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MAKER
I N N O VAT I O N S
SERIES
Learn
Engineering
with LEGO
A Practical Introduction
to Engineering Concepts
—
Grady Koch
Learn Engineering
with LEGO
A Practical Introduction
to Engineering Concepts
Grady Koch
Learn Engineering with LEGO: A Practical Introduction to Engineering
Concepts
Grady Koch
Yorktown, VA, USA
Acknowledgments�����������������������������������������������������������������������������xiii
Introduction����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������xv
Chapter 2: Programming��������������������������������������������������������������������17
Using the Robot Inventor App������������������������������������������������������������������������������17
Installing and Updating the App���������������������������������������������������������������������18
The Interface�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������18
Connecting the Hub���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������20
Updating the Hub Operating System�������������������������������������������������������������21
Exploring the Hub Screen������������������������������������������������������������������������������22
iii
Table of Contents
iv
Table of Contents
Chapter 4: Gears���������������������������������������������������������������������������������99
Gears in the Robot Inventor Set��������������������������������������������������������������������������99
Spur Gears���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������101
Beveled Gears���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������102
Speeding Up Rotation, or “Gearing Up”�������������������������������������������������������������104
Slowing Down Rotation, or “Gearing Down”�����������������������������������������������������110
Exercise: The Many-Geared Machine����������������������������������������������������������������111
Direction of Rotation������������������������������������������������������������������������������������120
Calculating Gear Ratio for More Than Two Gears����������������������������������������120
Exercise: The Torque Demonstrator������������������������������������������������������������������122
Lowering Torque by Gearing Down��������������������������������������������������������������126
Raising Speed by Attempting to Raise Input Torque (and Failing)���������������134
Exercise: The Compound-Gear Spinner�������������������������������������������������������������136
Project: Two-Speed Transmission���������������������������������������������������������������������146
Summary����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������154
Chapter 5: Mechanisms��������������������������������������������������������������������157
Exercise: The Ratchet����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������157
Exercise: The Cam���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������162
Exercise: The Differential����������������������������������������������������������������������������������167
Assembling the Differential�������������������������������������������������������������������������168
The Differential Demonstrator���������������������������������������������������������������������171
Exercise: Turntables������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������180
Project: The Mechanized Cannon����������������������������������������������������������������������195
Summary����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������213
v
Table of Contents
Chapter 6: Motors�����������������������������������������������������������������������������215
Speed and Angle�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������215
Exercise: The Speed and Angle Demonstrator��������������������������������������������������217
Controlling Motor Speed in Word Blocks�����������������������������������������������������220
Controlling Motor Speed in Python��������������������������������������������������������������221
Setting Motor Angle in Word Blocks������������������������������������������������������������222
Setting Motor Angle in Python���������������������������������������������������������������������224
Exercise: Understanding Torque and Stall���������������������������������������������������������225
Exercise: Powering a Vehicle with a Tank Drive������������������������������������������������228
Building the Tank�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������229
Programming the Tank��������������������������������������������������������������������������������239
Exercise: Using a Motor As a Rotation Sensor��������������������������������������������������243
Building the Position Mimic�������������������������������������������������������������������������244
Programming the Position Mimic����������������������������������������������������������������248
Project: The Rear-Wheel Drive Car��������������������������������������������������������������������251
Building the Rear-Wheel Drive Car��������������������������������������������������������������252
Programming the Rear-Wheel Drive Car�����������������������������������������������������272
Summary����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������278
vi
Table of Contents
Index�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������409
vii
About the Author
Grady Koch is the author of several books
about LEGO and the founder of the website
hightechlego.com. He has a Ph.D. in Electrical
Engineering and 35 years of experience as a
research engineer at NASA Langley Research
Center, where he has built optical and laser
instruments that have been flown on aircraft
and orbited the Earth. He has three patents
in the field of lidar for studying the atmosphere and is the author or
contributor of over 200 journal and conference publications. Throughout
his career, Dr. Koch has mentored many interns and found that students
sometimes need a little help in making the transition of what they’ve
learned in classroom to real-world practice. These ideas of applying
knowledge to practice are incorporated into his LEGO books.
ix
About the Technical Reviewer
Vishnu Agarwal has more than seven years of experience in the field
of LEGO robotics. He is the founder of ROBO-G, a robotics and STEAM
education service provider. He is also the “Mentor of Change” for Atal
Tinkering Lab at the Vidyashilp Academy. Vishnu has successfully coached
teams in the World Robot Olympiad and First LEGO League competitions.
