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PHP Programming with MySQL, 2nd Edition 2-1

PHP Programming with MySQL The Web

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Chapter 2
Functions and Control Structures

At a Glance

Table of Contents
 Chapter Overview

 Chapter Objectives

 Instructor Notes

 Quick Quizzes

 Discussion Questions

 Key Terms
PHP Programming with MySQL, 2nd Edition 2-2

Lecture Notes

Chapter Overview
In this chapter, students will study how to use functions to organize their PHP code. They will
also learn about variable scope, nested control structures, and conditional coding: if, if…else,
and switch statements and while, do…while, for, and foreach looping statements.
Students will also be introduced to the include and require statements.

Chapter Objectives
In this chapter, students will:

 Study how to use functions to organize your PHP code

 Learn about variable scope
 Make decisions using if, if…else, and switch statements
 Repeatedly execute code using while, do…while, for, and foreach statements
 Learn about include and require statements

Instructor Notes
In PHP, groups of statements that you can execute as a single unit are called functions. Functions
are often made up of decision-making and looping statements. These are two of the most
fundamental statements that execute in a program.

Mention to your students that functions are like paragraphs in writing

Teaching language. Remember a paragraph is a group of related sentences that make up
Tip one idea. A function is a group of related statements that make up a single task.

Working with Functions

PHP has two types of functions: built–in (internal) and user-defined (custom) functions. PHP has
over 1000 built-in library functions that can be used without declaring them. You can also your
own user-defined functions to perform specific tasks.
PHP Programming with MySQL, 2nd Edition 2-3

Defining Functions

To begin writing a function, you first need to define it. The syntax for the function definition is:

function name of _function(parameters) {

statements;
}

Parameters are placed within the parentheses that follow the function name. The parameter
receives its value when the function is called. When you name a variable within parentheses, you
do not need to explicitly declare and initialize the parameter as you do with a regular variable.

Following the parentheses that contain the function parameters is a set of curly braces, called
function braces, which contain the function statements. Function statements are the statements
that do the actual work of the function and must be contained within the function braces. For
example:

function displayCompanyName($Company1) {

echo "<p>$Company1</p>";
}

Remind your students that functions, like all PHP code, must be contained with
<?php...?> tags. Stress that the function name should be descriptive of the
task that the function will perform.

Ask students to add this to their list of PHP “Best Coding Practices.”

Teaching Illustrate to students that in a function:

Tip  There is no space between the function name and the opening parentheses
 The opening curly brace is on the same line as the function name
 The function statements are indented five spaces
 The closing curly brace is on a separate line

Ask students to add this to their list of PHP “Best Coding Practices.”
PHP Programming with MySQL, 2nd Edition 2-4

Calling Functions

A function definition does not execute automatically. Creating a function definition only names
the function, specifies its parameters (if any), and organizes the statements it will execute.

Teaching Refer to the textbook example on page 77, which defines a function and calls it
Tip passing a literal value to the function argument.

Returning Values

Some functions return a value, which may be displayed or passed as an argument to another
function. A calculator function is a good example of a return value function. A return statement
is a statement that returns a value to the statement that called the function.

Use the textbook example on page 78 to illustrate how a calling statement calls a
Teaching function and sends the multiple values as arguments of the function. The
Tip function then performs a calculation and returns the value to the calling
statement.

Passing Parameters by Reference

Usually, the value of a variable is passed as the parameter of a function, which means that a local
copy of the variable is created to be used by the function. When the value is returned to the
calling statement, any changes are lost. If you want the function to change the value of the
parameter, you must pass the value by reference, so the function works on the actual value
instead of a copy. Any changes made by the function statements remain after the function ends.

Use the textbook example on pages 80 and 81 to illustrate the difference of

passing a parameter by value or by reference.

Teaching Explain to students that a function definition should be placed above any calling
Tip statements. As of PHP4, this is not required, but is considered a good
programming practice.

Ask students to add this to their list of PHP “Best Coding Practices.”
PHP Programming with MySQL, 2nd Edition 2-5

Understanding Variable Scope

When you use a variable in a PHP program, you need to be aware of the variable's scope—that
is, you need to think about where in your program a declared variable can be used. A variable's
scope can be either global or local. Global variables are declared outside a function and are
available to all parts of the programs. Local variables are declared inside a function and are only
available within the function in which they are declared.

