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Symbolic Math Toolbox™
User's Guide

R2020a
How to Contact MathWorks

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Phone: 508-647-7000

The MathWorks, Inc.

1 Apple Hill Drive
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Symbolic Math Toolbox™ User's Guide
© COPYRIGHT 1993–2020 by The MathWorks, Inc.
The software described in this document is furnished under a license agreement. The software may be used or copied
only under the terms of the license agreement. No part of this manual may be photocopied or reproduced in any form
without prior written consent from The MathWorks, Inc.
FEDERAL ACQUISITION: This provision applies to all acquisitions of the Program and Documentation by, for, or through
the federal government of the United States. By accepting delivery of the Program or Documentation, the government
hereby agrees that this software or documentation qualifies as commercial computer software or commercial computer
software documentation as such terms are used or defined in FAR 12.212, DFARS Part 227.72, and DFARS 252.227-7014.
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to and govern the use, modification, reproduction, release, performance, display, and disclosure of the Program and
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Revision History
August 1993 First printing
October 1994 Second printing
May 1997 Third printing Revised for Version 2
May 2000 Fourth printing Minor changes
June 2001 Fifth printing Minor changes
July 2002 Online only Revised for Version 2.1.3 (Release 13)
October 2002 Online only Revised for Version 3.0.1
December 2002 Sixth printing
June 2004 Seventh printing Revised for Version 3.1 (Release 14)
October 2004 Online only Revised for Version 3.1.1 (Release 14SP1)
March 2005 Online only Revised for Version 3.1.2 (Release 14SP2)
September 2005 Online only Revised for Version 3.1.3 (Release 14SP3)
March 2006 Online only Revised for Version 3.1.4 (Release 2006a)
September 2006 Online only Revised for Version 3.1.5 (Release 2006b)
March 2007 Online only Revised for Version 3.2 (Release 2007a)
September 2007 Online only Revised for Version 3.2.2 (Release 2007b)
March 2008 Online only Revised for Version 3.2.3 (Release 2008a)
October 2008 Online only Revised for Version 5.0 (Release 2008a+)
October 2008 Online only Revised for Version 5.1 (Release 2008b)
November 2008 Online only Revised for Version 4.9 (Release 2007b+)
March 2009 Online only Revised for Version 5.2 (Release 2009a)
September 2009 Online only Revised for Version 5.3 (Release 2009b)
March 2010 Online only Revised for Version 5.4 (Release 2010a)
September 2010 Online only Revised for Version 5.5 (Release 2010b)
April 2011 Online only Revised for Version 5.6 (Release 2011a)
September 2011 Online only Revised for Version 5.7 (Release 2011b)
March 2012 Online only Revised for Version 5.8 (Release 2012a)
September 2012 Online only Revised for Version 5.9 (Release 2012b)
March 2013 Online only Revised for Version 5.10 (Release 2013a)
September 2013 Online only Revised for Version 5.11 (Release 2013b)
March 2014 Online only Revised for Version 6.0 (Release 2014a)
October 2014 Online only Revised for Version 6.1 (Release 2014b)
March 2015 Online only Revised for Version 6.2 (Release 2015a)
September 2015 Online only Revised for Version 6.3 (Release 2015b)
March 2016 Online only Revised for Version 7.0 (Release 2016a)
September 2016 Online only Revised for Version 7.1 (Release 2016b)
March 2017 Online only Revised for Version 7.2 (Release 2017a)
September 2017 Online only Revised for Version 8.0 (Release 2017b)
March 2018 Online only Revised for Version 8.1 (Release 2018a)
September 2018 Online only Revised for Version 8.2 (Release 2018b)
March 2019 Online only Revised for Version 8.3 (Release 2019a)
September 2019 Online only Revised for Version 8.4 (Release 2019b)
March 2020 Online only Revised for Version 8.5 (Release 2020a)
 Contents

Getting Started
1
Symbolic Math Toolbox Product Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2
Key Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2

Create Symbolic Numbers, Variables, and Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3

Create Symbolic Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3
Create Symbolic Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3
Create Symbolic Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5
Reuse Names of Symbolic Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5

Create Symbolic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-7

Create Symbolic Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-9

Use Existing Symbolic Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-9
Generate Elements While Creating a Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-9
Create Matrix of Symbolic Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-10

Perform Symbolic Computations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-11

Differentiate Symbolic Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-11
Integrate Symbolic Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-12
Solve Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-13
Simplify Symbolic Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-15
Substitutions in Symbolic Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-16
Plot Symbolic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-18

Use Assumptions on Symbolic Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-24

Default Assumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-24
Set Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-24
Check Existing Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-25
Delete Symbolic Objects and Their Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-25

Using Symbolic Math Toolbox Software

2
Find Symbolic Variables in Expressions, Functions, Matrices . . . . . . . . . . 2-3
Find a Default Symbolic Variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3

Choose syms or sym Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5

Add Subscripts, Superscripts, and Accents to Symbolic Variables . . . . . . 2-8

Change Output Display Format of Symbolic Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12

v
 Copy and Paste Symbolic Output in Live Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-15

Units of Measurement Tutorial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-19

Define and Convert Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-19
Use Temperature Units in Absolute or Difference Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-20
Verify Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-20
Use Units in Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-22

Units and Unit Systems List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-25

Units List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-25
SI Unit Prefixes List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-35
Unit Systems List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-36
Defining Constants of SI Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-37

Unit Conversions and Unit Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-39

Convert Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-39
Temperature Unit Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-40
Convert to SI, CGS, or US Unit Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-40
Define Custom Unit System from Existing System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-42
Define Custom Unit System Directly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-43
Unit System Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-44

Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-46
Derivatives of Expressions with Several Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-47
More Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-48

Functional Derivatives Tutorial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-51

Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-56
One-Sided Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-56

Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-59
Integration with Real Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-61
Integration with Complex Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-62
High-Precision Numerical Integration Using Variable-Precision Arithmetic
..................................................... 2-63

Symbolic Summation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-65

Comparing symsum and sum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-65
Computational Speed of symsum versus sum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-65
Output Format Differences Between symsum and sum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-66

Taylor Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-67

Padé Approximant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-69

Find Asymptotes, Critical, and Inflection Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-76

Simplify Symbolic Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-81

Simplify Using Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-82
Simplify Using Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-84
Simplify Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-84

Solve Algebraic Equation Using Live Editor Task . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-86

vi Contents
Simplify Symbolic Expressions Using Live Editor Task . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-94

Abbreviate Common Terms in Long Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-101

Choose Function to Rearrange Expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-104

Combine Terms of Same Algebraic Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-104
Expand Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-105
Factor Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-106
Extract Subexpressions from Expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-108
Collect Terms with Same Powers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-108
Rewrite Expressions in Terms of Other Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-109
Compute Partial Fraction Decompositions of Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . 2-110
Compute Normal Forms of Rational Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-110
Represent Polynomials Using Horner Nested Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-111

Clear Assumptions and Reset the Symbolic Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-112

Check Assumptions Set on Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-113
Effects of Assumptions on Computations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-114

Extract Numerators and Denominators of Rational Expressions . . . . . 2-115

Substitute Variables in Symbolic Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-117

Substitute Elements in Symbolic Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-119

Substitute Scalars with Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-121

Evaluate Symbolic Expressions Using subs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-123

Choose Numeric or Symbolic Arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-124

Double-Precision Arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-124
Variable-Precision Arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-124
Symbolic Arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-125
Comparisons of Numeric and Symbolic Arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-126

Increase Precision of Numeric Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-128

Recognize and Avoid Round-Off Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-130

Use Symbolic Computations When Possible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-130
Perform Calculations with Increased Precision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-130
Compare Symbolic and Numeric Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-132
Plot the Function or Expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-132

Increase Speed by Reducing Precision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-134

Numeric to Symbolic Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-136

Conversion to Rational Symbolic Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-137
Conversion by Using Floating-Point Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-137
Conversion to Rational Symbolic Form with Error Term . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-137
Conversion to Decimal Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-138

Basic Algebraic Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-139

Linear Algebraic Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-141

Symbolic Hilbert Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-141

vii
 Symbolic Linear Algebra Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-141
Variable-Precision Arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-142
Symbolic Investigation of Singular Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-143

Eigenvalues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-145

Jordan Canonical Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-149

Singular Value Decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-151

Solve Algebraic Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-153

Solve an Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-153
Return the Full Solution to an Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-153
Work with the Full Solution, Parameters, and Conditions Returned by solve
.................................................... 2-154
Visualize and Plot Solutions Returned by solve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-155
Simplify Complicated Results and Improve Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-156