Many students and teachers alike have learned STEAM concepts using
LEGO education from Vishnu’s courses and coaching. And he has
presented a research paper on Teaching Programming and Computational
Thinking to Elementary Level Children Using Lego Robotics Education Kit
at T4E at IIT, Bombay.
xi
Acknowledgments
My continued appreciation goes out to the LEGO Group for their
phenomenal building toy. To me, LEGO is much more than a toy. LEGO
can be used and enjoyed on many levels for many uses. Sure, it’s a toy,
and a rather engaging one that attracts and brings together people of all
ages. But LEGO is also an excellent tool to teach science and engineering
concepts, which I’ve used with my own kids and is a motivation for this
book. Another motivation for this book is to show LEGO as a tool for
invention.
To convey the concepts and inventions in this book, I’ve included
step-by-step instructions for building exercises and projects. I made the
building instructions with a combination of BrickLink Studio (bricklink.
com) and LDraw (ldraw.org). BrickLink Studio is a computer-aided
design (CAD) utility for building with virtual LEGO that evolved from
Digital Designer developed by the LEGO Group. LDraw, originally built by
James Jessiman, is another LEGO CAD package that has been expanded
on by many dedicated people. There are several interfaces to the LDraw
foundation. Among these interfaces, I used MLCAD (mlcad.lm-software.
com) developed by Michael Lachmann, and LDCad (melkert.net/LDCAD)
developed by Roland Melkert. To create building instructions from CAD
models, I used the LIC utility (bugeyedmonkeys.com) developed by Remi
Gagne and LPub3D (sourceforge.net/projects/lpub3d) based on the work
of Trevor Sandy, Kevin Clague, Leonardo Zide, Travis Cobbs, and Peter
Bartfai.
xiii
Acknowledgments
xiv
Introduction
This book explores engineering concepts by building examples with
LEGO. Fundamental principles are presented of how machines work and
why they are built the way they are. There are two reasons why it may be
interesting to learn these engineering concepts. The first reason is for the
simple joy of tinkering with machinery. It can be a captivating experience
to contemplate the inner workings of a machine that can be held in the
hand to take apart, modify, and reassemble. LEGO makes such tinkering
easy and, nowadays, sophisticated with the interplay of mechanical,
electronic, and computer aspects found in MINDSTORMS Robot Inventor
or SPIKE Prime.
The second reason is that the basic designs explored in this book
can serve as a basis for customized inventions. One of the exercises
or projects may provide an idea for a new project or solve a particular
design challenge for a device. For example, examples are included for two
fundamental drivetrains for a robot or vehicle: tank drive and rear-wheel
drive. Building these two fundamental approaches provides the experience
to decide on which is better suited to a customized project. Drivetrains are
just one example of basic designs covered in this book. Building exercises
are also laid out to build structures, gear systems, sensors, computer
control, and mechanisms to spin, push, point, and shoot.
All of the parts used in the exercises and projects of this book are
in the MINDSTORMS Robot Inventor set, also referred to by the part
number 51515. With this set, there’s no need to buy any other parts. The
electronic controller, called the Hub, for Robot Inventor is programmed
by connecting to a host computer or smart device that the user provides,
from which an app is run to control and program inventions. The Robot
xv
Introduction
xvi
Introduction
This book explores the three specialties of software (Chapters 1 and 2),
mechanical (Chapters 3–5), and electrical (Chapters 6–9) engineering.
The electrical engineering chapters also incorporate the software and
mechanical aspects of the earlier chapters. Each chapter has quick
building exercises plus a larger concluding project. Topics in each chapter
are described here in brief.
Chapter 1, “The Hub,” describes working with the Hub, the device
that controls motors and sensors. Instructions are given on how to power
the Hub and navigate its front panel controls. The Hub can be used as a
stand-alone controller, without the need to get into programming, to spin a
motor, and then use a Distance Sensor to control the speed of the motor.
Chapter 2, “Programming,” advances to the next level of using the
Hub by programming it from the Robot Inventor app. The design of a
program is described as starting from a problem statement to developing
an algorithm. Implementation of an algorithm with a flowchart makes the
final step of coding easier to understand. There are two options for the
coding language, Word Blocks and Python, both of which are presented.
Building projects include controlling the displays of the Hub, followed by a
miniature dance floor decorated with light and sound effects.
Chapter 3, “Building Elements,” starts an exploration of mechanical
engineering concepts by touring the many parts in the Robot Inventor set
used to build structures and machines. The basic structural element is the
liftarm, with connections made by pins, axles, and connectors. Liftarms
come in a variety of shapes, and the reasoning behind these shapes will
become apparent with building exercises. These building exercises include
topics in strong structures, symmetry, and linkages.
Chapter 4, “Gears,” unlocks the principles of using gears to change the
speed, torque, and direction from a rotational power source, like a motor.
Speed and torque are critical parameters in designing robots and vehicles,
and the relationship between speed and torque is explored. Moreover,
building exercises show how to manipulate gear configurations to get the
xvii
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articulation with the nasal bone and extending backward as far as
the view from the nare will allow.
