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Learn Engineering with LEGO: A Practical Introduction to Engineering Concepts Grady Koch all chapter instant download

The document provides information about various engineering eBooks available for download on ebookmass.com, including titles like 'Learn Engineering with LEGO' and 'Engineering Your Future'. It includes links to access these eBooks in different formats and mentions the copyright and distribution details for the featured works. Additionally, it outlines the contents of 'Learn Engineering with LEGO', including chapters on programming, building elements, mechanisms, and sensors.

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Learn
Engineering
with LEGO
A Practical Introduction
to Engineering Concepts

Grady Koch
Learn Engineering
with LEGO
A Practical Introduction
to Engineering Concepts

Grady Koch
Learn Engineering with LEGO: A Practical Introduction to Engineering
Concepts
Grady Koch
Yorktown, VA, USA

ISBN-13 (pbk): 978-1-4842-9282-2 ISBN-13 (electronic): 978-1-4842-9280-8


https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-9280-8

Copyright © 2023 by Grady Koch


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Printed on acid-free paper
Table of Contents
About the Author���������������������������������������������������������������������������������ix

About the Technical Reviewer�������������������������������������������������������������xi

Acknowledgments�����������������������������������������������������������������������������xiii

Introduction����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������xv

Chapter 1: The Hub�������������������������������������������������������������������������������1


Assembling and Charging the Hub������������������������������������������������������������������������1
Controls and Displays�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������4
Exercise: The Motor Spinner���������������������������������������������������������������������������������8
Activating the Motor��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������11
Project: The Distance Spinner�����������������������������������������������������������������������������12
Using the Distance Spinner���������������������������������������������������������������������������15
Summary������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������16

Chapter 2: Programming��������������������������������������������������������������������17
Using the Robot Inventor App������������������������������������������������������������������������������17
Installing and Updating the App���������������������������������������������������������������������18
The Interface�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������18
Connecting the Hub���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������20
Updating the Hub Operating System�������������������������������������������������������������21
Exploring the Hub Screen������������������������������������������������������������������������������22

iii
Table of Contents

The Program Design Process������������������������������������������������������������������������������24


Writing the Algorithm�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������25
Drawing the Flowchart����������������������������������������������������������������������������������25
Coding in Word Blocks����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������28
Writing Comments�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������33
Coding in Python�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������34
Downloading and Running Code�������������������������������������������������������������������41
Debugging and Troubleshooting��������������������������������������������������������������������42
Project: The Dance Floor��������������������������������������������������������������������������������43
The Word Blocks Code�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������48
The Python Code��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������53
Summary������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������57

Chapter 3: Building Elements�������������������������������������������������������������59


Liftarms���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������59
Straight Liftarms��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������61
Bent Liftarms�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������62
Rectangular Liftarms�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������63
Connecting Liftarms��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������64
Pins����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������64
Axles and Bushes������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������66
Exercise: Triangular Structures���������������������������������������������������������������������������68
Connectors����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������76
Exercise: Symmetric Objects������������������������������������������������������������������������������76
Project: Mechanical Linkages�����������������������������������������������������������������������������85
The Universal Joint����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������85
The Eccentric�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������92
Summary������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������96

iv
Table of Contents

Chapter 4: Gears���������������������������������������������������������������������������������99
Gears in the Robot Inventor Set��������������������������������������������������������������������������99
Spur Gears���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������101
Beveled Gears���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������102
Speeding Up Rotation, or “Gearing Up”�������������������������������������������������������������104
Slowing Down Rotation, or “Gearing Down”�����������������������������������������������������110
Exercise: The Many-Geared Machine����������������������������������������������������������������111
Direction of Rotation������������������������������������������������������������������������������������120
Calculating Gear Ratio for More Than Two Gears����������������������������������������120
Exercise: The Torque Demonstrator������������������������������������������������������������������122
Lowering Torque by Gearing Down��������������������������������������������������������������126
Raising Speed by Attempting to Raise Input Torque (and Failing)���������������134
Exercise: The Compound-Gear Spinner�������������������������������������������������������������136
Project: Two-Speed Transmission���������������������������������������������������������������������146
Summary����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������154

Chapter 5: Mechanisms��������������������������������������������������������������������157
Exercise: The Ratchet����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������157
Exercise: The Cam���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������162
Exercise: The Differential����������������������������������������������������������������������������������167
Assembling the Differential�������������������������������������������������������������������������168
The Differential Demonstrator���������������������������������������������������������������������171
Exercise: Turntables������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������180
Project: The Mechanized Cannon����������������������������������������������������������������������195
Summary����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������213

v
Table of Contents

Chapter 6: Motors�����������������������������������������������������������������������������215
Speed and Angle�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������215
Exercise: The Speed and Angle Demonstrator��������������������������������������������������217
Controlling Motor Speed in Word Blocks�����������������������������������������������������220
Controlling Motor Speed in Python��������������������������������������������������������������221
Setting Motor Angle in Word Blocks������������������������������������������������������������222
Setting Motor Angle in Python���������������������������������������������������������������������224
Exercise: Understanding Torque and Stall���������������������������������������������������������225
Exercise: Powering a Vehicle with a Tank Drive������������������������������������������������228
Building the Tank�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������229
Programming the Tank��������������������������������������������������������������������������������239
Exercise: Using a Motor As a Rotation Sensor��������������������������������������������������243
Building the Position Mimic�������������������������������������������������������������������������244
Programming the Position Mimic����������������������������������������������������������������248
Project: The Rear-Wheel Drive Car��������������������������������������������������������������������251
Building the Rear-Wheel Drive Car��������������������������������������������������������������252
Programming the Rear-Wheel Drive Car�����������������������������������������������������272
Summary����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������278

