which was given with due and proper
emphasis. In the rencounter with Macduff, where Macbeth declares
that he 'bears a charmed life,' the passage ought to be uttered as
the proud boast of one who was confident of supernatural
protection, and not in a taunting, sneering manner. Mr. Forrest's
error is on the right side, and is very easily corrected. Doubtless, in
his future performance of the character he will assume a higher tone
in those parts of the play to which we have alluded."
The Morning Chronicle said,—
"Mr. Forrest appeared last evening in the character of Macbeth, and
in the performance of it fully sustained the reputation he has already
obtained in the parts of Othello and Lear. Mr. Forrest brings to the
performance of Shakspeare's heroes an energy and vigor, tempered
with a taste and judgment, such as we rarely find combined in any
who venture to tread the stage. There is, besides, a reality in his
acting, an actual identification of himself with the character he
impersonates, stronger than in any actor we have ever seen. If this
was remarkable in his performance of Othello and Lear, it is not less
so in the performance of Macbeth. From the first act to the last—
from his first interview with the weird sisters, whose vague prophecy
instills into the mind that feeling of 'vaulting ambition' which leads
him to the commission of so many crimes, to the last scene, in which
he finds his charms dissolved, and begins, too late, to doubt 'the
equivocation of the fiend'—he carried the audience completely with
him, and made them at times wholly unmindful of the skill of the
actor, from the interest excited in the actions of Macbeth."
In addition to his renderings of Spartacus, Othello, Lear, and
Macbeth, Forrest appeared also as Damon, and achieved a success
similar to that he had won in the same part at home.
"The part of Damon is decidedly beneath Mr. Forrest's acknowledged
talents. No man could, however, have made more of the character
than he did, whether he appeared as the stern, uncompromising
patriot, the deep-feeling husband and father, or the generous and
devoted friend. His rebuke of the slavish senate, who crouch at the
feet of the tyrant Dionysius, was delivered with calm and earnest
dignity; but his two great scenes were that in which he learns that
his freedman, Lucullus, has slain his horse to prevent the anxious
Damon from arriving in time to rescue his beloved Pythias from the
hands of the executioner; and that with which the piece concludes,
where, breathless and exhausted, he rushes into the presence of his
despairing friend.
"The burst of passionate fury with which he assailed the affrighted
freedman, in the former scene, was awfully fearful; and his
expression of wild, frantic, overwhelming joy when he beholds
Pythias in safety, and can only manifest his feelings by hysteric
laughter, was perfectly true to nature. Mr. Forrest's performance was
most amply and justly applauded."
The actor had every reason to feel well pleased with the results of
his bold undertaking. His emotions are expressed in a letter written
to his mother under date of Liverpool, January 2d, 1837, in the
course of which he says,—
"Before this you have doubtless heard of my great triumphs in Drury
Lane Theatre; though I must confess I did not think they treated the
Gladiator and my friend Dr. Bird fairly. Yet, as far as regards myself, I
never have been more successful, even in my own dear land. In the
characters of Shakspeare alone would they hear me; and night after
night in overwhelming crowds they came, and showered their hearty
applause on my efforts. This, my dear mother, is a triumphant
refutation of those prejudiced opinions so often repeated of me in
America by a few ignorant scribblers, who but for the actors would
never have understood one line of the immortal bard."
But a fuller statement of his impressions in London, with interesting
glimpses of his social life there, is contained in a letter to Leggett:
"... My success in England has been very great. While the people
evinced no great admiration of the Gladiator, they came in crowds to
witness my personation of Othello, Lear, and Macbeth. I commenced
my engagement on the 17th of October at 'Old Drury,' and
terminated it on the 19th of December, having acted in all thirty-two
nights, and represented those three characters of Shakspeare
twenty-four out of the thirty-two, namely, Othello nine times,
Macbeth seven, and King Lear eight,—this last having been repeated
oftener by me than by any other actor on the London boards in the
same space of time, except Kean alone. This approbation of my
Shakspeare parts gives me peculiar pleasure, as it refutes the
opinions very confidently expressed by a certain clique at home that
I would fail in those characters before a London audience.
"But it is not only from my reception within the walls of the theatre
that I have reason to be pleased with my English friends. I have
received many grateful kindnesses in their hospitable homes, and in
their intellectual fireside circles have drunk both instruction and
delight. I suppose you saw in the newspapers that a dinner was
given to me by the Garrick Club. Serjeant Talfourd presided, and
made a very happy and complimentary speech, to which I replied.
Charles Kemble and Mr. Macready were there. The latter gentleman
has behaved in the handsomest manner to me. Before I arrived in
England, he had spoken of me in the most flattering terms, and on
my arrival he embraced the earliest opportunity to call upon me,
since which time he has extended to me many delicate courtesies
and attentions, all showing the native kindness of his heart, and
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