Solve a Second-Order Differential Equation Numerically . . . . . . . . . . . 2-157

Select Numeric or Symbolic Solver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-159

Solve System of Algebraic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-160

Handle the Output of solve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-160
Solve a Linear System of Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-162
Return the Full Solution of a System of Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-162
Solve a System of Equations Under Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-164
Work with Solutions, Parameters, and Conditions Returned by solve . . . 2-165
Convert Symbolic Results to Numeric Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-167
Simplify Complicated Results and Improve Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-168

Troubleshoot Equation Solutions from solve Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-169

Return Only Real Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-169
Apply Simplification Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-169
Use Assumptions to Narrow Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-170
Simplify Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-171
Tips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-171

Solve System of Linear Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-173

Solve System of Linear Equations Using linsolve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-173
Solve System of Linear Equations Using solve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-174

Solve Equations Numerically . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-176

Solve Differential Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-185

First-Order Linear ODE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-185
Solve Differential Equation with Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-185
Nonlinear Differential Equation with Initial Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-186
Second-Order ODE with Initial Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-186
Third-Order ODE with Initial Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-186
More ODE Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-187

Solve a System of Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-189

Solve System of Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-189
Solve Differential Equations in Matrix Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-191

viii Contents
Solve Differential Algebraic Equations (DAEs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-194

Solve Semilinear DAE System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-203

Step 1. Reduce Differential Index with reduceDAEToODE . . . . . . . . . . . 2-203
Step 2. ODEs to Function Handles for ode15s and ode23t . . . . . . . . . . . 2-203
Step 3. Initial Conditions for ode15s and ode23t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-204
Step 4. Solve an ODE System with ode15s or ode23t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-206

Solve DAEs Using Mass Matrix Solvers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-209

Step 1. Convert DAEs to Function Handles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-209
Step 2. Find Initial Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-210
Step 3. Solve DAE System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-211

Fourier and Inverse Fourier Transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-214

Fourier Transform Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-214
Concept: Using Symbolic Workflows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-214
Calculate Beam Deflection Using Fourier Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-214

Solve Differential Equations Using Laplace Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-218

Definition: Laplace Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-218
Concept: Using Symbolic Workflows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-218
Workflow: Solve RLC Circuit Using Laplace Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-218

Solve Difference Equations Using Z-Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-224

Definition: Z-transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-224
Concept: Using Symbolic Workflows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-224
Workflow: Solve "Rabbit Growth" Problem Using Z-Transform . . . . . . . 2-224
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-228

Create Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-229

Plot with Symbolic Plotting Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-229
Plot Functions Numerically . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-231
Plot Multiple Symbolic Functions in One Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-232
Plot Multiple Symbolic Functions in One Figure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-233
Combine Symbolic Function Plots and Numeric Data Plots . . . . . . . . . . 2-234
Combine Numeric and Symbolic Plots in 3-D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-236

Plotting in Spherical Coordinate System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-239

Analytical Solutions of the Inverse Kinematics of a Humanoid Robot 2-241

Analytical Model of Cantilever Truss Structure for Simscape . . . . . . . . 2-252

Estimate Model Parameters of a Symbolically Derived Plant Model in

Simulink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-260

Generate C or Fortran Code from Symbolic Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-266

Generate MATLAB Functions from Symbolic Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . 2-267

Generating a Function Handle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-267
Control the Order of Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-267
Generate a File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-268
Name Output Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-269

ix
 Generate MATLAB Function Blocks from Symbolic Expressions . . . . . 2-270
Generate and Edit a Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-270
Control the Order of Input Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-270
Name the Output Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-270

Generate Simscape Equations from Symbolic Expressions . . . . . . . . . . 2-272

Convert Algebraic and Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-272
Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-273

MuPAD to MATLAB Migration

3
MuPAD Engines and MATLAB Workspace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2

Convert MuPAD Notebooks to MATLAB Live Scripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3

Convert a MuPAD Notebook .mn to a MATLAB Live Script .mlx . . . . . . . . . 3-3
Convert MuPAD Graphics to MATLAB Graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3
Known Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4

Troubleshoot MuPAD to MATLAB Translation Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-8

Troubleshoot MuPAD to MATLAB Translation Warnings . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-15

Differences Between MATLAB and MuPAD Syntax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-20

Call Built-In MuPAD Functions from MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-22

evalin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-22
feval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-22
evalin vs. feval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-23
Floating-Point Arguments of evalin and feval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-23

Functions
4

x Contents
 1

Getting Started

• “Symbolic Math Toolbox Product Description” on page 1-2

• “Create Symbolic Numbers, Variables, and Expressions” on page 1-3
• “Create Symbolic Functions” on page 1-7
• “Create Symbolic Matrices” on page 1-9
• “Perform Symbolic Computations” on page 1-11
• “Use Assumptions on Symbolic Variables” on page 1-24
1 Getting Started

Symbolic Math Toolbox Product Description

Perform symbolic math computations

Symbolic Math Toolbox provides functions for solving, plotting, and manipulating symbolic math
equations. You can create, run, and share symbolic math code using the MATLAB Live Editor. The
toolbox provides functions in common mathematical areas such as calculus, linear algebra, algebraic
and ordinary differential equations, equation simplification, and equation manipulation.

Symbolic Math Toolbox lets you analytically perform differentiation, integration, simplification,
transforms, and equation solving. You can perform dimensional computations and conversions using
SI and US unit systems. Your computations can be performed either analytically or using variable-
precision arithmetic, with the results displayed in mathematical typeset.

You can share your symbolic work with other MATLAB users as live scripts or convert them to HTML
or PDF for publication. You can generate MATLAB functions, Simulink® function blocks, and
Simscape™ equations directly from symbolic expressions.

Key Features
• Symbolic integration, differentiation, transforms, and linear algebra
• Algebraic and ordinary differential equation (ODE) solvers
• Simplification and manipulation of symbolic expressions
• Unit systems for specifying, converting, and computing using SI, US, and custom unit systems
• Plotting of analytical functions in 2D and 3D
• Symbolic expression conversion to MATLAB, Simulink, Simscape, C, Fortran, and LaTeX code
• Variable-precision arithmetic

1-2
 Create Symbolic Numbers, Variables, and Expressions

Create Symbolic Numbers, Variables, and Expressions

This page shows how to create symbolic numbers, variables, and expressions. To learn how to work
with symbolic math, see “Perform Symbolic Computations” on page 1-11.

Create Symbolic Numbers

You can create symbolic numbers by using sym. Symbolic numbers are exact representations, unlike
floating-point numbers.

Create a symbolic number by using sym and compare it to the same floating-point number.
sym(1/3)
1/3

ans =
1/3
ans =
0.3333

The symbolic number is represented in exact rational form, while the floating-point number is a
decimal approximation. The symbolic result is not indented, while the standard MATLAB result is
indented.

Calculations on symbolic numbers are exact. Demonstrate this exactness by finding sin(pi)
symbolically and numerically. The symbolic result is exact, while the numeric result is an
approximation.
sin(sym(pi))
sin(pi)

ans =
0
ans =
1.2246e-16

To learn more about symbolic representation of numbers, see “Numeric to Symbolic Conversion” on
page 2-136.

Create Symbolic Variables

You can create symbolic variables using either syms or sym. Typical uses of these functions include:

• sym – Create numbered symbolic variables or create symbolic variables in MATLAB functions.
• syms – Create fresh symbolic variables for interactive symbolic workflows, that is, for symbolic
variable creation at the MATLAB command line or in MATLAB live scripts. A fresh symbolic
variable does not have any assumptions.

The syms command is shorthand for the sym syntax, but the two functions handle assumptions
differently. For more details, see “Reuse Names of Symbolic Objects” on page 1-5.

Create the symbolic variables x and y using syms and sym, respectively.
syms x
y = sym('y')

1-3
1 Getting Started

The first command creates a symbolic variable x in the MATLAB workspace with the value x assigned
to the variable x. The second command creates a symbolic variable y with the value y.

With syms, you can create multiple variables in one command. Create the variables a, b, and c.

syms a b c

If you want to create a MATLAB array of numbered symbolic variables, the syms syntax is
inconvenient. Therefore, use sym instead to create an array of many numbered symbolic variables.

Clear the workspace. Create a row vector containing the symbolic variables a1, ..., a20 and
assign it to the MATLAB variable A. Display the variable in the MATLAB workspace.

clear all
A = sym('a', [1 20])
whos

A =
[ a1, a2, a3, a4, a5, a6, a7, a8, a9, a10,...
a11, a12, a13, a14, a15, a16, a17, a18, a19, a20]

Name Size Bytes Class Attributes

A 1x20 8 sym

A is a 1-by-20 array of 20 symbolic variables.