Chapter 7: The Motion Sensor����������������������������������������������������������279


Tilt Angle: Yaw, Pitch, and Roll���������������������������������������������������������������������������279
Exercise: Programming with Tilt Data���������������������������������������������������������������283
Measuring Tilt Angles in Word Blocks����������������������������������������������������������284
Measuring Tilt Angles in Python������������������������������������������������������������������285
Exercise: The Cat Sound Generator�������������������������������������������������������������������286
The Word Blocks Code���������������������������������������������������������������������������������290
The Python Code������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������292

vi
Table of Contents

Other Motion Sensor Measurements: Gyro Rate and Acceleration�������������������294


Project: The Up Pointer��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������296
Building the Up Pointer��������������������������������������������������������������������������������297
Programming the Up Pointer�����������������������������������������������������������������������302
Summary����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������306

Chapter 8: The Distance Sensor�������������������������������������������������������307


Exercise: The Ultrasonic Tape Measure�������������������������������������������������������������307
Building the Ultrasonic Tape Measure���������������������������������������������������������308
Programming the Ultrasonic Tape Measure������������������������������������������������311
Project: The Scanning Cannon��������������������������������������������������������������������������313
Building the Scanning Cannon��������������������������������������������������������������������314
Programming the Scanning Cannon������������������������������������������������������������320
Summary����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������331

Chapter 9: The Color Sensor�������������������������������������������������������������333


Exercise: The Brightness Beeper����������������������������������������������������������������������334
Building the Brightness Beeper�������������������������������������������������������������������334
Programming the Brightness Beeper����������������������������������������������������������337
Project: The Color Sorter�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������340
Building the Color Sorter�����������������������������������������������������������������������������341
Programming the Color Sorter���������������������������������������������������������������������375
Summary����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������382

Appendix A: Parts Lists���������������������������������������������������������������������385

Index�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������409

vii
About the Author
Grady Koch is the author of several books
about LEGO and the founder of the website
hightechlego.com. He has a Ph.D. in Electrical
Engineering and 35 years of experience as a
research engineer at NASA Langley Research
Center, where he has built optical and laser
instruments that have been flown on aircraft
and orbited the Earth. He has three patents
in the field of lidar for studying the atmosphere and is the author or
contributor of over 200 journal and conference publications. Throughout
his career, Dr. Koch has mentored many interns and found that students
sometimes need a little help in making the transition of what they’ve
learned in classroom to real-world practice. These ideas of applying
knowledge to practice are incorporated into his LEGO books.

ix
About the Technical Reviewer
Vishnu Agarwal has more than seven years of experience in the field
of LEGO robotics. He is the founder of ROBO-G, a robotics and STEAM
education service provider. He is also the “Mentor of Change” for Atal
Tinkering Lab at the Vidyashilp Academy. Vishnu has successfully coached
teams in the World Robot Olympiad and First LEGO League competitions.
Many students and teachers alike have learned STEAM concepts using
LEGO education from Vishnu’s courses and coaching. And he has
presented a research paper on Teaching Programming and Computational
Thinking to Elementary Level Children Using Lego Robotics Education Kit
at T4E at IIT, Bombay.

xi
Acknowledgments
My continued appreciation goes out to the LEGO Group for their
phenomenal building toy. To me, LEGO is much more than a toy. LEGO
can be used and enjoyed on many levels for many uses. Sure, it’s a toy,
and a rather engaging one that attracts and brings together people of all
ages. But LEGO is also an excellent tool to teach science and engineering
concepts, which I’ve used with my own kids and is a motivation for this
book. Another motivation for this book is to show LEGO as a tool for
invention.
To convey the concepts and inventions in this book, I’ve included
step-by-step instructions for building exercises and projects. I made the
building instructions with a combination of BrickLink Studio (bricklink.
com) and LDraw (ldraw.org). BrickLink Studio is a computer-aided
design (CAD) utility for building with virtual LEGO that evolved from
Digital Designer developed by the LEGO Group. LDraw, originally built by
James Jessiman, is another LEGO CAD package that has been expanded
on by many dedicated people. There are several interfaces to the LDraw
foundation. Among these interfaces, I used MLCAD (mlcad.lm-software.
com) developed by Michael Lachmann, and LDCad (melkert.net/LDCAD)
developed by Roland Melkert. To create building instructions from CAD
models, I used the LIC utility (bugeyedmonkeys.com) developed by Remi
Gagne and LPub3D (sourceforge.net/projects/lpub3d) based on the work
of Trevor Sandy, Kevin Clague, Leonardo Zide, Travis Cobbs, and Peter
Bartfai.

xiii
Acknowledgments

My appreciation is extended to Apress, whose books I’ve been enjoying


for many years. So it’s been a thrill to write for such a great publishing
company for a third LEGO book. My thanks are given to Jessica Vakili and
James Markham, who did fantastic work in editing. Part of writing a good
book is to have an insightful technical reviewer, and Vishnu Agarwal came
through in this regard.
Finally, let me thank Melissa, Kirsten, and Elias for supporting my
indulgences in LEGO and building strange devices. LEGO is stuffed and
scattered throughout our home, for which I apologize and promise to
clean up one day.