The global Keyword

Unlike many programming languages that make global variables automatically available to all
parts of your program, in PHP, you must declare a global variable with the global keyword
inside a function for the variable to be available within the scope of that function. When you
declare a global variable with the global keyword, you do not need to assign a value, as you
do when you declare a standard variable. Instead, within the declaration statement you only need
to include the global keyword along with the name of the variable, as in:

global $variable_name;

Teaching Demonstrate the syntax of declaring a global variable within a function using the
Tip textbook example on page 83.

Quick Quiz 1

1. In PHP, groups of statements that you can execute as a single unit are called
_________________________.
ANSWER: functions

2. A _________________________ is a statement that returns a value to the statement that

called the function.
ANSWER: return statement

3. _________________________ are declared inside a function and are only available

within the function in which they are declared.
ANSWER: Local variables

4. A _________________________is a variable that is declared outside a function and is

available to all parts of your program.
ANSWER: global variable
PHP Programming with MySQL, 2nd Edition 2-6

Making Decisions
In any programming language, the process of determining the order in which statements execute
in the program is called decision making or flow control. The special types of PHP statements
used for making decision are called decision-making statements or control structures.

if Statements

The if statement is used to execute specific programming code if the evaluation of a

conditional expression returns a value of TRUE. The syntax for a simple if statement is as
follows:

if (conditional expression)// condition evaluates to 'TRUE'

statement;

You should insert a space after the conditional keyword if before the opening
parenthesis of the conditional expression. This will help you see a visual
difference between a structure and a function. Using a line break and
indentation to enter the statements to execute makes it easier for the
programmer to follow the flow of the code.

Ask students to add the space and indentation to their list of PHP “Best Coding
Teaching Practices.”
Tip
Explain to students that if there is only one statement, they do not need to use
curly braces. If there are multiple statements, the statements should be
enclosed within beginning and ending curly braces. ({...}).

Ask students to add the use of curly braces to their list of PHP “Best Coding
Practices.”

You can use a command block to construct a decision-making structure using multiple if
statements. A command block is a group of statements contained within a set of braces, similar to
the way function statements are contained within a set of braces. When an if statement
evaluates to TRUE, the statements in the command block execute.

if...else Statements

Should you want to execute one set of statements when the condition evaluates to FALSE, and
another set of statements when the condition evaluates to TRUE, you need to add an else
clause to the if statement.
PHP Programming with MySQL, 2nd Edition 2-7

if (conditional expression) {
statements; //condition evaluates to 'TRUE'
}
else {
statements; //condition evaluates to 'FALSE'
}

Nested if and if...else Statements

When one decision-making statement is contained within another decision-making statement,

they are referred to as nested decision-making structures. An if statement contained within an
if statement or within an if...else statement is called a nested if statement. Similarly, an
if...else statement contained within an if or if…else statement is called a nested
if...else statement. You use nested if and if...else statements to perform conditional
evaluation that must be executed after the original conditional evaluation.

switch Statements

The switch statement controls program flow by executing a specific set of statements,
depending on the value of the expression. The switch statement compares the value of an
expression to a value contained within a special statement called a case label. A case label
represents a specific value and contains one or more statements that execute if the value of the
case label matches the value of the switch statement’s expression. The syntax for the switch
statement is a follows:
PHP Programming with MySQL, 2nd Edition 2-8

switch (expression) {
case label:
statement(s);
break;
case label:
statement(s);
break;
...
default:
statement(s);
break;
}

Another type of label used within switch statements is the default label. The default
label contains statements that execute when the value returned by the switch statement does
not match a case label. A default label consists of the keyword default followed by a
colon. In a switch statement, execution does not automatically end when a matching label is
found. A break statement is used to exit a control structures before it reaches the closing brace
(}). A break statement is also used to exit while, do...while, and for looping
statements.

The break statement after the default case is optional; however, it is good
Teaching programming practice to include it.
Tip
Ask the students to add this to their list of PHP “Best Coding Practices.”
PHP Programming with MySQL, 2nd Edition 2-9

Quick Quiz 2

1. The process of determining the order in which statements execute in a program is called
_________________________.
ANSWER: decision-making or flow control

2. When one decision-making statement is contained within another decision-making

statement, they are referred to as _________________________.
ANSWER: nested decision-making structures

3. The _________________________ statement is used to execute specific programming

code if the evaluation of a conditional expression returns a value of TRUE.
ANSWER: if

4. The _________________________ statement controls program flow by executing a

specific set of statements, depending on the value of the expression.
ANSWER: switch