By combining sym and syms, you can create many fresh symbolic variables with corresponding
variables name in the MATLAB workspace.

Clear the workspace. Create the fresh symbolic variables a1, ..., a10 and assign them the
MATLAB variable names a1, ..., a10, respectively. Display the variables in the MATLAB
workspace.

clear all
syms(sym('a', [1 10]))
whos

Name Size Bytes Class Attributes

a1 1x1 8 sym
a10 1x1 8 sym
a2 1x1 8 sym
a3 1x1 8 sym
a4 1x1 8 sym
a5 1x1 8 sym
a6 1x1 8 sym
a7 1x1 8 sym
a8 1x1 8 sym
a9 1x1 8 sym

The MATLAB workspace contains 10 MATLAB variables that are symbolic variables.

The syms command is a convenient shorthand for the sym syntax, and its typical use is to create fresh
symbolic variables for interactive symbolic workflows. Use the sym syntax to create the following:

• Symbolic variables in MATLAB functions

1-4
 Create Symbolic Numbers, Variables, and Expressions

• Many numbered symbolic variables

• Symbolic variable whose value differs from its name in the MATLAB workspace
• Symbolic number, such as sym(5)
• Symbolic variable that inherits the assumptions from a previously used symbolic variable having
the same name

Create Symbolic Expressions

Suppose you want to use a symbolic variable to represent the golden ratio

1+ 5
φ=
2

The command
phi = (1 + sqrt(sym(5)))/2;

achieves this goal. Now you can perform various mathematical operations on phi. For example,
f = phi^2 - phi - 1

returns
f =
(5^(1/2)/2 + 1/2)^2 - 5^(1/2)/2 - 3/2

Now suppose you want to study the quadratic function f = ax2 + bx + c. First, create the symbolic
variables a, b, c, and x:
syms a b c x

Then, assign the expression to f:

f = a*x^2 + b*x + c;

Tip To create a symbolic number, use the sym command. Do not use the syms function to create a
symbolic expression that is a constant. For example, to create the expression whose value is 5, enter
f = sym(5). The command f = 5 does not define f as a symbolic expression.

Reuse Names of Symbolic Objects

If you set a variable equal to a symbolic expression, and then apply the syms command to the
variable, MATLAB software removes the previously defined expression from the variable. For
example,
syms a b
f = a + b

returns
f =
a + b

If later you enter

1-5
1 Getting Started

syms f
f

then MATLAB removes the value a + b from the expression f:

f =
f

You can use the syms command to clear variables of definitions that you previously assigned to them
in your MATLAB session. syms clears the assumptions of the variables: complex, real, integer, and
positive. These assumptions are stored separately from the symbolic object. However, recreating a
variable using sym does not clear its assumptions. For more information, see “Delete Symbolic
Objects and Their Assumptions” on page 1-25.

See Also

More About
• “Create Symbolic Functions” on page 1-7
• “Create Symbolic Matrices” on page 1-9
• “Choose syms or sym Function” on page 2-5
• “Perform Symbolic Computations” on page 1-11
• “Use Assumptions on Symbolic Variables” on page 1-24

1-6
 Create Symbolic Functions

Create Symbolic Functions

Symbolic functions represent math functions. Use symbolic functions for differentiation, integration,
solving ODEs, and other math operations. Create symbolic functions by using syms.

Create a symbolic function f with variables x and y by using syms. Creating f automatically creates
x and y.

syms f(x,y)

Assign a mathematical expression to f.

f(x,y) = x^2*y

f(x, y) =
x^2*y

Find the value of f at (3,2).

f(3,2)

ans =
18

Symbolic functions accept array inputs. Calculate f for multiple values of x and y.

xVal = 1:5;
yVal = 3:7;
f(xVal,yVal)

ans =
[ 3, 16, 45, 96, 175]

You can differentiate symbolic functions, integrate or simplify them, substitute their arguments with
values, and perform other mathematical operations. For example, find the derivative of f(x,y) with
respect to x. The result dfx is also a symbolic function.

dfx = diff(f,x)

dfx(x,y) =
2*x*y

Calculate df(x,y) at x = y + 1.

dfx(y+1,y)

ans =
2*y*(y + 1)

If you are creating a constant function, such as f(x,y) = 1, you must first create f(x,y). If you do
not create f(x,y), then the assignment f(x,y) = 1 throws an error.

1-7
1 Getting Started

See Also

More About
• “Create Symbolic Numbers, Variables, and Expressions” on page 1-3
• “Create Symbolic Matrices” on page 1-9
• “Perform Symbolic Computations” on page 1-11
• “Use Assumptions on Symbolic Variables” on page 1-24

1-8
 Create Symbolic Matrices

Create Symbolic Matrices

In this section...
“Use Existing Symbolic Variables” on page 1-9
“Generate Elements While Creating a Matrix” on page 1-9
“Create Matrix of Symbolic Numbers” on page 1-10

Use Existing Symbolic Variables

A circulant matrix has the property that each row is obtained from the previous one by cyclically
permuting the entries one step forward. For example, create the symbolic circulant matrix whose
elements are a, b, and c, using the commands:

syms a b c
A = [a b c; c a b; b c a]

A =
[ a, b, c]
[ c, a, b]
[ b, c, a]

Since matrix A is circulant, the sum of elements over each row and each column is the same. Find the
sum of all the elements of the first row:

sum(A(1,:))

ans =
a + b + c

To check if the sum of the elements of the first row equals the sum of the elements of the second
column, use the isAlways function:

isAlways(sum(A(1,:)) == sum(A(:,2)))

The sums are equal:

ans =
logical
1

From this example, you can see that using symbolic objects is very similar to using regular MATLAB
numeric objects.

Generate Elements While Creating a Matrix

The sym function also lets you define a symbolic matrix or vector without having to define its
elements in advance. In this case, the sym function generates the elements of a symbolic matrix at
the same time that it creates a matrix. The function presents all generated elements using the same
form: the base (which must be a valid variable name), a row index, and a column index. Use the first
argument of sym to specify the base for the names of generated elements. You can use any valid
variable name as a base. To check whether the name is a valid variable name, use the isvarname
function. By default, sym separates a row index and a column index by underscore. For example,
create the 2-by-4 matrix A with the elements A1_1, ..., A2_4:

1-9
1 Getting Started

A = sym('A', [2 4])

A =
[ A1_1, A1_2, A1_3, A1_4]
[ A2_1, A2_2, A2_3, A2_4]

To control the format of the generated names of matrix elements, use %d in the first argument:

A = sym('A%d%d', [2 4])

A =
[ A11, A12, A13, A14]
[ A21, A22, A23, A24]

Create Matrix of Symbolic Numbers

A particularly effective use of sym is to convert a matrix from numeric to symbolic form. The
command

A = hilb(3)

generates the 3-by-3 Hilbert matrix:

A =
1.0000 0.5000 0.3333
0.5000 0.3333 0.2500
0.3333 0.2500 0.2000

By applying sym to A

A = sym(A)

you can obtain the precise symbolic form of the 3-by-3 Hilbert matrix:

A =
[ 1, 1/2, 1/3]
[ 1/2, 1/3, 1/4]
[ 1/3, 1/4, 1/5]

For more information on numeric to symbolic conversions, see “Numeric to Symbolic Conversion” on
page 2-136.

See Also

More About
• “Create Symbolic Numbers, Variables, and Expressions” on page 1-3
• “Create Symbolic Functions” on page 1-7
• “Perform Symbolic Computations” on page 1-11
• “Use Assumptions on Symbolic Variables” on page 1-24

1-10
 Perform Symbolic Computations

Perform Symbolic Computations

In this section...
“Differentiate Symbolic Expressions” on page 1-11
“Integrate Symbolic Expressions” on page 1-12
“Solve Equations” on page 1-13
“Simplify Symbolic Expressions” on page 1-15
“Substitutions in Symbolic Expressions” on page 1-16
“Plot Symbolic Functions” on page 1-18

Differentiate Symbolic Expressions

With the Symbolic Math Toolbox software, you can find

• Derivatives of single-variable expressions

• Partial derivatives
• Second and higher order derivatives
• Mixed derivatives

For in-depth information on taking symbolic derivatives see “Differentiation” on page 2-46.