xiv
Introduction
This book explores engineering concepts by building examples with
LEGO. Fundamental principles are presented of how machines work and
why they are built the way they are. There are two reasons why it may be
interesting to learn these engineering concepts. The first reason is for the
simple joy of tinkering with machinery. It can be a captivating experience
to contemplate the inner workings of a machine that can be held in the
hand to take apart, modify, and reassemble. LEGO makes such tinkering
easy and, nowadays, sophisticated with the interplay of mechanical,
electronic, and computer aspects found in MINDSTORMS Robot Inventor
or SPIKE Prime.
The second reason is that the basic designs explored in this book
can serve as a basis for customized inventions. One of the exercises
or projects may provide an idea for a new project or solve a particular
design challenge for a device. For example, examples are included for two
fundamental drivetrains for a robot or vehicle: tank drive and rear-wheel
drive. Building these two fundamental approaches provides the experience
to decide on which is better suited to a customized project. Drivetrains are
just one example of basic designs covered in this book. Building exercises
are also laid out to build structures, gear systems, sensors, computer
control, and mechanisms to spin, push, point, and shoot.
All of the parts used in the exercises and projects of this book are
in the MINDSTORMS Robot Inventor set, also referred to by the part
number 51515. With this set, there’s no need to buy any other parts. The
electronic controller, called the Hub, for Robot Inventor is programmed
by connecting to a host computer or smart device that the user provides,
from which an app is run to control and program inventions. The Robot

xv
Introduction

Inventor app works on a wide variety of computers and smart devices


including iOS, macOS, Fire OS, Windows, and Android devices. Once the
app is installed on a computer or smart device, the code described in this
book can be entered for each particular exercise or project. Code is also
available for download on GitHub.
Most of the projects in this book make use of the Hub, which is
programmed to control inventions. No prior experience is assumed in this
book with programming, with a step-by-step explanation given of how
computer programs are implemented from initial concept to code. Two
programming languages are used, Word Blocks and Python, to work with
the Hub; there is the option of using whichever language is of interest.
Beginners, persons of more casual interest, or users of a smart device
without a keyboard may prefer the Word Blocks version of the programs.
But readers interested in advanced programming may find Python of
greater interest. Many users, especially kids, start learning how to write
programs with Scratch, which is quite similar to MINDSTORMS Word
Blocks, and so it should be a quick adaptation to use the programs in this
book. But many kids of middle-school age want to learn Python, but have a
hard time. So another reason programs in this book are in both languages
is to help the transition from Scratch to Python.
LEGO makes a product called SPIKE Prime as part of its Education
product line primarily meant for use in schools that is a sort of cousin to
Robot Inventor. The programs in this book will work in SPIKE Prime with
no modification needed. Many parts are the same between SPIKE Prime
and Robot Inventor, with just a difference in color. However, some of the
more specialized parts are included in one set but not the other. So an
owner of SPIKE Prime set will have most, but not all, of the parts used
in this book. The few extra parts needed can be found individually on
aftermarket parts dealers such as bricklink.com. All of the parts used in
each exercise and project are described by part number in the Appendix,
in case a particular part is needed.

xvi
Introduction

This book explores the three specialties of software (Chapters 1 and 2),
mechanical (Chapters 3–5), and electrical (Chapters 6–9) engineering.
The electrical engineering chapters also incorporate the software and
mechanical aspects of the earlier chapters. Each chapter has quick
building exercises plus a larger concluding project. Topics in each chapter
are described here in brief.
Chapter 1, “The Hub,” describes working with the Hub, the device
that controls motors and sensors. Instructions are given on how to power
the Hub and navigate its front panel controls. The Hub can be used as a
stand-alone controller, without the need to get into programming, to spin a
motor, and then use a Distance Sensor to control the speed of the motor.
Chapter 2, “Programming,” advances to the next level of using the
Hub by programming it from the Robot Inventor app. The design of a
program is described as starting from a problem statement to developing
an algorithm. Implementation of an algorithm with a flowchart makes the
final step of coding easier to understand. There are two options for the
coding language, Word Blocks and Python, both of which are presented.
Building projects include controlling the displays of the Hub, followed by a
miniature dance floor decorated with light and sound effects.
Chapter 3, “Building Elements,” starts an exploration of mechanical
engineering concepts by touring the many parts in the Robot Inventor set
used to build structures and machines. The basic structural element is the
liftarm, with connections made by pins, axles, and connectors. Liftarms
come in a variety of shapes, and the reasoning behind these shapes will
become apparent with building exercises. These building exercises include
topics in strong structures, symmetry, and linkages.
Chapter 4, “Gears,” unlocks the principles of using gears to change the
speed, torque, and direction from a rotational power source, like a motor.
Speed and torque are critical parameters in designing robots and vehicles,
and the relationship between speed and torque is explored. Moreover,
building exercises show how to manipulate gear configurations to get the

xvii
Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
articulation with the nasal bone and extending backward as far as
the view from the nare will allow.
Through this opening, the skin overlying the bone is raised by dull
dissection. A fine nasal saw is next introduced through the
submucous wound and several vertical incisions are made into or
even through the bone about three sixteenths of an inch apart,
dividing the convexed osseous tissue into several sections adherent
at their superior extremity which lies inferior to the insertion of the
levator labii superioris alæque nasi muscle.
A forceps, such as Adams’s, is now introduced and each section of
bone thus made is fractured from below upwards inwardly to
produce a concavity of the osseous tissue.
The operation requires considerable dexterity. The amplitude of
the sawing movement is very much restricted, because of the
palpebral muscular attachment just above.
A frail bone cutting forceps may be employed and the lower half of
the process be removed to avoid encroachment upon the middle
meatus, but this is rarely necessary, as that chamber is found
unusually wide in this case. If the bone is removed, the remaining
bone may be cut into sections, as described, or by the cutting
forceps, and fractured backwards as described.
Retention dressings must be resorted to, to keep the fragments of
the bone in their new position until cicatrization has been sufficiently
established to keep them in place.
When possible Roe advises sawing off the convexity submucously
and, after loosening the skin over the dorsum of the nose, to move
the bony plate thus made over to the opposite side of the nose and
into the concavity usually found there in these cases. If there be no
deviation at the latter site the bone plate can be entirely removed
through the inferior wound in the mucosa.
CHAPTER XVII
ELECTROLYSIS IN DERMATOLOGY