Repeating Code

Conditional statements allow you select only a single branch of code to execute and then
continue to the statement that follows. If you need to perform the same statement more than
once, however, you need a use a loop statement, a control structure that repeatedly executes a
statement or a series of statements while a specific condition is TRUE or until a specific
condition becomes TRUE. In an infinite loop, a loop statement never ends because its conditional
expression is never FALSE.

while Statements

The while statement is a simple loop statement that repeats a statement or series of statements
as long as a given conditional expression evaluates to TRUE. The syntax for the while statement
is as follows:

while (conditional expression) {

statement(s);
}

Each repetition of a looping statement is called an iteration. The loop ends and the next
statement, following the while statement executes only when the conditional statement
evaluates to FALSE. You normally track the progress of the while statement evaluation, or
any other loop, with a counter. A counter is a variable that increments or decrements with each
iteration of a loop statement.
PHP Programming with MySQL, 2nd Edition 2-10

Programmers often name counter variables $Count, $Counter, or

something descriptive of its purpose. The letters i, j, k, l, x, y, z are also
Teaching commonly used as counter names. Using a variable name such as count or the
Tip letter i (for iteration) helps you remember (and informs other programmers)
that the variable is being used as a counter.

do...while Statements

The do...while statement executes a statement or statements once, then repeats the execution
as long as a given conditional expression evaluates to TRUE The syntax for the do...while
statement is as follows:

do {
statements(s);
} while (conditional expression);

for Statements

The for statement is used for repeating a statement or series of statements as long as a given
conditional expression evaluates to TRUE. The syntax of the for statement is as follows:

for (counter declaration and initialization; condition;

update statement) {
statement(s);
}

foreach Statements

The foreach statement is used to iterate or loop through the elements in an array. With each
loop, a foreach statement moves to the next element in an array. The basic syntax of the
foreach statement is as follows:

foreach ($array_name as $variable_name) {

statement(s);
}
PHP Programming with MySQL, 2nd Edition 2-11

Most of the conditional statements (such as the if, if...else, while,

do...while, and for) are probably familiar to students, but the foreach
Teaching statement, which iterates through elements of an array may not be as familiar.
Tip
Illustrate the syntax of the foreach statement using the basic and advanced
forms shown on pages 105 – 107 of the textbook.

Quick Quiz 3

1. Each repetition of a looping statement is called a(n) _________________________.

ANSWER: iteration

2. A _________________________ is a variable that increments or decrements with each

iteration of a loop statement.
ANSWER: counter

3. The foreach statement is used to iterate or loop through the elements in a(n)
_________________________.
ANSWER: array

Discussion Questions
 When is it better to use a global variable in programming? When is it better to use a local
variable?

 Why are conditional statements important in programming?

 Explain the difference between a while statement and a do…while statement.

PHP Programming with MySQL, 2nd Edition 2-12

Key Terms
 break statement: Used to exit control structures.
 case label: In a switch statement, represents a specific value and contains one or more
statements that execute if the value of the case label matches the value of the switch
statement’s expression.
 command block: A group of statements contained within a set of braces, similar to the way
function statements are contained within a set of braces.
 counter: A variable that increments or decrements with each iteration of a loop statement.
 decision making (or flow control): The process of determining the order in which
statements execute in a program.
 default label: Contains statements that execute when the value returned by the switch
statement expression does not match a case label.
 do…while statement: Executes a statement or statements once, then repeats the execution
as long as a given conditional expression evaluates to TRUE.
 for statement: Used for repeating a statement or series of statements as long as a given
conditional expression evaluates to TRUE.
 function definition: Line of code that make up a function.
 functions: Groups of statements that execute as a single unit.
 global variable: A variable declared outside a function and available to all parts of the
program.
 if statement: Used to execute specific programming code if the evaluation of a conditional
expression returns a value of TRUE.
 if…else statement: if statement with an else clause that is implemented when the
condition returns a value of FALSE.
 infinite loop: A loop statement never ends because its exit condition is never met.
 iteration: The repetition of a looping statement.
 local variable: A variable declared inside a function and only available with the function in
which it is declared.
 loop statement: A control structure that repeatedly executes a statement or a series of
statements while a specific condition is TRUE or until a specific condition becomes TRUE.
 nested decision-making structures: One decision-making statement contained within
another decision-making statement.
 parameter: A variable that is passed to a function from the calling statement.
 return statement: A statement that returns a value to the statement that called the function.
 switch statement: Controls program flow by executing a specific set of statements,
depending on the value of an expression.
 variable scope: The context in which a variable is accessible (such as local or global).
 while statement: Repeats a statement or a series of statements as long as a given conditional
expression evaluates to TRUE.
PHP Programming with MySQL, 2nd Edition 2-13