Expressions with One Variable

To differentiate a symbolic expression, use the diff command. The following example illustrates how
to take a first derivative of a symbolic expression:

syms x
f = sin(x)^2;
diff(f)

ans =
2*cos(x)*sin(x)

Partial Derivatives

For multivariable expressions, you can specify the differentiation variable. If you do not specify any
variable, MATLAB chooses a default variable by its proximity to the letter x:

syms x y
f = sin(x)^2 + cos(y)^2;
diff(f)

ans =
2*cos(x)*sin(x)

For the complete set of rules MATLAB applies for choosing a default variable, see “Find a Default
Symbolic Variable” on page 2-3.

To differentiate the symbolic expression f with respect to a variable y, enter:

1-11
1 Getting Started

syms x y
f = sin(x)^2 + cos(y)^2;
diff(f, y)

ans =
-2*cos(y)*sin(y)

Second Partial and Mixed Derivatives

To take a second derivative of the symbolic expression f with respect to a variable y, enter:

syms x y
f = sin(x)^2 + cos(y)^2;
diff(f, y, 2)

ans =
2*sin(y)^2 - 2*cos(y)^2

You get the same result by taking derivative twice: diff(diff(f, y)). To take mixed derivatives,
use two differentiation commands. For example:

syms x y
f = sin(x)^2 + cos(y)^2;
diff(diff(f, y), x)

ans =
0

Integrate Symbolic Expressions

You can perform symbolic integration including:

• Indefinite and definite integration

• Integration of multivariable expressions

For in-depth information on the int command including integration with real and complex
parameters, see “Integration” on page 2-59.

Indefinite Integrals of One-Variable Expressions

Suppose you want to integrate a symbolic expression. The first step is to create the symbolic
expression:

syms x
f = sin(x)^2;

To find the indefinite integral, enter

int(f)

ans =
x/2 - sin(2*x)/4

Indefinite Integrals of Multivariable Expressions

If the expression depends on multiple symbolic variables, you can designate a variable of integration.
If you do not specify any variable, MATLAB chooses a default variable by the proximity to the letter x:

1-12
 Perform Symbolic Computations

syms x y n
f = x^n + y^n;
int(f)

ans =
x*y^n + (x*x^n)/(n + 1)

For the complete set of rules MATLAB applies for choosing a default variable, see “Find a Default
Symbolic Variable” on page 2-3.

You also can integrate the expression f = x^n + y^n with respect to y

syms x y n
f = x^n + y^n;
int(f, y)

ans =
x^n*y + (y*y^n)/(n + 1)

If the integration variable is n, enter

syms x y n
f = x^n + y^n;
int(f, n)

ans =
x^n/log(x) + y^n/log(y)

Definite Integrals

To find a definite integral, pass the limits of integration as the final two arguments of the int
function:

syms x y n
f = x^n + y^n;
int(f, 1, 10)

ans =
piecewise(n == -1, log(10) + 9/y, n ~= -1,...
(10*10^n - 1)/(n + 1) + 9*y^n)

If MATLAB Cannot Find a Closed Form of an Integral

If the int function cannot compute an integral, it returns an unresolved integral:

syms x
int(sin(sinh(x)))

ans =
int(sin(sinh(x)), x)

Solve Equations
You can solve different types of symbolic equations including:

• Algebraic equations with one symbolic variable

• Algebraic equations with several symbolic variables

1-13
1 Getting Started

• Systems of algebraic equations

For in-depth information on solving symbolic equations including differential equations, see “Equation
Solving”.

Solve Algebraic Equations with One Symbolic Variable

Use the double equal sign (==) to define an equation. Then you can solve the equation by calling
the solve function. For example, solve this equation:

syms x
solve(x^3 - 6*x^2 == 6 - 11*x)

ans =
1
2
3

If you do not specify the right side of the equation, solve assumes that it is zero:

syms x
solve(x^3 - 6*x^2 + 11*x - 6)

ans =
1
2
3

Solve Algebraic Equations with Several Symbolic Variables

If an equation contains several symbolic variables, you can specify a variable for which this equation
should be solved. For example, solve this multivariable equation with respect to y:

syms x y
solve(6*x^2 - 6*x^2*y + x*y^2 - x*y + y^3 - y^2 == 0, y)

ans =
1
2*x
-3*x

If you do not specify any variable, you get the solution of an equation for the alphabetically closest to
x variable. For the complete set of rules MATLAB applies for choosing a default variable see “Find a
Default Symbolic Variable” on page 2-3.

Solve Systems of Algebraic Equations

You also can solve systems of equations. For example:

syms x y z
[x, y, z] = solve(z == 4*x, x == y, z == x^2 + y^2)

x =
0
2

y =
0

1-14
 Perform Symbolic Computations

z =
0
8

Simplify Symbolic Expressions

Symbolic Math Toolbox provides a set of simplification functions allowing you to manipulate the
output of a symbolic expression. For example, the following polynomial of the golden ratio phi

phi = (1 + sqrt(sym(5)))/2;
f = phi^2 - phi - 1

returns

f =
(5^(1/2)/2 + 1/2)^2 - 5^(1/2)/2 - 3/2

You can simplify this answer by entering

simplify(f)

and get a very short answer:

ans =
0

Symbolic simplification is not always so straightforward. There is no universal simplification function,

because the meaning of a simplest representation of a symbolic expression cannot be defined clearly.
Different problems require different forms of the same mathematical expression. Knowing what form
is more effective for solving your particular problem, you can choose the appropriate simplification
function.

For example, to show the order of a polynomial or symbolically differentiate or integrate a

polynomial, use the standard polynomial form with all the parentheses multiplied out and all the
similar terms summed up. To rewrite a polynomial in the standard form, use the expand function:

syms x
f = (x ^2- 1)*(x^4 + x^3 + x^2 + x + 1)*(x^4 - x^3 + x^2 - x + 1);
expand(f)

ans =
x^10 - 1

The factor simplification function shows the polynomial roots. If a polynomial cannot be factored
over the rational numbers, the output of the factor function is the standard polynomial form. For
example, to factor the third-order polynomial, enter:

syms x
g = x^3 + 6*x^2 + 11*x + 6;
factor(g)

ans =
[ x + 3, x + 2, x + 1]

The nested (Horner) representation of a polynomial is the most efficient for numerical evaluations:

1-15
1 Getting Started

syms x
h = x^5 + x^4 + x^3 + x^2 + x;
horner(h)

ans =
x*(x*(x*(x*(x + 1) + 1) + 1) + 1)

For a list of Symbolic Math Toolbox simplification functions, see “Choose Function to Rearrange
Expression” on page 2-104.

Substitutions in Symbolic Expressions

Substitute Symbolic Variables with Numbers

You can substitute a symbolic variable with a numeric value by using the subs function. For example,
evaluate the symbolic expression f at the point x = 1/3:

syms x
f = 2*x^2 - 3*x + 1;
subs(f, 1/3)

ans =
2/9

The subs function does not change the original expression f:

f =
2*x^2 - 3*x + 1

Substitute in Multivariate Expressions

When your expression contains more than one variable, you can specify the variable for which you
want to make the substitution. For example, to substitute the value x = 3 in the symbolic expression

syms x y
f = x^2*y + 5*x*sqrt(y);

enter the command

subs(f, x, 3)

ans =
9*y + 15*y^(1/2)

Substitute One Symbolic Variable for Another

You also can substitute one symbolic variable for another symbolic variable. For example to replace
the variable y with the variable x, enter

subs(f, y, x)

ans =
x^3 + 5*x^(3/2)

1-16
 Perform Symbolic Computations

Substitute a Matrix into a Polynomial

You can also substitute a matrix into a symbolic polynomial with numeric coefficients. There are two
ways to substitute a matrix into a polynomial: element by element and according to matrix
multiplication rules.
Element-by-Element Substitution

To substitute a matrix at each element, use the subs command:

syms x
f = x^3 - 15*x^2 - 24*x + 350;
A = [1 2 3; 4 5 6];
subs(f,A)

ans =
[ 312, 250, 170]
[ 78, -20, -118]

You can do element-by-element substitution for rectangular or square matrices.