Several references have been made in the preceding chapter to


the specific use of electricity without a description, however, of its
source or application. The author does not deem it necessary in this
volume to go into the principles of electricity, and takes it for granted
that the practitioner is sufficiently familiar with a knowledge of the
rudiments of the subject and that he understands the meaning of an
electric cell commonly known as a battery.
The Electric Battery.—An electric cell or battery is made up of
two poles which are named positive, designated by the + (plus)
sign, and negative by the - (minus) sign. In the usual form of cell
used the parts are made up of a carbon and zinc cylinder placed into
a glass jar containing the electrolyte or actuating fluid. The latter is
either an aqueous solution of potassium bichromate or salammoniac
contained in a glass jar.
For continuous use or open circuit work the Le Clanche type of cell
is most practicable.
Fig. 502.—Electric Wet Cell.

In Fig. 502 a cell of this type is shown in which the positive pole
or element is composed of a solid piece of carbon forming a cover to
the glass jar as well, and the negative element is of zinc. The
covering over of the jar prevents evaporation of the solution and
adds much to its life.
The Voltage or Electromotive Force.—The voltage or
electromotive force from such a cell averages about 1.5 volts.
Voltage represents the force or propelling power of current known
scientifically as the electromotive force and designated EMF. Owing
to the great resistance of the body to the electric current, a
proportionate force is required to attain therapeutic results.
The unit measure of the quantity of current is known as the
ampère. As this is too great for therapeutic use, the thousandth part,
or milliampère, is employed, and for the purpose of measuring the
amount of current given the patient the milliampèremeter is included
in the circuit or flow of current.
The unit of resistance is termed the Ohm, and to simplify the
method of electrotherapeutic administration the practitioner may
refer to Ohm’s law as a guide. He must remember the average
resistance to the current of the parts to be operated on by this
process. The law is as follows:

EMF or Voltage
C or Current in Ampères = —————————
R or Resistance,

or commonly written

R
C = ———
EMF

The Rheostat.—When we consider that the resistance between


electrodes placed on the palm of the left hand and the back of the
neck is about 4,000 Ohms, it may be readily understood that
considerable voltage is required to overcome this resistance before
the proper amount of current can be employed. Since each cell, for
quick reference, may be said to represent one volt, at least twelve
and not more than sixteen cells would be required for electrolysis.
Not all of the current given off by a battery of such number of cells
should be used on a patient for electrolytic purpose. Some method
must be employed to reduce this voltage and to control it at will.
This is necessary since the life of a cell varies and its current
capacity is limited according to the use the cell is put to. An
instrument of this nature is called a rheostat and is usually made of
graphite or metal wire. Water resistances are also used, but they do
not permit of a constant current because of the consequent heating
and decomposition of the water into its elements at the two metal
poles exposed to the water. The proper instrument will be referred to
later.
The electric cell represents a certain voltage; to add to this more
cells are needed and connected with each other so that each adds
its voltage to other or the circuit. The method of connecting cells in
this manner is called series connection, in which the carbon element
of one cell is connected with the zinc of the next, and so forth, until
the last cell, leaving two free poles, one carbon and a zinc to which
the wires to hold the electrodes for the patient are connected. As
has been said, the carbon is the positive pole and the zinc the
negative. The method of connection is shown in Fig. 503.

Fig. 503.—Series Connection.

These two poles when brought in contact with human tissue


exhibit different action and effect. Without going into electro-
chemistry it may be said the current of the positive pole is sedative
and that of the negative irritant or destructive. That oxygen and
acids are freed at the positive pole and hydrogen and alkalies at the
negative pole.
It is due to these properties of the current that it is employed
therapeutically, but to properly employ it the current must be
controlled so that the exact amount given or used can be estimated.
This is accomplished first of all by the interposition of resistance
within the circuit. This resistance should be such that the current can
be increased or decreased at will. It has been referred to and is
called a rheostat. Its position in the circuit is shown in Fig. 504.
Fig. 504.—Shunt Rheostat Connection.

Cell Selector.—The physician may do without such a rheostat


and use a cell selector with the object of adding one or more cells to
the circuit at will. Such instrument is composed of a marble or
wooden base with a number of disks upon it, each disk representing
a cell of the battery. A metal arm is made to slide over these disks,
and as it advances over each disk the current from that cell is added
to the circuit. It may have a second arm which is used to cut out the
current from the cell or cells at the beginning of the circuit—in fact,
will permit of the selection of any cell in the circuit by proper
manipulation. Such a selector is shown in Fig. 505.
Fig. 505.—Cell Selector.

The connection of the cells of the battery when a selector is used


varies from that just mentioned. The proper wiring with the disks of
the Selector is shown in Fig. 506.
Fig. 506.—Cell Selector and Battery Arrangement.