Best Coding Practices – Chapter 2

Topic Best Practice
Formatting code Format code consistently within a program
Indent code five spaces for readability
Writing PHP code blocks Use the Standard Script Delimiters <?php … ?>
Using the echo statement Use the echo construct exclusively
Use lowercase characters for the echo keyword
Coding the echo statement Do not use parentheses with the echo statement
Adding comments to PHP script Add both line and block comments to your PHP code
Adding a line comment Use the two forward slashes (//) to begin a line comment
Displaying array elements with built-in Enclose the print_r(), var_export(), and
functions var_dump() functions in beginning and ending <pre> tags
Writing a user-defined function The name of a user-defined function should be descriptive of the
task it will perform
Writing a function definition Do NOT space between the function name and the opening
parenthesis
Key the opening curly brace on the same line as the function
name
Indent the function statements five spaces
Key the closing curly brace on a separate line
Calling a function Place the function definition above the calling statement
Writing a control structure To differentiate a control structure from a function, space once
after the conditional keyword before the parenthesis i.e. if
(...) or else (...)
Indent the statements to make them easier for the programmer to
follow the flow
Use curly braces around the statements to execute in a control
structure if there is more than one statement.
Coding a switch statement Include the optional break statement after the default case
label in a switch statement
Naming a counter variable If appropriate, name your counter variable $Count or
$Counter or use the letters ( i, j, k, l, x, y , z)
Other documents randomly have
different content
 The Project Gutenberg eBook of Social
devices for impelling women to bear and rear
children
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States
and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the
United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where
you are located before using this eBook.

Title: Social devices for impelling women to bear and rear children

Author: Leta S. Hollingworth

Release date: August 10, 2024 [eBook #74224]

Language: English

Original publication: United States: The American Journal of

Sociology, 1916

Credits: Richard Tonsing and the Online Distributed Proofreading

Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced
from images generously made available by The Internet
Archive)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SOCIAL DEVICES

FOR IMPELLING WOMEN TO BEAR AND REAR CHILDREN ***
Transcriber’s Note:
New original cover art included with this eBook is
granted to the public domain.
 SOCIAL DEVICES FOR

IMPELLING WOMEN TO BEAR

AND REAR CHILDREN

LETA S. HOLLINGWORTH
Bellevue Hospital, New York City
 “Again, the breeding function of the family would be better discharged if public
opinion and religion conspired, as they have until recently, to crush the aspirations
of woman for a life of her own. But the gain would not be worth the price.”—E. A.
Ross, Social Control (1904).

In this quotation from Ross we have suggested to us an

exceedingly important and interesting phase of social control,
namely, the control by those in social power over those individuals
who alone can bring forth the human young, and thus perpetuate
society. It is necessary that at the very outset of this discussion we
should consent to clear our minds of the sentimental conception of
motherhood and to look at facts. Sumner[1] states these facts as well
as they have ever been stated, in his consideration of the natural
burdens of society. He says:

Children add to the weight of the struggle for existence of their parents. The
relation of parent to child is one of sacrifice. The interests of parents and children
are antagonistic. The fact that there are or may be compensations does not affect
the primary relation between the two. It may well be believed that, if procreation
had not been put under the dominion of a great passion, it would have been caused
to cease by the burdens it entails.

This is especially true in the case of the mothers.