Substitution in a Matrix Sense

If you want to substitute a matrix into a polynomial using standard matrix multiplication rules, a
matrix must be square. For example, you can substitute the magic square A into a polynomial f:

1 Create the polynomial:

syms x
f = x^3 - 15*x^2 - 24*x + 350;
2 Create the magic square matrix:

A = magic(3)

A =
8 1 6
3 5 7
4 9 2
3 Get a row vector containing the numeric coefficients of the polynomial f:

b = sym2poly(f)

b =
1 -15 -24 350
4 Substitute the magic square matrix A into the polynomial f. Matrix A replaces all occurrences of
x in the polynomial. The constant times the identity matrix eye(3) replaces the constant term of
f:

A^3 - 15*A^2 - 24*A + 350*eye(3)

ans =
-10 0 0
0 -10 0
0 0 -10

The polyvalm command provides an easy way to obtain the same result:

polyvalm(b,A)

1-17
1 Getting Started

ans =
-10 0 0
0 -10 0
0 0 -10

Substitute the Elements of a Symbolic Matrix

To substitute a set of elements in a symbolic matrix, also use the subs command. Suppose you want
to replace some of the elements of a symbolic circulant matrix A

syms a b c
A = [a b c; c a b; b c a]

A =
[ a, b, c]
[ c, a, b]
[ b, c, a]

To replace the (2, 1) element of A with beta and the variable b throughout the matrix with variable
alpha, enter

alpha = sym('alpha');
beta = sym('beta');
A(2,1) = beta;
A = subs(A,b,alpha)

The result is the matrix:

A =
[ a, alpha, c]
[ beta, a, alpha]
[ alpha, c, a]

For more information, see “Substitute Elements in Symbolic Matrices” on page 2-119.

Plot Symbolic Functions

Symbolic Math Toolbox provides the plotting functions:

• fplot to create 2-D plots of symbolic expressions, equations, or functions in Cartesian

coordinates.
• fplot3 to create 3-D parametric plots.
• ezpolar to create plots in polar coordinates.
• fsurf to create surface plots.
• fcontour to create contour plots.
• fmesh to create mesh plots.

Explicit Function Plot

Create a 2-D line plot by using fplot. Plot the expression x3 − 6x2 + 11x − 6.

syms x
f = x^3 - 6*x^2 + 11*x - 6;
fplot(f)

1-18
 Perform Symbolic Computations

Add labels for the x- and y-axes. Generate the title by using texlabel(f). Show the grid by using
grid on. For details, see “Add Title and Axis Labels to Chart” (MATLAB).

xlabel('x')
ylabel('y')
title(texlabel(f))
grid on

1-19
Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
Broadway and shout, have suddenly lost my voice. I can only report
in a whisper!
My chief looks at me in concern. “For God’s sake, girl,” he says,
“go somewhere and go to bed!”
 CHAPTER III
Her Country’s Call
One Thousand Women Wanted! You may read it on a great
canvas sign that stretches across an industrial establishment in
lower Manhattan. The owner of this factory who put it there, only
knows that it is an advertisement for labour of which he finds himself
suddenly in need. But he has all unwittingly really written a
proclamation that is a sign of the times.
Across the Atlantic I studied that proclamation in Old World cities.
Women Wanted! Women Wanted! The capitals of Europe have been
for four years placarded with the sign. And now we in America are
writing it on our sky line. All over the world see it on the street-car
barns as on the colleges. It is hung above the factories and the coal
mines, the halls of government and the farm-yards and the arsenals
and even the War Office. Everywhere from the fireside to the firing
line, country after country has taken up the call. Now it has become
the insistent chorus of civilisation: Women Wanted! Women Wanted!
But yesterday the great war was a phenomenon to which we in
America thrilled only as its percussions reverberated around the
world. Now our own soldiers are marching down Main Street. But
their uniforms still are new. Wait. Soon here too one shall choke with
that sob in the throat. Oh, I am walking again in the garden of the
Tuileries on a day when I had seen war without the flags flying and
the bands playing. It was dead men and disabled men and hospitals
full and insane asylums full and cemeteries full. “You have to
remember,” said a voice at my side, “that all freedoms since the
world began have had to be fought for. They still have to be.”
So I repeat it now for you, the women of America, resolutely to
remember. And get our your Robert Brownings! Read it over and
over again, “God’s in his heaven.” For there are going to be days
when it will seem that God has quite gone away. Still He hasn’t.
Suddenly in a lifting of the war clouds above the blackest battle
smoke, we shall see again His face as a flashing glimpse of some
new freedom lights for an instant the darkened heavens above the
globe of the world. Already there has been a Russian revolution
which may portend the end of a German monarchy. In England a
new democracy has buckled on the sword of a dead aristocracy. And
a great Commoner is at the helm of state. But with all the freedoms
they are winning, there is one for which not the most decorated
general has any idea he’s fighting. I am not sure but it is the greatest
freedom of all: when woman wins the race wins. The new democracy
for which a world has taken up arms, for the first time since the
history of civilisation began, is going to be real democracy. There is a
light that is breaking high behind all the battle lines! Look! There on
the horizon in those letters of blood that promise of the newest
freedom of all. When it is finished—the awful throes of this red agony
in which a world is being reborn—there is going to be a place in the
Sun for women.
Listen, hear the call, Women Wanted! Women Wanted! Last
Spring the Government pitched a khaki colored tent in your town on
the vacant lot just beyond the post office, say. How many men have
enlisted there? Perhaps there are seventy-five who have gone from
the factory across the creek, and the receiving teller at the First
National Bank, and the new principal of the High School where the
children were getting along so well, and the doctor that everybody
had because they liked him so much.
And, oh, last week at dinner your own husband had but just
finished carving when he looked across the table and said: “Dear, I
can’t stand it any longer. I’m going to get into this fight to make the
world right.” You know how your face went white and your heart for
an instant stopped beating. But what I don’t believe you do know is
that you are at this moment getting ready to play your part in one of
the most tremendous epochs of the world. It is not only Liège and
the Marne and Somme, and Haig and Joffre and Pétain and
Pershing who are making history to-day. Keokuk, Iowa, and
Kalamazoo, Mich., and Little Falls, N. Y., are too—and you and the
woman who lives next door!
 THE NEW WOMAN MOVEMENT
Every man who enlists at that tent near the post office is going to
leave a job somewhere whether it’s at the factory or the doctor’s
office or the school teacher’s desk, or whether it’s your husband.
That job will have to be taken by a woman. It’s what happened in
Europe. It’s what now we may see happen here. A great many
women will have a wage envelope who never had it before. That
may mean affluence to a housefull of daughters. One, two, three,
four wage envelopes in a family where father’s used to be the only
one. You even may have to go out to earn enough to support
yourself and the babies. Yes, I know your husband’s army pay and
the income from investments carefully accumulated through the
savings of your married life, will help quite a little. But with the ever
rising war cost of living, it may not be enough. It hasn’t been for
thousands of homes in Europe. And eventually you too may go to
work as other women have. It’s very strange, is it not, for you of all
women who have always believed that woman’s place was the
home. And you may even have been an “anti,” a most earnest
advocate of an ancient régime against which whole societies and
associations of what yesterday were called “advanced” women
organised their “suffrage” protests.
To-day no one any longer has to believe what is woman’s place.
No woman even has anything to say about it. Read everywhere the
signs: Women Wanted! Here in New York we are seeing shipload
after shipload of men going out to sea in khaki. We don’t know how
many boat loads like that will go down the bay. But for an army of
every million American men in Europe, there must be mobilised
another million women to take their places behind the lines here
3,000 miles away from the guns, to carry on the auxiliary operations
without which the armies in the field could not exist.
In the department store where you shopped to-day you noticed an
elevator girl had arrived, where the operator always before has been
a boy! Outside the window of my country house here as I write, off
on that field on the hillside a woman is working, who never worked
there before. At Lexington, Mass., I read in my morning paper, the
Rev. Christopher Walter Collier has gone to the front in France and
his wife has been unanimously elected by the congregation to fill the
pulpit during his absence. Sometimes women by the hundred step
into new vacancies. The Æolian Company is advertising for women
as piano salesmen and has established a special school for their
instruction. A Chicago manufacturing plant has hung out over its
employment gate the announcement, “Man’s work, man’s pay for all
women who can qualify,” and within a week two hundred women
were at work. The Pennsylvania railroad, which has rigidly opposed
the employment of women on its office staffs, in June, 1917,
announced a change of policy and took on in its various departments
five hundred women and girls. The Municipal Service Commission in
New York last fall was holding its first examination to admit women to
the position of junior draughtsmen in the city’s employ. The Civil
Service Commission at Washington, preparing to release every
possible man from government positions for war service, had
compiled a list of 10,000 women eligible for clerical work in
government departments.
Like that it is happening all about us. This is the new woman
movement. And you’re in it. We all are. I know: you may never have
carried a suffrage banner or marched in a suffrage procession or so
much as addressed a suffrage campaign envelope. But you’re
“moving” to-day just the same if you’ve only so much as rolled a Red
Cross bandage or signed a Food Administration pledge offered you
by the women’s committee of the Council of National Defence. All
the women of the world are moving.
“Suffrage de la morte,” a Senator on the Seine has termed the
vote offered the French feminists in the form of a proposition that
every man dying on the field of battle may transfer his ballot to a
woman whom he shall designate. And the French women have
drawn back in horror, exclaiming: “We don’t want a dead man’s vote.
We want only our own vote.” Nevertheless it is something like this
which is occurring.
And we may shudder, but we may not draw back. It is by way of
the place de la morte, that women are moving inexorably to-day into
industry and commerce and the professions, on to strange new
destinies that shall not be denied.
 There on the firing line a bullet whizzes straight to the mark. A
man drops dead in the trenches. Some wife’s husband, some girl’s
sweetheart who before he was a soldier was a wage earner, never
will be more. Back home another woman who had been temporarily
enrolled in the ranks of industry, steps forward, enlisted for life in the
army of labour.
Dear God, what a price to pay for the freedom the feminists have
asked. But this is not our woman movement. This is His woman
movement, who moves in mysterious ways His ends to command.
We may not know. And we do not understand. But as we watch the
war clouds, we see, as it were in the lightning flash of truth, the
illuminated way that is opening for women throughout the world. It is
westward to us that this star of opportunity has taken its course
directly from above the battlefields of Europe.