Milliampèremeter.—The fact that a proper resistance has been


forced in circuit is not alone sufficient to permit of the proper use of
current for electrolysis. A measuring device should be included, as
has been referred to and called the Milliampèremeter or
Milliammeter. It is shown in Fig. 507.
Fig. 507.—Milliampèremeter.

The method of connecting this instrument in series with the


current from the rheostat has been shown in Fig. 509.
The Electric Current.—Where the operating room of the
physician is provided with street current it will be found more
economical and cleaner to use that current for this purpose.
Usually the direct current is furnished of a voltage varying from
100 to 125 volts. To utilize such a current a wall plate is employed
and connected to the circuit, as shown in Fig. 508. The resistance of
an electric lamp is added to guard against injuring the patient if by
any accident or negligence the circuit has been improperly closed.
Fig. 508.—Direct Current Switch Board or Wall
Plate.

Whether the street or battery current is used with such a plate


makes no difference except that with a battery circuit the lamp is not
used. The connections are given in Fig. 509.
Fig. 509.—Wall-Plate Connections.

It will be observed that a current changing switch has been added


to the wall plate. This is included in the circuit to permit of changing
the poles to the patient without interfering or disconnecting the
electrodes if desired at any time during treatment.
Portable Batteries.—The above instruments and circuits refer to
those to be used in the operating room and are stationary. The
physician may be called upon to treat a patient at a distance and for
this purpose must have a portable battery.
There are many such instruments on the market of both dry and
moist cell type. The moist cells usually require a bichromate of soda
or potash solution and are so constructed that the carbon and zinc
poles are taken out of the electrolyte or solution and placed into
water-tight compartments provided for them. Such an apparatus is
shown in Fig. 510a.

Fig. 510a.—Portable Wet Cell Direct Current Apparatus.

The best cell for this purpose is the silver chloride battery. It is
compact, light in weight, and gives a steady current. The only
objection is the high cost.
Portable batteries should be furnished with a milliampèremeter. A
type of a compact dry cell direct current apparatus is shown in Fig.
510b. In the end the best apparatus proves the most economical.
Fig. 510b.—Direct Current Dry Cell Apparatus with Rheostat and Interrupted Current
Attachment.

Electrodes.—Having the circuit or current under control, it now


becomes necessary to attach electrodes to the free poles to be able
to properly apply it to the patient. These electrodes vary
considerably according to their use. The author will refer to only
those that are of service in electrolysis.
Sponge Electrode.—The one electrode held by the patient is
usually made of a metal disk covered with felt or sponge attached to
a wooden handle and is shown in Fig. 511.
Fig. 511.—Sponge Electrode.

This electrode represents the positive; the negative pole is held by


the operator. When used, the felt or sponge is moistened with warm
water to which a little salt has been added and is placed into the
palm of the hand, sponge inward.
The author prefers to use a plain metal disk with the sponge and
places a piece of absorbent cotton or gauze over it when in use for
hygienic reason.
When the operator prefers he may resort to arm or wrist
electrodes which can be clamped upon the limb and be held in
position and shown in Fig. 512.

Fig. 512.—Arm Electrode.

The hand electrode is of greater service since the patient can


regulate or make and break the current at will, a matter of no small
consequence when fairly large currents are being used to destroy a
growth upon the skin of the face.
Needles and Needle Holders.—For the negative electrode the
operator uses a needle holder with a needle of proper form and
material.
Two needle holders are shown in Figs. 513 and 514.

Fig. 513. Fig. 514.


Electrolytic Needle Holders.

When the operator desires he may employ an interrupting needle


holder with which he can make and break the current at will during
the operation. It is shown in Fig. 515.

Fig. 515.—Interrupting Current Needle Holder.

Such a device is not advocated, since the patient is liable to jump


as the current is made suddenly, because of the sharp stinging pain
felt at the point when the needle has entered the tissue or hair
follicle, often resulting in the breaking of the needle and possible
injury to the patient.
Other operators employ a small magnifying glass which may be
attached to the holder, as in Fig. 516, and by a sliding arrangement
be moved up or down the handle to adjust the lens to the proper
focus. This arrangement is indeed novel and may be of service in
removing fine superfluous hairs, but the author has never resorted
to the method.
Fig. 516.—Needle Holder with Magnifying Glass.

The proper kind of needle to be used for electrolysis varies with


the device of the operator. The ordinary cambric needle usually
advocated is too stiff and thick. Jeweler’s broaches are better, but
are very brittle and easily broken. The ideal needle should be very
thin and made of platinum or irido-platinum. The author prefers the
sharp to the bulbous-pointed. For the removal of other blemishes
than hair from the face the sharp needle only can be used.

REMOVAL OF SUPERFLUOUS HAIR


The moistened sponge electrode connected to the (+) positive
pole of the circuit is placed into the hand of the patient, who lies in a
chair with her head on a level with the physician’s chin when
operating. The light should be southern, or such that the shafts of
the hairs show plainly.
The operator turns on the current, holding the needle holder in
the right hand which is connected by a flexible cord to the (-)
negative pole. The rheostat handle is brought back so that just the
least current is flowing. The needle is now thrust down into the
follicle containing the hair. This must be done very gently so as to
feel when the papilla has been reached by the needle. The depth to
which the needle goes varies very much according to the size and
place of the hair. It may be less than one eighth and more than one
fourth inch.
The patient holding the sponge will at once feel a stinging
sensation when the needle enters the skin, which is later not as
objectionable. The current is now increased by advancing the handle
of the rheostat until about eight milliampères are shown by the
index on the dial.
Within a few seconds a white froth will issue from the follicle,
showing that decomposition of tissue is taking place. The operator
must familiarize himself with the time and amount of current
required to destroy superfluous hairs. Coarse hairs may require as
much as fourteen milliampères, but it is advisable to use a moderate
amount of current and to leave the needle a little longer in the
follicle to avoid scarring of the skin.
The papilla having presumably been destroyed, the patient
loosens her grip on the sponge and the needle is withdrawn.
The operator now takes up an epilating forceps, such as shown in
Fig. 517, and removes the hair. If the hair does not come out of the
follicle readily it shows that it has not been destroyed, and the same
treatment, just described, must be repeated, but for a shorter
duration.