Through this opening, the skin overlying the bone is raised by dull
dissection. A fine nasal saw is next introduced through the
submucous wound and several vertical incisions are made into or
even through the bone about three sixteenths of an inch apart,
dividing the convexed osseous tissue into several sections adherent
at their superior extremity which lies inferior to the insertion of the
levator labii superioris alæque nasi muscle.
A forceps, such as Adams’s, is now introduced and each section of
bone thus made is fractured from below upwards inwardly to
produce a concavity of the osseous tissue.
The operation requires considerable dexterity. The amplitude of
the sawing movement is very much restricted, because of the
palpebral muscular attachment just above.
A frail bone cutting forceps may be employed and the lower half of
the process be removed to avoid encroachment upon the middle
meatus, but this is rarely necessary, as that chamber is found
unusually wide in this case. If the bone is removed, the remaining
bone may be cut into sections, as described, or by the cutting
forceps, and fractured backwards as described.
Retention dressings must be resorted to, to keep the fragments of
the bone in their new position until cicatrization has been sufficiently
established to keep them in place.
When possible Roe advises sawing off the convexity submucously
and, after loosening the skin over the dorsum of the nose, to move
the bony plate thus made over to the opposite side of the nose and
into the concavity usually found there in these cases. If there be no
deviation at the latter site the bone plate can be entirely removed
through the inferior wound in the mucosa.
CHAPTER XVII
ELECTROLYSIS IN DERMATOLOGY
In Fig. 502 a cell of this type is shown in which the positive pole
or element is composed of a solid piece of carbon forming a cover to
the glass jar as well, and the negative element is of zinc. The
covering over of the jar prevents evaporation of the solution and
adds much to its life.
The Voltage or Electromotive Force.—The voltage or
electromotive force from such a cell averages about 1.5 volts.
Voltage represents the force or propelling power of current known
scientifically as the electromotive force and designated EMF. Owing
to the great resistance of the body to the electric current, a
proportionate force is required to attain therapeutic results.
The unit measure of the quantity of current is known as the
ampère. As this is too great for therapeutic use, the thousandth part,
or milliampère, is employed, and for the purpose of measuring the
amount of current given the patient the milliampèremeter is included
in the circuit or flow of current.
The unit of resistance is termed the Ohm, and to simplify the
method of electrotherapeutic administration the practitioner may
refer to Ohm’s law as a guide. He must remember the average
resistance to the current of the parts to be operated on by this
process. The law is as follows:
EMF or Voltage
C or Current in Ampères = —————————
R or Resistance,
or commonly written
R
C = ———
EMF
The best cell for this purpose is the silver chloride battery. It is
compact, light in weight, and gives a steady current. The only
objection is the high cost.
Portable batteries should be furnished with a milliampèremeter. A
type of a compact dry cell direct current apparatus is shown in Fig.
510b. In the end the best apparatus proves the most economical.
Fig. 510b.—Direct Current Dry Cell Apparatus with Rheostat and Interrupted Current
Attachment.
When the hair is removed it will show more or less bulb according
to its size and nourishment.
The physician now proceeds to remove the coarse hairs first. Hairs
should not be removed too closely placed, as the current will destroy
the tissue between the follicle and cause scarring. It is better to
remove the hairs some distance apart, leaving the remaining hairs
for later sittings.
About forty or fifty hairs may be removed at one sitting. This will
require from half to an hour and a half of time, but the operator will
soon accomplish considerable work in a minimum of time.
Some of the hairs removed will return, showing as black or dark
specks in the skin, in from five to ten days. The number returning
depends on the operator’s skill. At first he should not be surprised to
see fifty per cent come back, but this ratio is reduced so that only
three or four hairs out of fifty may return, and perhaps these stunted
in growth.
The electrolytic removal of hair does not stimulate the growth of
the finer hairs of the skin; that general belief has been erroneous.
Where there is considerable hair to be removed, as with a beard
on a woman’s face, several sittings may be given a week and at
different parts of the face, but with the average patient only one
sitting should be given each week.
More or less edema follows the removal of hair, which may remain
for a day or more. Warm applications will help to remove it.
The operator should at no time state a definite fee to remove the
hair on the face, unless he is certain of the number present. Such
judgment is, indeed, very misleading.
The mass will appear much softer after this treatment, is in some
cases, as with flat moles, quite friable, but this disappears in a few
hours and the mass begins to shrivel and dry up, forming a scab,
which is between brown and almost black in color. This scab falls off
in several days, according to its size, leaving a pink eschar, which
gradually turns white and shows very little, if the growth has not
been too large and the electrolysis carefully done. If little
tumefactions, or tips of tissue, still appear, they are removed as soon
after the scab falls off as deemed advisable by the same method.
Warts show more or less recurrence.