A WOMAN OF YESTERDAY LOOKS ON

Women Wanted! Women Wanted! I am hearing it again over there.
Outside the windows of my London hotel in Piccadilly, a shaft of
sharp white light played against the blackness of the London sky.
Down these beams that searched the night for enemy Zeppelins, a
woman’s figure softly moved. And as I looked, the close drawn
curtains of my room, it seemed, parted and she stepped lightly
across the window sill. She was gowned in a quaint, old-time
costume. “They’re not wearing them to-day,” I smiled.
She looked down at her cotton gown stamped with the broad
arrows of Holloway jail. There were women, you know, who suffered
and died in that prison garb. The way of the broad arrow used to be
the way of the cross for the woman’s cause.
“You ought to see the new styles,” I said. “Governments are
getting out so many new decorations for women.”
“Tell me,” she answered. “Up in heaven we have heard that it is
so. And I have come to see.”
So we went out together, the Soul of a Suffragette and I, to look on
the Great Push of the new woman movement that is swinging down
the twentieth century in sweeping battalions. It has the middle of the
road and all the gates ahead are open wide. No ukase of parliament
or king halts it. No church dogma anathematises it. No social edict
ostracises it. The police do not arrest it and the hooligans do not
mob it. No, indeed! The applauding populace that’s crying “Place aux
dames” would not tolerate any such treatment as that. And in fact, I
don’t think there’s any one left in the world who would want to so
much as pull out a hairpin of this triumphant processional.
You see, it’s so very different from the woman movement of
yesterday. That was the crusade of the pioneers who gave their lives
in the struggling service of an unpopular ideal. Who wanted feminists
free to find themselves? Even women themselves came haltingly as
recruits. But this is a pageant, with Everywoman crowding for place
at her country’s call. And who would not adore to be a patriot? It is
with flying colors, albeit to the solemn measures of a Dead March
that the new columns are coming on.
It is the Woman Movement against which all the parliaments of
men shall never again prevail. Majestically, with sure and rhythmic
tread, it is moving, not under its own power of propaganda, but
propelled by fearful cosmic forces. At the compulsion of a sublime
destiny accelerated under the ægis of a war office press bureau,
suffragists pro and anti alike are gathered in. Theirs no longer to
reason why. For see, they are keeping step, always keeping step
with the armies at the front!
There is a new offensive on the Somme. There is a defeat at the
Yser, a victory at Verdun or Marne. The dead men lie deep in the
trenches! The war office combs out new regiments to face the hell-
fire of shrapnel and the woman movement in all nations joins up new
recruits to fill the vacant places from which the men, about to die, are
steadily enlisted. See the sign of the times. I point it out to My
Suffragette: “Women Wanted.” With each year of war the demand
becomes more insistent. Women Wanted! Women Wanted!
“But they didn’t used to be,” she gasps in amazement.
And of course, I too remember when the world was barricaded
against everywhere a woman wanted to go beyond the dishpan and
the wash tub and the nursery. It all seems now such a long while
ago.
“Dear old-fashioned girl,” I reply, “women no longer have to smash
a way anywhere. They’ll even be sending after you if you don’t
come.”
When the militants of England signed with their government the
truce which abrogated for the period of the war the Cat and Mouse
Act with which they had been pursued, it was the formal
announcement to the world of the cessation of suffrage activities
while the nations settled other issues. From Berlin to Paris and
London, feminists acquiesced in the decision arrived at in Kingsway.
It seemed indeed that the woman’s cause was going to wait. But is it
not written: “Whoso loseth his life,” etc., “shall find it.”
Women Wanted! Women Wanted! “Listen,” I say to the Soul of a
Suffragette, as we stand in the Strand. “You hear it? And it’s like that
in the Avenue de l’Opéra and in Unter den Linden and in Petrograd
and now in Broadway. To every woman, it is her country’s call to
service.”
I think we may write it down in history that on August 14, 1914, the
door of the Doll’s House opened. She who stood at the threshold
where the tides of the ages surged, waved a brave farewell to lines
of gleaming bayonets going down the street. Then the clock on her
mantel ticked off the wonderful moment of the centuries that only
God himself had planned. The force primeval that had held her in
bondage, this it was that should set her free. As straight as ever she
went before to the altar and the cook stove and the cradle, she
stepped out now into the wide wide world, the woman behind the
man behind the gun.
“See,” I say to My Suffragette, “not all the political economists from
John Stuart Mill to Ellen Key could have accomplished it. Not even
your spectacular martyrdom was able to achieve it. But now it is
done. For lo, the password the feminists have sought, is found. And
it is Love—not logic!”
 There are, the statisticians tell us, more than twenty million men
numbered among the embattled hosts out there at the front where
the future of the human race is being fought for. Modern warfare has
most terrible engines of destruction. But with all of these at
command, there is not a brigade of soldiers that could stand against
their foes without the aid of the women who in the last analysis are
holding the line.
Who is it that is feeding and clothing and nursing the greatest
armies of history? See that soldier in the trenches? A woman raised
the grain for the bread, a woman is tending the flocks that provided
the meat for his rations to-day. A woman made the boots and the
uniform in which he stands. A woman made the shells with which his
gun is loaded. A woman will nurse him when he’s wounded. A
woman’s ambulance may even pick him up on the battlefield. A
woman surgeon may perform the operation to save his life. And
somewhere back home a woman holds the job he had to leave
behind. There is no task to which women have not turned to-day to
carry on civilisation. For the shot that was fired in Serbia summoned
men to their most ancient occupation—and women to every other.
“All the suffrage flags are furled?” questions My Suffragette
incredulously, as we pass through the streets where once her
banners waved most militantly. “Gone with your broad arrows of
yesterday,” I affirm. “And you should see our modern styles.”