Fig. 517.—Epilating Forceps.

When the hair is removed it will show more or less bulb according
to its size and nourishment.
The physician now proceeds to remove the coarse hairs first. Hairs
should not be removed too closely placed, as the current will destroy
the tissue between the follicle and cause scarring. It is better to
remove the hairs some distance apart, leaving the remaining hairs
for later sittings.
About forty or fifty hairs may be removed at one sitting. This will
require from half to an hour and a half of time, but the operator will
soon accomplish considerable work in a minimum of time.
Some of the hairs removed will return, showing as black or dark
specks in the skin, in from five to ten days. The number returning
depends on the operator’s skill. At first he should not be surprised to
see fifty per cent come back, but this ratio is reduced so that only
three or four hairs out of fifty may return, and perhaps these stunted
in growth.
The electrolytic removal of hair does not stimulate the growth of
the finer hairs of the skin; that general belief has been erroneous.
Where there is considerable hair to be removed, as with a beard
on a woman’s face, several sittings may be given a week and at
different parts of the face, but with the average patient only one
sitting should be given each week.
More or less edema follows the removal of hair, which may remain
for a day or more. Warm applications will help to remove it.
The operator should at no time state a definite fee to remove the
hair on the face, unless he is certain of the number present. Such
judgment is, indeed, very misleading.

REMOVAL OF MOLES OR OTHER FACIAL


GROWTHS
Moles, warts, fibromata, fungoids, and other excrescences are
best removed with this method, especially where they are of the
nonpedunculated type. It is hardly necessary to state that very light
currents should be used for the light flat growths, such as a dark
freckle or a small yellow mole. The amount of current required varies
from 6 to 24 milliampères, according to the size of the body to be
removed.
The same procedure as with the removal of hairs is followed.
Positive electrode in the hand of the patient, negative pole to the
needle holder. The needle is thrust through the growth on a plane
with the skin and slightly above it. The current will at once produce
a pale color in the mass and white froth will issue about the shaft of
the needle. A comparatively greater amount of current is needed for
this purpose than with the destruction of hairs. The operator must
judge the amount and time required from experience.
The mass is punctured in stellate fashion to assure an even
necrosis, as shown in Fig. 518.

Fig. 518.—Electrolysis Method for Destroying Growths.

The mass will appear much softer after this treatment, is in some
cases, as with flat moles, quite friable, but this disappears in a few
hours and the mass begins to shrivel and dry up, forming a scab,
which is between brown and almost black in color. This scab falls off
in several days, according to its size, leaving a pink eschar, which
gradually turns white and shows very little, if the growth has not
been too large and the electrolysis carefully done. If little
tumefactions, or tips of tissue, still appear, they are removed as soon
after the scab falls off as deemed advisable by the same method.
Warts show more or less recurrence.

TELANGIECTASIS
In this condition there appear in the skin one or many dilated
capillaries. It is quite common about the sides and lobule of the nose
and just inferior to the malar prominence of the cheeks. To destroy
these the fine platinum needle is thrust through the skin and directly
through the canal of the vessel. The same disposition of the
electrode is used as heretofore described.
Immediately the current is made, a series of bubbles of hydrogen
will run through the vessel which presently becomes pale and empty,
as a result of the electro-chemical action.
The needle should be allowed to remain in the vessel from five to
ten seconds, according to the size of the latter.
The object is to set up sufficient irritation in and of the walls of the
vessel so as to occlude it when cicatrization has been established.
Some edema follows such a treatment, subsiding in a day or more.
Several vessels may be treated in the same sitting, and at either side
of the face. The operator should guard against too strong a current,
to avoid scarring of the skin. The final result in this treatment shows
fine punctate scars, as after the removal of coarse hairs, and
sometimes pale linear scars, but these are observable only on close
inspection.

REMOVAL OF NÆVI
Birthmarks, port-wine marks, and other pigmentary conditions
may be entirely or partly removed from the skin of the face,
according to the size of the area treated and the nature of the case.
For this purpose the single needle attached to the negative pole is
hardly sufficient, unless the spot is exceedingly small, therefore a
bunch needle electrode is used. This electrode has a number of fine
steel needles set into it, as shown in Fig. 519.
In this treatment the needles are made to puncture the skin at
right angles to them to a depth corresponding to the papillary layer.
These pigments lie above that, so that it is not necessary to include
the derma. At each point of puncture a white spot will appear which
soon turns red. In a day’s time a number of fine scabs, or a single
scab, will form over the parts treated, which fall away in about five
days eventually, leaving
the parts paler than
before, owing to a
number of minute
punctate scars.
The amount of
treatment given in each
Fig. 519.—Multiple Needle Electrode. case varies with the
extent of the lesion. If
the result from the first
sitting has not accomplished as much as desired, it can be repeated
over and over until the parts assume a normal tint. There may be
more or less bleeding following the treatment; this is easily checked
by pressure. If the part worked on is quite large, dry aristol dressing
should be used to avoid infection. The scab should not be picked off
by the patient, but allowed to fall off.