The fact is that child-bearing is in many respects analogous to the
work of soldiers: it is necessary for tribal or national existence; it
means great sacrifice of personal advantage; it involves danger and
suffering, and, in a certain percentage of cases, the actual loss of life.
Thus we should expect that there would be a continuous social effort
to insure the group-interest in respect to population, just as there is a
continuous social effort to insure the defense of the nation in time of
war. It is clear, indeed, that the social devices employed to get
children born, and to get soldiers slain, are in many respects similar.
But once the young are brought into the world they still must be
reared, if society’s ends are to be served, and here again the need for
and exercise of social control may be seen. Since the period of
helpless infancy is very prolonged in the human species, and since
the care of infants is an onerous and exacting labor, it would be
natural for all persons not biologically attached to infants to use all
possible devices for fastening the whole burden of infant-tending
upon those who are so attached. We should expect this to happen,
and we shall see, in fact, that there has been consistent social effort
to establish as a norm the woman whose vocational proclivities are
completely and “naturally” satisfied by child-bearing and child-
rearing, with the related domestic activities.
There is, to be sure, a strong and fervid insistence on the “maternal
instinct,” which is popularly supposed to characterize all women
equally, and to furnish them with an all-consuming desire for
parenthood, regardless of the personal pain, sacrifice, and
disadvantage involved. In the absence of all verifiable data, however,
it is only common-sense to guard against accepting as a fact of
human nature a doctrine which we might well expect to find in use as
a means of social control. Since we possess no scientific data at all on
this phase of human psychology, the most reasonable assumption is
that if it were possible to obtain a quantitative measurement of
maternal instinct, we should find this trait distributed among
women, just as we have found all other traits distributed which have
yielded to quantitative measurement. It is most reasonable to
assume that we should obtain a curve of distribution, varying from
an extreme where individuals have a zero or negative interest in
caring for infants, through a mode where there is a moderate amount
of impulse to such duties, to an extreme where the only vocational or
personal interest lies in maternal activities.
The facts, shorn of sentiment, then, are: (1) The bearing and
rearing of children is necessary for tribal or national existence and
aggrandizement. (2) The bearing and rearing of children is painful,
dangerous to life, and involves long years of exacting labor and self-
sacrifice. (3) There is no verifiable evidence to show that a maternal
instinct exists in women of such all-consuming strength and fervor
as to impel them voluntarily to seek the pain, danger, and exacting
labor involved in maintaining a high birth rate.
We should expect, therefore, that those in control of society would
invent and employ devices for impelling women to maintain a birth
rate sufficient to insure enough increase in the population to offset
the wastage of war and disease. It is the purpose of this paper to cite
specific illustrations to show just how the various social institutions
have been brought to bear on women to this end. Ross has classified
the means which society takes and has taken to secure order, and
insure that individuals will act in such a way as to promote the
interests of the group, as those interests are conceived by those who
form “the radiant points of social control.” These means, according
to the analysis of Ross, are public opinion, law, belief, social
suggestion, education, custom, social religion, personal ideals (the
type), art, personality, enlightenment, illusion, and social valuation.
Let us see how some of these means have been applied in the control
of women.
Personal ideals (the type).—The first means of control to which I
wish to call attention in the present connection is that which Ross
calls “personal ideals.” It is pointed out that “a developed society
presents itself as a system of unlike individuals, strenuously pursuing
their personal ends.” Now, for each person there is a “certain zone of
requirement,” and since “altruism is quite incompetent to hold each
unswervingly to the particular activities and forbearances belonging
to his place in the social system,” the development of such allegiance
must be—

effected by means of types or patterns, which society induces its members to adopt
as their guiding ideals.... To this end are elaborated various patterns of conduct
and of character, which may be termed social types. These types may become in
the course of time personal ideals, each for that category of persons for which it is
intended.

For women, obviously enough, the first and most primitive “zone
of requirement” is and has been to produce and rear families large
enough to admit of national warfare being carried on, and of
colonization.
Thus has been evolved the social type of the “womanly woman,”
“the normal woman,” the chief criterion of normality being a
willingness to engage enthusiastically in maternal and allied
activities. All those classes and professions which form “the radiant
points of social control” unite upon this criterion. Men of science
announce it with calm assurance (though failing to say on what kind
or amount of scientific data they base their remarks). For instance,
McDougall[2] writes:

The highest stage is reached by those species in which each female produces at
birth but one or two young, and protects them so efficiently that most of the young
born reach maturity; the maintenance of the species thus becomes in the main the
work of the parental instinct. In such species the protection and cherishing of the
young is the constant and all-absorbing occupation of the mother, to which she
devotes all her energies, and in the course of which she will at any time undergo
privation, pain, and death. The instinct (maternal instinct) becomes more powerful
than any other, and can override any other, even fear itself.

Professor Jastrow[3] writes:

... charm is the technique of the maiden, and sacrifice the passion of the mother.
One set of feminine interests expresses more distinctly the issues of courtship and
attraction; the other of qualities of motherhood and devotion.