NEW COSTUMES FOR NEW WOMEN

When women stood at the threshold listening breathlessly that
August day, there was one costume ready and laid out by the
nations for their wear in every land. Coronets and shimmering ball
gowns, cap and gown in university corridors and plain little home
made dresses in rose bowered cottages were alike exchanged for
the new uniform and insignia. And the woman who set the sign of the
red cross in the centre of her forehead appeared in her white gown
and her flowing white head dress all over Europe as instantaneously
as a new skirt ever flashed out in the pages of a fashion magazine.
To her, every country called as naturally, as spontaneously as a hurt
child might turn to its mother. She it is who has worn the red cross to
her transfiguration in this new Woman Movement with one of the
largest detachments in hospital service. See her on the sinking
hospital ships in the Channel or the Dardanelles, insisting on
“wounded soldiers first” as she passes her charges to safety, and
waiting behind herself goes quietly under the water. And with
bandaged eyes she has even walked unflinchingly to death before
the levelled guns of the enemy soldiery, as did Edith Cavell in
Belgium who went with her red cross to immortality. All the world has
been breathless before the figure of the woman who dies to-day for
her country like a soldier. No one knew that the Red Cross would be
carried to these heights of Calvary. But from the day that the great
slaughter began, it was accepted as a matter of course that woman’s
place was going to be at the bedside of the wounded soldier. Even
as the troops buckled on sword and pistol and the departing
regiments began to move, it was made sure that she should be
waiting for them on their return.
In Germany in the first month of the war, no less than 70,000
women of the Vaterlandischer Frauenverein, trained in first aid to the
injured, had arrived at the doors of the Reichstag to offer themselves
for Red Cross service.
I remember in the spring of 1914 to have stood at Cecilienhaus in
Charlottenburg. Cecilienhaus with its crèche and its maternity care
and its folks kitchens and its workingmen’s gardens, was devoted to
the welfare work in which the Vaterlandischer Frauenverein of the
nation was engaged. Frau Oberin Hanna Kruger showed me with
pride all these social activities. Then she looked away down the
Berliner Strasse and said: “But when war comes—” Had I heard
aright? That you know was in May, 1914. But she repeated: “When
war comes we are going to be able to take care of seventy-five
soldiers in this dining-room and in that maternity ward we shall be
able to have beds for a dozen officers.” All over Germany the half
million women of the Vaterlandischer Frauenverein planning like that,
“when war comes,” had taken a first aid nurse’s training course.
They were as ready for mobilisation as were their men. France,
viewing with alarm these preparations across the border, had her
women also in training. The Association des Dames Français, the
Union des Femmes de France and the Société Secours aux Blessés
Militaires, at once put on the Red Cross uniform and brought to their
country’s service 59,500 nurses. In England the Voluntary Aid
Detachments of the Red Cross had 60,000 members ready to serve
under the 3,000 trained nurses who were registered for duty within a
fortnight of the outbreak of war. Similarly every country engaged in
the conflict, taking inventory of its resources, eagerly accepted the
services of the war nurse. The same policy of state actuated every
nation as was expressed by the Italian Minister of War who
announced: “By utilising the services of women to replace men in the
military hospitals, we shall release 20,000 soldiers for active duty at
the front.”
The Red Cross of service to the soldier is the most conspicuous
decoration worn by women in all warring countries. Everywhere you
meet the nurses’ uniform almost as universally adopted a garb as
was the shirt waist of yesterday. We are here at Charing Cross
station where nightly under cover of the soft darkness the procession
of grim grey motor ambulances rolls out bearing the wounded. They
are coming like this too at the Gare du Nord in Paris, at the Potsdam
station in Berlin, and up in Petrograd. In each ambulance between
the tiers of stretchers on which the soldiers lie, you may see the
figure of a woman silhouetted faintly against the dim light of the
railroad station as she bends to smooth a pillow, to adjust a
bandage, or now to light a cigarette for a maimed man who never
can do that least service for himself again. She may be a peeress of
the realm, or she may be a militant on parole granted the amnesty of
her government that needs her more these days for saving life than
for serving jail sentence. But look, and you shall see the Red Cross
on her forehead!
The grey ambulances like this coming from the railroad stations
long ago in every land filled up the regular military hospitals through
which the patients are passed by the thousands every month. And
other women taking the Red Cross set it above the doorways of
historic mansions opened to receive the wounded. In Italy, Queen
Margherita and Queen Elena gave their royal residences. In Paris
Baroness Rothschild has made her beautiful house with its great
garden behind a high yellow wall a Hôpital Militaire Auxiliaire. And
many private residences like this are among the eight hundred
hospitals in France which are being operated under the direction of
one woman’s organisation alone, the Société de Secours aux
Blessés Militaires.
 MRS. H. J. TENNANT
Director of the Woman’s Department of National Service in
England. Like this in all lands, women have been called to
government councils.
Here in London, in Piccadilly, at Devonshire House, desks and
filing cabinets fill the rooms once gay with social functions. And
hospital messengers go and come up and down the marvellous gold
and crystal staircase. The Duchess of Devonshire has turned over
the great mansion as the official headquarters for the Red Cross.
Nearby, in Mayfair, Madame Moravieff, whose husband is connected
with the Russian diplomatic service, is serving as commandant for
the hospital she has opened for English soldiers. Lady
Londonderry’s house in Park Lane is a hospital. By the end of the
first year of war, like this, no less than 850 private residences in
England had been transformed into Voluntary Aid Detachment Red
Cross Hospitals.
In hospital financiering the American woman in Europe has led all
the rest. Margaret Cox Benet, the wife of Lawrence V. Benet in Paris,
braved the perils of the Atlantic crossing to appeal to America for
contributions to the American Ambulance Hospital at Neuilly. It is
equalled by only one other war hospital in Europe, the splendidly
equipped hospital of the American women at Paignton, England,
initiated by Lady Arthur Paget, formerly Mary Paran Stevens of New
York. Lady Paget, who is president of the American Women’s War
Relief Fund, has just rounded out the first million dollars of the fund
which she has personally raised for war work.
You see how these also serve who are doing the executive and
organisation work that makes it possible for the woman in the front
lines to wear her red cross even to her transfiguration. Accelerated
by the activities of women like these behind the lines, the Red Cross
battalions are leading the Great Push of the new woman movement.
The woman in the nurse’s uniform is not exciting the most comment,
however. It is by reason of her numbers, the thousands and
thousands of her that she commands the most attention. But she
was really expected.