REMOVAL OF TATTOO MARKS


The best method of removing such pigmentations of the skin is to
remove them with the knife when possible, and to cover the wound
by sliding flaps made by subcutaneous dissection at either side of
the wound, as in the Celsus method. Some authorities advocate their
re-tattooing with papoid solution, while others prefer caustic agents,
with the object of destroying the pigmented area. These methods
are not to be preferred, since they leave unsightly burn scars.
Electrolytic needling may be tried and is quite successful when the
marks are very small, but, as with gun-powder stains, they are best
removed by punching, or cutting out, a little cone of skin containing
the pigment. The secondary wounds thus made leave only very
small punctate scars that are hardly noticeable. Of course a number
of such removals would not be advisable.
Where the pigmentation is very pale, recourse may be had to the
peeling method, as will be later described.
THE TREATMENT OF SCARS
Not infrequently the cosmetic surgeon is called upon to remove or
improve unsightly scars about the face, the result of injuries or burns
and after the careless coaptation of such wounds. The scars vary in
extent and degree, from a mere pit due to varicella or variola to the
broad areas following the cicatrization of lupus and burns. Surgical
scars vary also from a mere line to areas of greater or less extent,
dependent upon the ablation of neoplasms or the granulation of
wounds due to any cause.
The treatment of scars depends upon their size and location. A
mere linear scar may be reduced by electrolysis, the needle,
negative pole, being introduced equidistantly, from one sixteenth to
a quarter inch apart, with the hope of causing a breaking down
electro-chemically of the scar itself and waiting for secondary
cicatrization. In other words, making a scar within a scar.
This mode of treatment may be repeated in two or three weeks
and has the tendency of breaking up the shiny line of light that
makes the scar stand out prominently from the skin.
Such scars, where nonadherent, or flat with the plane of the skin,
may also be tattooed to reduce their white color.
For this purpose, the red or carmine pigment used for tattooing is
diluted and pricked into the scar tissue with a fine cambric needle by
hand or electric process.
When the scar is small the line is punctured here and there and
the aqueous solution of the pigment is painted over the area, which
is again worked over to make it take.
For larger scar surfaces multiple needles are used. These are
composed of from four to ten needles soldered together at their eye
ends, leaving the points at an even level.
The electric method is the most serviceable for tattooing large
scars.
These instruments are electro-magnetic devices made to
accommodate single or multiple needle points and can be obtained
from instrument makers.
The author has had a special electric synchronous reciprocal
apparatus made, as here shown in Fig. 520, which is much more
compact than the ordinary electric apparatus found on the market. It
works on the principle of the sewing machine needle.

Fig. 520.—Author’s Electric Apparatus for Tattooing Scars.

In using the electric apparatus the needle ends are dipped into the
pigment paste, to which a little glycerin is added to bind it, and this
is tattooed or pricked into the scar.
If, after the parts are healed, the color is too light, the scar may
again be gone over until the tint matches somewhat the tint of the
skin. Other pigments may be used, according to the complexion of
the patient.
Some scars, the resultant of negligent coaptation, are to be
excised according to the Celsus method and are brought together
with a number of fine silk sutures.
If the skin is found to be attached too closely to the subcutaneous
structure, it must be dissected up to render it mobile.
When the scar cannot be removed by excision the hypodermic use
of thiosinamin may be tried.
Thiosinamin or rhodallin is only slightly soluble in water, but the
addition of antipyrin according to Michel renders it useful for
hypodermic use. The formula preferred by the author is made as
follows:

℞ Thiosinamin grs. ij
Antipyrin grs. j
Aqua dest. gtts. xx.

The above solution makes up a single injection, which is to be


made directly under the scar or into the muscular tissue below it.
Two injections are given each week.
The treatment is to be continued until the texture of the cicatrix is
equal to that of the skin.
These injections are more or less painful and may be supplanted
to advantage with the hypodermic use of fibrolysin (Mendel), in
which each 2.3 c.c. correspond to three grains of thiosinamin.
For very small scars, as those occasioned by blepharoplastic
operation, the author employs the twenty-per-cent thiosinamin
plaster mull made by Unna. These are to be applied every day or
night, according to the convenience of the patient, and allowed to
remain on for several hours each day.
At first these plaster mulls are inclined to cause erythema and
exfoliation of the epithelium, therefore they might be used on
alternate days to keep the parts more sightly.
For scars of large extent the above method will answer best. If
there is considerable contraction, the parts should be massaged daily
to soften and stretch them. Eventually the depression of contour
may be corrected by hydrocarbon protheses introduced
subcutaneously following subcutaneous dissection, if deemed
necessary.
Small pits, where discrete, are best removed with a fine knife and
brought together by a fine suture which is to be removed on the fifth
day.
Confluent pittings, as after variola, must be removed by
decortication or peeling methods.
The pits, if spread about the face promiscuously, may be treated
separately by the peeling method, but when they lie less than one
inch apart, it is best to treat the skin of the whole face.
This is done by applying pure liquid carbolic acid to the skin with a
cotton swab. The skin at once assumes a white color. If the pittings
are not very deep, one application of the acid is sufficient. If deep,
one or two more applications are made as the preceding one dries.
In very deep pits, the surgeon should apply the acid to the pit
proper several times, blending off the application at the periphery.
When the surface thus treated has become dry, adhesive plaster,
cut in half-inch strips of desirable length, are put on the face, one
above the other, slightly overlapping, until the whole treated surface
is well covered, mask-like.
The author uses Unna’s zinc oxide plaster mull for this purpose, as
it is backed with gutta-percha, which readily adapts itself to the
curvatures of contour.
The adhesive plaster mask is not removed until about the fourth
or fifth day, when it will be practically forced away from the skin by
the excretions thrown out from the derma. In some cases there is
considerable pus.
After removal of the mask the skin, now very red and tender, is
cleansed with a solution of bichloride, 1 in 10,000.
After the cleansing a mild soothing ointment, such as zinc oxide in
vaselin, is used for several days until the skin takes on its normal
epitheliar layer and appears normal in color.
No water or soaps are to be allowed during the latter period. In
the later days of the treatment the skin may be cleansed with a little
borated vaselin or even olive oil used with absorbent cotton.
If there is a pigmentation of the new skin this should cause no
alarm, as it will fade out in from six to eight weeks.
Tincture of iodine has been used for the same purpose, as well as
its mixture with carbolic acid.
Resublimed resorcin is also advocated, but the resultant peeling
will not prove thick enough to give a satisfactory result.
If, for any reason, the effect obtained is not as desired, the patient
should wait for several weeks and have the treatment repeated.
It is hardly necessary to say that the application used should not
get into the eyes. The upper eyelids should not be treated, since no
benefit arises from it. If there is a redundancy of tissue, it should be
removed surgically, as heretofore described.
CHAPTER XVIII
CASE RECORDING METHODS