TELANGIECTASIS
In this condition there appear in the skin one or many dilated
capillaries. It is quite common about the sides and lobule of the nose
and just inferior to the malar prominence of the cheeks. To destroy
these the fine platinum needle is thrust through the skin and directly
through the canal of the vessel. The same disposition of the
electrode is used as heretofore described.
Immediately the current is made, a series of bubbles of hydrogen
will run through the vessel which presently becomes pale and empty,
as a result of the electro-chemical action.
The needle should be allowed to remain in the vessel from five to
ten seconds, according to the size of the latter.
The object is to set up sufficient irritation in and of the walls of the
vessel so as to occlude it when cicatrization has been established.
Some edema follows such a treatment, subsiding in a day or more.
Several vessels may be treated in the same sitting, and at either side
of the face. The operator should guard against too strong a current,
to avoid scarring of the skin. The final result in this treatment shows
fine punctate scars, as after the removal of coarse hairs, and
sometimes pale linear scars, but these are observable only on close
inspection.
REMOVAL OF NÆVI
Birthmarks, port-wine marks, and other pigmentary conditions
may be entirely or partly removed from the skin of the face,
according to the size of the area treated and the nature of the case.
For this purpose the single needle attached to the negative pole is
hardly sufficient, unless the spot is exceedingly small, therefore a
bunch needle electrode is used. This electrode has a number of fine
steel needles set into it, as shown in Fig. 519.
In this treatment the needles are made to puncture the skin at
right angles to them to a depth corresponding to the papillary layer.
These pigments lie above that, so that it is not necessary to include
the derma. At each point of puncture a white spot will appear which
soon turns red. In a day’s time a number of fine scabs, or a single
scab, will form over the parts treated, which fall away in about five
days eventually, leaving
the parts paler than
before, owing to a
number of minute
punctate scars.
The amount of
treatment given in each
Fig. 519.—Multiple Needle Electrode. case varies with the
extent of the lesion. If
the result from the first
sitting has not accomplished as much as desired, it can be repeated
over and over until the parts assume a normal tint. There may be
more or less bleeding following the treatment; this is easily checked
by pressure. If the part worked on is quite large, dry aristol dressing
should be used to avoid infection. The scab should not be picked off
by the patient, but allowed to fall off.
In using the electric apparatus the needle ends are dipped into the
pigment paste, to which a little glycerin is added to bind it, and this
is tattooed or pricked into the scar.
If, after the parts are healed, the color is too light, the scar may
again be gone over until the tint matches somewhat the tint of the
skin. Other pigments may be used, according to the complexion of
the patient.
Some scars, the resultant of negligent coaptation, are to be
excised according to the Celsus method and are brought together
with a number of fine silk sutures.
If the skin is found to be attached too closely to the subcutaneous
structure, it must be dissected up to render it mobile.
When the scar cannot be removed by excision the hypodermic use
of thiosinamin may be tried.
Thiosinamin or rhodallin is only slightly soluble in water, but the
addition of antipyrin according to Michel renders it useful for
hypodermic use. The formula preferred by the author is made as
follows:
℞ Thiosinamin grs. ij
Antipyrin grs. j
Aqua dest. gtts. xx.
The stencil thus made is laid upon the record card and a tracing is
made upon the latter by passing the lead-pencil point along the cut
outline.
The stencil is now lifted and the defect sketched into the picture of
the normal organ.
If this should be the anterior nasal line, a perfect sketch can be
made of the defect by placing a card alongside of that organ and
drawing the outline upon it as the pencil is made to glide over the
nose, the point facing the card in such a way that a true profile
outline is obtained. The card is then cut along the pencil line.
The nasal section of the card is now placed upon the stenciled
nose and its outer border traced into or over it, as the case may be,
by drawing the pencil point along the outer margin.
The same method may be followed post-operatio. This method
can be employed for the other parts of the face as well, as, for
instance, the mouth, ears, base of nose, etc.
Distances in measurements should be put into the record drawing
to make it more exact.
The Rubber Stamp.—Another method is to make outline
sketches of normal parts of the face with India ink upon drawing
board and have those reproduced in rubber stamps, using the stamp
in place of the stencil and marking in the defect in the manner
before mentioned.
The Plaster Cast.—The best method by far, however, and the
one found most accurate, is the plaster cast. It is not a difficult thing
to make a cast of a nose, eyelid, lip, or ear, and the latter is much
more preferable to any other method of record.
For this purpose some modeling clay is required, which is molded
into a strip and laid around the part to be reproduced.
This forms a sort of raised ring or border and prevents the
overflow of the semiliquid plaster, and avoids the annoyance of
trickling the liquid upon other parts of the face about the site of the
part worked on; at the same time it permits of neatness and
uniformity in the size and shape of the casts to be filed away as
records. (See Fig. 522.)
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