WHERE YOU FIND THE MILITANTS TO-DAY

For the amazing figure that has emerged by magic directly out of
the battle smoke of this war, see the woman in khaki! Khaki, I explain
to My Suffragette, is one of the most popular of government offerings
for women’s wear. The material has been found most serviceable in
a war zone either to die in or to live in, while you save others from
dying. It is sometimes varied with woollen cloth preferred for warmth.
But the essential features of the costume are preserved: the short
skirt, the leather leggings, the military hat and the shoulder straps
with the insignia of special service. When governments have called
for unusual duty that is difficult or disagreeable or dangerous, it is the
woman in khaki who responds: “Take me. I am here.” She will, in
fact, do anything that there’s no one else to do.
Stick-at-nothings, the London newspapers have nicknamed the
women’s Reserve Ambulance Corps of 400 women who wear a
khaki uniform with a green cross armlet. With white tunics over these
khaki suits, a detachment of green cross girls at Peel House, the
soldiers’ club in Westminster, does house-maid duty from seven in
the morning until eight at night. They are making beds and waiting
on table, these young women, who, many of them, in stately English
homes have all their lives been served by butlers and footmen. I saw
a Green Cross girl at the military headquarters of the corps in
Piccadilly making to Commandant Mabel Beatty her report of
another phase of war work. She was such a young thing, I should
say perhaps eighteen, and delicately bred. I know I noticed the
slender aristocratic hand that she lifted to her hat in salute to her
superior officer: “I have,” she said, “this morning burned three
amputated arms, two legs and a section of a jaw bone. And I have
carried my end of five heavy coffins to the dead wagon.” That’s all in
her day’s work. She’s a hospital orderly. And it’s one of the things an
orderly is for, to dispose of the by-products of a great war hospital.
See also, these ambulances that bring the wounded from Charing
Cross. They are “manned” by a woman outside as well as the nurse
within. There is a girl at the wheel in the driver’s seat. The Motor
Transport Section of the Green Cross Society accomplishes an
average weekly mileage of 2,000 miles transporting wounded and
munitions. Like this they respond for any service to which the
exigencies of war may call. There was the time of the first serious
Zeppelin raid on London when amid the crash of falling bombs and
the horror of fire flaming suddenly in the darkness, the shrieks of the
maimed and dying filled the night with terror and the populace
seemed to stand frozen to inaction at the scene about them. Right
up to the centre of the worst carnage rolled a Green Cross
ambulance from which leaped out eight khaki clad women. They
were, mind you, women of the carefully sheltered class, who sit in
dinner gowns under soft candle light in beautifully appointed English
houses. And they never before in all their lives had witnessed an evil
sight. But they set to work promptly by the side of the police to pick
up the dead and the dying, putting the highway to order as calmly as
they might have gone about adjusting the curtains and the pillows to
set a drawing-room to rights. “Thanks,” said the police, when
sometime later an ambulance arrived from the nearest headquarters,
“the ladies have done this job.” Since then the Woman’s Reserve
Ambulance Corps is officially attached to the “D” Division of the
Metropolitan Police for air raid relief.
That girl in khaki who is serving as a hospital orderly, you notice,
wears shoulder straps of blue. She comes from the great military
hospital in High Holborn that is staffed entirely by women. We may
walk through the wards there where we shall see many of her. Above
her in authority are women with shoulder straps of red. These are
they who wear the surgeon’s white tunic in the operating theatre,
who issue the physician’s orders at the patient’s bedside. Now the
door at the end of the ward opens. A woman with red shoulder
straps stands there, whom every wounded patient able to lift his right
arm, salutes as if his own military commander had appeared. “But
it’s my doctor, my doctor,” exclaims the Suffragette of yesterday.
And it is. The doctor, you see, used to hold in fact the unofficial
post of first aid physician to the Women’s Social and Political Union.
Frequently she was wont to hurry out on an emergency call to attend
some militant picked up cut and bleeding from the missiles of the
mobs or released faint and dying from a hunger strike. And the
doctor herself did her bit in the old days. The Government had her in
Holloway jail for six weeks. Well, to-day they have her as surgeon in
command of this war hospital with the rank of major. She’s so well
fitted for the place, you see, by her earlier experience.
But, visibly agitated, My Suffragette again plucks at my sleeve:
“Are you quite sure,” she asks, “that Scotland Yard won’t take her?”
 Poor dear lady of yesterday. They’re not doing that to-day. Your
woman movement was militant against the Government. This
woman movement is militant with the Government. There’s all the
difference in the world. And the woman in khaki has found it.
Militancy of the popular kind has come to be most exalted in woman.
Besides a woman doctor is too valuable in these days to be
interfered with. She is no longer sent as a missionary physician to
the heathen or limited to a practice exclusively among women and
children. She is good enough for anywhere. One issue of the Lancet
advertises: “Women doctors wanted for forty municipal
appointments.” Women doctors wanted, is the call of every country.
This military hospital in London of which Dr. Louisa Garrett
Anderson, major, is in command, is entirely staffed with women.
Paris has its war hospital with Dr. Nicole Gerard-Mangin, major in
command. Dr. Clelia Lollini, sub-lieutenant, is operating surgeon at a
war hospital in Venice. In Russia one of the most celebrated war
doctors is the Princess Gurdrovitz, surgeon in charge of the Imperial
Hospital at Tsarkoe Selo.
Oh, the khaki costume I think we may say is admired of every war
office. It has found a vogue among all the allies. It has appeared the
past year in America, where it has been most recently adopted. But
the model for whom it was particularly made to measure was the
militant suffragette of England. Nearly everybody who used to be in
Holloway jail is wearing it. It’s the best fit that any of them find to-day
in the shop windows of government styles. And it’s so well adapted
to women to whom all early Victorian qualities are as foreign as hoop
skirts. You would not expect one inured to hardship by alternate
periods of starvation and forcible feeding to be either a fearsome or
a delicate creature. And the courage that could horsewhip a prime
minister or set off a bomb beneath a bishop’s chair, is just the kind
that every nation’s calling for in these strenuous times. It’s the kind
that up close to the firing line gets mentioned in army orders and
decorated with all crosses of iron and gold and silver.
You will find the woman who has put on khaki at the front in all the
warring countries. The Duchess of Aosta is doing ambulance work in
Italy. The Countess Elizabeth Shouvaleff of Petrograd commanded
her own hospital train that brought in the wounded. But it is the
British woman in khaki who has gone farthest afield. The National
Union’s “Scottish Women’s Hospitals,” as they are known, are right
behind the armies. Staffed from the surgeons to the ambulance
corps entirely by women, they go out to any part of the war zone
where the need is greatest.
See the latest “unit” that is leaving Paddington Station. The
equipment they are taking with them includes every appliance that
will be required, from a bed to a bandage, and numbers just 1,051
bales and cases of freight. The entire unit, forty-five women, have
had their hair cut short. For sanitary reasons, is the euphemistic way
of explaining it. For protection against the vermin with which patients
from the trenches will be infested, if you ask for war facts as they
are. Units like this have gone out to settle wherever by army orders a
place has been made for them, in a deserted monastery in France
that they must first scrub and clean, in a refugee barracks in Russia,
in a tent in Serbia where they themselves must dig the drainage
trenches.
Their surgeons have stood at the operating table a week at a
stretch with only an hour or two of sleep each night. Their doctors
have battled with epidemics of typhoid and plague. Their ambulance
girls have brought in the wounded from the battlefield under shell-
fire. Hospitals have been conducted under bombardment with all the
patients carried to the cellar. Hospitals have been captured by the
enemy. Hospitals have been evacuated at command with the
patients loaded on trains or motor cars or bullock wagons for retreat
with the army. There were forty-six British women who shared in the
historic retreat of the Serbian army three hundred miles over the
Plain of Kossovo and the mountains of Albania. Men and cattle
perished by the score. But the women doctors, freezing, starving,
sleeping in the fields, struggling against a blinding blizzard with an
amazing physical endurance and a dauntless courage, all came
through to Scutari. Out on the far-flung frontiers of civilisation, the
woman in khaki who has done these things is memorialised. At
Mladanovatz, the Serbians have erected a fountain with the
inscription: “In memory of the Scottish Women’s Hospitals and their
founder, Dr. Elsie Inglis.”

SUFFRAGISTS LED ALL THE REST

When the great call, “Women wanted,” first commenced in all
lands, there were those who stood with reluctant feet at the threshold
simply because they did not know how to step out into the new wide
world of opportunity stretching before them. In this crisis it was to the
suffragists that every government turned. Who else should organise?
These women, like My Suffragette, had devoted their lives to
assembling cohorts for a cause! The Assoziazione per la Donna in
Italy, as the Conseil National des Femmes Françaises in France,
promptly responded by offering their office machinery as registration
bureaus through which women could be drafted into service. It was
the suffrage association at Budapest, Hungary, that filled the order
from the city government for five hundred women street sweepers.
The Vaterlandischer Frauenverein assembled 25,000 women in
Berlin alone to take the course of training arranged for helferinnen,
assistants in all phases of relief work. But it was in England where
the woman movement of yesterday had reached its highest point in
organisation that the woman movement for to-day was best
equipped to start. Britain counted among the nation’s resources no
less than fifty separate suffrage organisations, one of which alone,
the National Union of Women’s Suffrage Societies, was able to send
out its instructions to over 500 branches! And the mobilisation of the
woman power of a nation was under way on a scale that could have
been witnessed in no other era of the world.
The woman who has been enlisted in largest numbers in England
as in other lands is the woman who at her country’s call hung up the
housewife’s kitchen apron in plain little cottages to put on a new
uniform with a distinctive feature that has been hitherto
conspicuously missing from women’s clothes. It has a pocket for a
pay envelope. “See,” I say to My Suffragette, “you would not know
her at all, now, would you?”
 She came marching through the streets of London on July 17,
1915, in one of the most significant detachments mustered for the
new woman movement, 40,000 women carrying banners with the
new device: “For men must fight and women must work.” And
industry, in which she was enlisting, presented her with a new
costume. The Ministry of Munitions in London got out the pattern.
Employers of labour throughout the world are now copying it. There
isn’t anything in the chorus more attractive than the woman who’s
walked into the centre of the stage in shop and factory wearing
overall trousers, tunic and cap. Some English factories have the
entire woman force thus uniformed and others have adopted only the
tunic. Here are girl window cleaners with pail and ladder coming
down the Strand wearing the khaki trousers. The girl conductor of
the omnibus that’s just passed has a very short skirt that just meets
at the knees her high leather leggings. The girl lift operators at the
stores in Oxford Street are in smart peg-top trousers. In Germany
the innovation is of course being done by imperial decree, a
government order having put all the railway women in dark grey,
wide trousers. In France the new design is accepted slowly. The girl
conductor who swings at the open door of the Paris Metro with a
whistle at her lips, wears the men employé’s cap but she still clings
to her own “tablier.”
That July London procession organised by the suffragists, led in
fact by Mrs. Pankhurst herself, in response to labour’s call, “Women
wanted,” is the last suffrage procession of which the world has
heard. And it is the most important feminist parade that has ever
appeared in any city of the world. For it was a procession marching
straight for the goal of economic independence. It was the vanguard
of the moving procession of women that in every country is still
continuously passing into industry. Germany in the first year of war
had a half million women in one occupation alone, that of making
munitions. France has 400,000 “munitionettes.” Great Britain in 1916
had a million women who had enlisted for the places of men since
the war began. In every one of Europe’s warring countries and now
in America, women are being rushed as rapidly as possible into
commerce and industry to release men. In Germany nearly all the
bank clerks are women. The Bank of France alone in Paris has 700
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