The medical profession insistently proclaims desire for numerous

children as the criterion of normality for women, scornfully branding
those so ill-advised as to deny such desires as “abnormal.” As one
example among thousands of such attempts at social control let me
quote the following, which appeared in a New York newspaper on
November 29, 1915:

Only abnormal women want no babies. Trenchant criticism of modern life was
made by Dr. Max G. Schlapp, internationally known as a neurologist. Dr. Schlapp
addressed his remarks to the congregation of the Park Avenue M.E. Church. He
said, “The birth rate is falling off. Rich people are the ones who have no children,
and the poor have the greatest number of offspring. Any woman who does not
desire offspring is abnormal. We have a large number, particularly among the
women, who do not want children. Our social society is becoming intensely
unstable.”

And this from the New York Times, September 5, 1915:

Normally woman lives through her children; man lives through his work.
 Scores of such implicit attempts to determine and present the type
or norm meet us on every hand. This norm has the sanction of
authority, being announced by men of greatest prestige in the
community. No one wishes to be regarded by her fellow-creatures as
“abnormal” or “decayed.” The stream of suggestions playing from all
points inevitably has its influence, so that it is or was, until recently,
well-nigh impossible to find a married woman who would admit any
conflicting interests equal or paramount to the interest of caring for
children. There is a universal refusal to admit that the maternal
instinct, like every other trait of human nature, might be distributed
according to the probability curve.
Public opinion.—Let us turn next to public opinion as a means of
control over women in relation to the birth rate. In speaking of
public opinion Ross says:

Haman is at the mercy of Mordecai. Rarely can one regard his deed as fair when
others find it foul, or count himself a hero when the world deems him a wretch....
For the mass of men the blame and the praise of the community are the very lords
of life.

If we inquire now what are the organs or media of expression of

public opinion we shall see how it is brought to bear on women. The
newspapers are perhaps the chief agents, in modern times, in the
formation of public opinion, and their columns abound in interviews
with the eminent, deploring the decay of the population. Magazines
print articles based on statistics of depopulation, appealing to the
patriotism of women. In the year just passed fifty-five articles on the
birth rate have chanced to come to the notice of the present writer.
Fifty-four were written by men, including editors, statesmen,
educators, ex-presidents, etc. Only one was written by a woman. The
following quotation is illustrative of the trend of all of them:

M. Emil Reymond has made this melancholy announcement in the Senate: “We
are living in an age when women have pronounced upon themselves a judgment
that is dangerous in the highest degree to the development of the population.... We
have the right to do what we will with the life that is in us, say they.”
 Thus the desire for the development of interests and aptitudes
other than the maternal is stigmatized as “dangerous,” “melancholy,”
“degrading,” “abnormal,” “indicative of decay.” On the other hand,
excessive maternity receives many cheap but effective rewards. For
example, the Jesuit priests hold special meetings to laud maternity.
The German Kaiser announces that he will now be godfather to
seventh, eighth, and ninth sons, even if daughters intervene. The ex-
President has written a letter of congratulation to the mother of nine.
Law.—Since its beginning as a human institution law has been a
powerful instrument for the control of women. The subjection of
women was originally an irrational consequence of sex differences in
reproductive function. It was not intended by either men or women,
but simply resulted from the natural physiological handicaps of
women, and the attempts of humanity to adapt itself to physiological
nature through the crude methods of trial and error. When law was
formulated, this subjection was defined, and thus furthered. It would
take too long to cite all the legal provisions that contribute,
indirectly, to keep women from developing individualistic interests
and capacities. Among the most important indirect forces in law
which affect women to keep them child-bearers and child-rearers
only are those provisions that tend to restrain them from possessing
and controlling property. Such provisions have made of women a
comparatively possessionless class, and have thus deprived them of
the fundamentals of power. While affirming the essential nature of
woman to be satisfied with maternity and with maternal duties only,
society has always taken every precaution to close the avenues to
ways of escape therefrom.
Two legal provisions which bear directly on women to compel
them to keep up the birth rate may be mentioned here. The first of
these is the provision whereby sterility in the wife may be made a
cause of divorce. This would be a powerful inducement to women
who loved their husbands to bear children if they could. The second
provision is that which forbids the communication of the data of
science in the matter of the means of birth control. The American
laws are very drastic on this point. Recently in New York City a man
was sentenced to prison for violating this law. The more advanced
democratic nations have ceased to practice military conscription.
They no longer conscript their men to bear arms, depending on the
volunteer army. But they conscript their women to bear children by
legally prohibiting the publication or communication of the
knowledge which would make child-bearing voluntary.
Child-rearing is also legally insured by those provisions which
forbid and punish abortion, infanticide, and infant desertion. There
could be no better proof of the insufficiency of maternal instinct as a
guaranty of population than the drastic laws which we have against
birth control, abortion, infanticide, and infant desertion.
Belief.—Belief, “which controls the hidden portions of life,” has
been used powerfully in the interests of population. Orthodox
women, for example, regard family limitation as a sin, punishable in
the hereafter. Few explicit exhortations concerning the birth rate are
discoverable in the various “Words” of God. The belief that family
limitation will be punished in the hereafter seems to have been
evolved mainly by priests out of the slender materials of a few
quotations from Holy Writ, such as “God said unto them, ‘Multiply
and replenish the earth,’” and from the scriptural allusion to children
as the gifts of God. Being gifts from God, it follows that they may not
be refused except at the peril of incurring God’s displeasure.
Education.—The education of women has always, until the end of
the nineteenth century, been limited to such matters as would
become a creature who could and should have no aspirations for a
life of her own. We find the proper education for girls outlined in the
writings of such educators as Rousseau, Fénelon, St. Jerome, and in
Godey’s Lady’s Book. Not only have the “social guardians” used
education as a negative means of control, by failing to provide any
real enlightenment for women, but education has been made a
positive instrument for control. This was accomplished by drilling
into the young and unformed mind, while yet it was too immature to
reason independently, such facts and notions as would give the girl a
conception of herself only as future wife and mother. Rousseau, for
instance, demanded freedom and individual liberty of development
for everybody except Sophia, who was to be deliberately trained up
as a means to an end. In the latter half of the nineteenth century
when the hard battle for the real enlightenment of women was being
fought, one of the most frequently recurring objections to admitting
women to knowledge was that “the population would suffer,” “the
essential nature of woman would be changed,” “the family would
decay,” and “the birth rate would fall.” Those in control of society
yielded up the old prescribed education of women only after a
stubborn struggle, realizing that with the passing of the old training
an important means of social control was slipping out of their hands.
Art.—A very long paper might be written to describe the various
uses to which art has been put in holding up the ideal of
motherhood. The mother, with children at her breast, is the favorite
theme of artists. The galleries of Europe are hung full of Madonnas
of every age and degree. Poetry abounds in allusions to the
sacredness and charm of motherhood, depicting the yearning of the
adult for his mother’s knee. Fiction is replete with happy and adoring
mothers. Thousands of songs are written and sung concerning the
ideal relation which exists between mother and child. In pursuing
the mother-child theme through art one would not be led to suspect
that society finds it necessary to make laws against contra-
conception, infanticide, abortion, and infant desertion. Art holds up
to view only the compensations of motherhood, leaving the other half
of the theme in obscurity, and thus acting as a subtle ally of
population.
Illusion.—This is the last of Ross’s categories to which I wish to
refer. Ross says:

In the taming of men there must be provided coil after coil to entangle the
unruly one. Mankind must use snares as well as leading-strings, will-o-the-wisps
as well as lanterns. The truth by all means, if it will promote obedience, but in any
case obedience! We shall examine not creeds now, but the films, veils, hidden
mirrors, and half lights by which men are duped as to that which lies nearest them,
their own experience. This time we shall see men led captive, not by dogmas
concerning a world beyond experience, but by artfully fostered misconceptions of
the pains, satisfactions, and values lying under their very noses.

One of the most effective ways of creating the desired illusion

about any matter is by concealing and tabooing the mention of all the
painful and disagreeable circumstances connected with it. Thus there
is a very stern social taboo on conversation about the processes of
birth. The utmost care is taken to conceal the agonies and risks of
child-birth from the young. Announcement is rarely made of the true
cause of deaths from child-birth. The statistics of maternal mortality
have been neglected by departments of health, and the few
compilations which have been made have not achieved any wide
publicity or popular discussion. Says Katharine Anthony, in her
recent book on Feminism in Germany and Scandinavia (1915):

There is no evidence that the death rate of women from child-birth has caused
the governing classes many sleepless nights.

Anthony gives some statistics from Prussia (where the figures have
been calculated), showing that

between 1891 and 1900 11 per cent of the deaths of all women between the ages of
twenty-five and forty years occurred in child-birth.... During forty years of peace
Germany lost 400,000 mothers’ lives, that is, ten times what she lost in soldiers’
lives in the campaign of 1870 and 1871.