Every case, whether of little consequence or of important nature,


should be properly and fully recorded in a thorough and systematic
manner. Apart from the value of such a record, to the operating
surgeon it often proves of the greatest importance in cases where
operations of a purely cosmetic nature are undertaken.
Patients who beg us to make them more beautiful, or less
unsightly in the eyes of the ever-critical observer, are the most
difficult to please, and often complain, after a few days of constant
mirror study, of the parts changed by methods that are the result of
years of hard-earned experience, that the nose or the eyes or the
ears have not been changed as much as they desired—in fact, so
little that their closest friends have failed to evoke ecstatic remarks
about the improvement.
This is not unusual with the most intelligent patients and is due to
the fact that cosmetic operations performed on an ugly though
otherwise normal organ have not yet become very frequent, and
while friends are inclined to remark a change in lesser defects, they
fail to credit this to the cause, owing to a lack of the knowledge of
cosmetic surgery, or their ignorance of the art entirely.
Photographs.—Where a pathological defect, wound, or scar or
traumatic deformity is to be corrected, the patient is usually kind
enough to permit of photographs being made of the parts to be
operated on, but where the defect is hereditary, or the result of age,
objections are invariably raised by all concerned, for fear their
pictures will be used in some outlandish way.
The objection to photographs is obvious, since it usually requires
visits to a studio, and the necessary loss of time to the surgeon,
whose presence is nearly always necessary to secure the proper
negative.
This is especially true of the nose. Very few photographers will
make a satisfactory sharp profile picture. It is less artistic, but most
desired by the surgeon, and when the patient is presented for a
second negative after the operation has been performed, the picture
varies more or less in pose from the first taken.
It would be well for physicians to have a camera for use in the
operating room, and those who can manipulate one will find that
taking a 5 × 7 negative the most suitable.
Stencil Record.—For those who cannot provide themselves or
bother with a photographic apparatus, the stencil record is
recommended.
For this purpose a picture of a normal eye and its lids, a nose, lip
or ear, is drawn upon a piece of oiled or stencil paper, or upon any
thick, stiff book board.
The paper is laid down upon a plate of glass and the outlines of
the picture are cut out, wide enough to allow the sharpened point of
a pencil to pass. Where the lines are long it is advisable to allow
connecting links to remain at various intervals as desired to keep the
stencil stiff and to prevent cut margins from slipping or rolling up.
(See Fig. 521.)
Fig. 521.—Nose Stencil.

The stencil thus made is laid upon the record card and a tracing is
made upon the latter by passing the lead-pencil point along the cut
outline.
The stencil is now lifted and the defect sketched into the picture of
the normal organ.
If this should be the anterior nasal line, a perfect sketch can be
made of the defect by placing a card alongside of that organ and
drawing the outline upon it as the pencil is made to glide over the
nose, the point facing the card in such a way that a true profile
outline is obtained. The card is then cut along the pencil line.
The nasal section of the card is now placed upon the stenciled
nose and its outer border traced into or over it, as the case may be,
by drawing the pencil point along the outer margin.
The same method may be followed post-operatio. This method
can be employed for the other parts of the face as well, as, for
instance, the mouth, ears, base of nose, etc.
Distances in measurements should be put into the record drawing
to make it more exact.
The Rubber Stamp.—Another method is to make outline
sketches of normal parts of the face with India ink upon drawing
board and have those reproduced in rubber stamps, using the stamp
in place of the stencil and marking in the defect in the manner
before mentioned.
The Plaster Cast.—The best method by far, however, and the
one found most accurate, is the plaster cast. It is not a difficult thing
to make a cast of a nose, eyelid, lip, or ear, and the latter is much
more preferable to any other method of record.
For this purpose some modeling clay is required, which is molded
into a strip and laid around the part to be reproduced.
This forms a sort of raised ring or border and prevents the
overflow of the semiliquid plaster, and avoids the annoyance of
trickling the liquid upon other parts of the face about the site of the
part worked on; at the same time it permits of neatness and
uniformity in the size and shape of the casts to be filed away as
records. (See Fig. 522.)
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