Such facts would be of wide public interest, especially to women,

yet there is no tendency at all to spread them broadcast or to make
propaganda of them. Public attention is constantly being called to
the statistics of infant mortality, but the statistics of maternal
mortality are neglected and suppressed.
The pains, the dangers, and risks of child-bearing are tabooed as
subjects of conversation. The drudgery, the monotonous labor, and
other disagreeable features of child-rearing are minimized by “the
social guardians.” On the other hand, the joys and compensations of
motherhood are magnified and presented to consciousness on every
hand. Thus the tendency is to create an illusion whereby motherhood
will appear to consist of compensations only, and thus come to be
desired by those for whom the illusion is intended.
There is one further class of devices for controlling women that
does not seem to fit any of the categories mentioned by Ross. I refer
to threats of evil consequence to those who refrain from child-
bearing. This class of social devices I shall call “bugaboos.” Medical
men have done much to help population (and at the same time to
increase obstetrical practice!) by inventing bugaboos. For example, it
is frequently stated by medical men, and is quite generally believed
by women, that if first child-birth is delayed until the age of thirty
years the pains and dangers of the process will be very gravely
increased, and that therefore women will find it advantageous to
begin bearing children early in life. It is added that the younger the
woman begins to bear the less suffering will be experienced. One
looks in vain, however, for any objective evidence that such is the
case. The statements appear to be founded on no array of facts
whatever, and until they are so founded they lie under the suspicion
of being merely devices for social control.
One also reads that women who bear children live longer on the
average than those who do not, which is taken to mean that child-
bearing has a favorable influence on longevity. It may well be that
women who bear many children live longer than those who do not,
but the only implication probably is that those women who could not
endure the strain of repeated births died young, and thus naturally
did not have many children. The facts may indeed be as above stated,
and yet child-bearing may be distinctly prejudicial to longevity.
A third bugaboo is that if a child is reared alone, without brothers
and sisters, he will grow up selfish, egoistic, and an undesirable
citizen. Figures are, however, so far lacking to show the disastrous
consequences of being an only child.
From these brief instances it seems very clear that “the social
guardians” have not really believed that maternal instinct is alone a
sufficient guaranty of population. They have made use of all possible
social devices to insure not only child-bearing, but child-rearing.
Belief, law, public opinion, illusion, education, art, and bugaboos
have all been used to re-enforce maternal instinct. We shall never
know just how much maternal instinct alone will do for population
until all the forces and influences exemplified above have become
inoperative. As soon as women become fully conscious of the fact
that they have been and are controlled by these devices the latter will
become useless, and we shall get a truer measure of maternal feeling.

One who learns why society is urging him into the straight and narrow way will
resist its pressure. One who sees clearly how he is controlled will thenceforth be
emancipated. To betray the secrets of ascendancy is to forearm the individual in
his struggle with society.
 The time is coming, and is indeed almost at hand, when all the
most intelligent women of the community, who are the most
desirable child-bearers, will become conscious of the methods of
social control. The type of normality will be questioned; the laws will
be repealed and changed; enlightenment will prevail; belief will be
seen to rest upon dogmas; illusion will fade away and give place to
clearness of view; the bugaboos will lose their power to frighten. How
will “the social guardians” induce women to bear a surplus
population when all these cheap, effective methods no longer work?
The natural desire for children may, and probably will, always
guarantee a stationary population, even if child-bearing should
become a voluntary matter. But if a surplus population is desired for
national aggrandizement, it would seem that there will remain but
one effective social device whereby this can be secured, namely,
adequate compensation, either in money or in fame. If it were
possible to become rich or famous by bearing numerous fine
children, many a woman would no doubt be eager to bring up eight
or ten, though if acting at the dictation of maternal instinct only, she
would have brought up but one or two. When the cheap devices no
longer work, we shall expect expensive devices to replace them, if the
same result is still desired by the governors of society.
If these matters could be clearly raised to consciousness, so that
this aspect of human life could be managed rationally, instead of
irrationally as at present, the social gain would be enormous—
assuming always that the increased happiness and usefulness of
women would, in general, be regarded as social gain.

1. W. G. Sumner, Folkways, 1906.

2. W. McDougall, Social Psychology, 1908.

3. J. Jastrow, Character and Temperament, 1915.

 TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES
Typos fixed; non-standard spelling and dialect
retained.
Used numbers for footnotes, placing them all at
the end of the last chapter.
 *** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SOCIAL DEVICES
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