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 Introduction to Python for
Econometrics, Statistics and Data Analysis
3rd Edition, 1st Revision

Kevin Sheppard
University of Oxford

Monday 9th September, 2019

2

©2019 Kevin Sheppard

Changes since the Third Edition

• Verified that all code and examples work correctly against 2019 versions of modules. The notable
packages and their versions are:

– Python 3.7 (Preferred version)

– NumPy: 1.16
– SciPy: 1.3
– pandas: 0.25
– matplotlib: 3.1

• Python 2.7 support has been officially dropped, although most examples continue to work with 2.7.
Do not Python 2.7 in 2019 for numerical code.

• Small typo fixes, thanks to Marton Huebler.

• Fixed direct download of FRED data due to API changes, thanks to Jesper Termansen.

• Thanks for Bill Tubbs for a detailed read and multiple typo reports.

• Updated to changes in line profiler (see Ch. 24)

• Updated deprecations in pandas.

• Removed hold from plotting chapter since this is no longer required.

• Thanks for Gen Li for multiple typo reports.

• Tested all code on Pyton 3.6. Code has been tested against the current set of modules installed by
conda as of February 2018. The notable packages and their versions are:

– NumPy: 1.13
– Pandas: 0.22
ii
Notes to the 3rd Edition

This edition includes the following changes from the second edition (August 2014):

• Rewritten installation section focused exclusively on using Continuum’s Anaconda.

• Python 3.5 is the default version of Python instead of 2.7. Python 3.5 (or newer) is well supported by
the Python packages required to analyze data and perform statistical analysis, and bring some new
useful features, such as a new operator for matrix multiplication (@).

• Removed distinction between integers and longs in built-in data types chapter. This distinction is
only relevant for Python 2.7.

• dot has been removed from most examples and replaced with @ to produce more readable code.

• Split Cython and Numba into separate chapters to highlight the improved capabilities of Numba.

• Verified all code working on current versions of core libraries using Python 3.5.

• pandas

– Updated syntax of pandas functions such as resample.

– Added pandas Categorical.
– Expanded coverage of pandas groupby.
– Expanded coverage of date and time data types and functions.

• New chapter introducing statsmodels, a package that facilitates statistical analysis of data. statsmod-
els includes regression analysis, Generalized Linear Models (GLM) and time-series analysis using
ARIMA models.
iv
Changes since the Second Edition

• Fixed typos reported by a reader – thanks to Ilya Sorvachev

• Code verified against Anaconda 2.0.1.

• Added diagnostic tools and a simple method to use external code in the Cython section.

• Updated the Numba section to reflect recent changes.

• Fixed some typos in the chapter on Performance and Optimization.

• Added examples of joblib and IPython’s cluster to the chapter on running code in parallel.

• New chapter introducing object-oriented programming as a method to provide structure and orga-
nization to related code.

• Added seaborn to the recommended package list, and have included it be default in the graphics
chapter.

• Based on experience teaching Python to economics students, the recommended installation has
been simplified by removing the suggestion to use virtual environment. The discussion of virtual
environments as been moved to the appendix.

• Rewrote parts of the pandas chapter.

• Changed the Anaconda install to use both create and install, which shows how to install additional
packages.

• Fixed some missing packages in the direct install.

• Changed the configuration of IPython to reflect best practices.

• Added subsection covering IPython profiles.

• Small section about Spyder as a good starting IDE.

vi
Notes to the 2nd Edition

This edition includes the following changes from the first edition (March 2012):

• The preferred installation method is now Continuum Analytics’ Anaconda. Anaconda is a complete
scientific stack and is available for all major platforms.

• New chapter on pandas. pandas provides a simple but powerful tool to manage data and perform
preliminary analysis. It also greatly simplifies importing and exporting data.

• New chapter on advanced selection of elements from an array.

• Numba provides just-in-time compilation for numeric Python code which often produces large per-
formance gains when pure NumPy solutions are not available (e.g. looping code).

• Dictionary, set and tuple comprehensions

• Numerous typos

• All code has been verified working against Anaconda 1.7.0.

viii
Contents

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Conventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Important Components of the Python Scientific Stack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.5 Using Python . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.A Additional Installation Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

2 Python 2.7 vs. 3 (and the rest) 19

2.1 Python 2.7 vs. 3.x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.2 Intel Math Kernel Library and AMD’s GPUOpen Libraries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.3 Other Variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.A Relevant Differences between Python 2.7 and 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

3 Built-in Data Types 23

3.1 Variable Names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.2 Core Native Data Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.3 Additional Container Data Types in the Standard Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.4 Python and Memory Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

4 Arrays and Matrices 39

4.1 Array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.2 Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.3 1-dimensional Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.4 2-dimensional Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.5 Multidimensional Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.6 Concatenation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.7 Accessing Elements of an Array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.8 Slicing and Memory Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.9 import and Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
x CONTENTS

4.10 Calling Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

4.11 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

5 Basic Math 57
5.1 Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
5.2 Broadcasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
5.3 Addition (+) and Subtraction (-) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.4 Multiplication (*) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.5 Matrix Multiplication (@) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.6 Array and Matrix Division (/) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
5.7 Exponentiation (**) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
5.8 Parentheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
5.9 Transpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
5.10 Operator Precedence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
5.11 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

6 Basic Functions and Numerical Indexing 63

6.1 Generating Arrays and Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
6.2 Rounding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
6.3 Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
6.4 Complex Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
6.5 Set Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
6.6 Sorting and Extreme Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
6.7 Nan Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
6.8 Functions and Methods/Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
6.9 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

7 Special Arrays 77
7.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

8 Array and Matrix Functions 79

8.1 Views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
8.2 Shape Information and Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
8.3 Linear Algebra Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
8.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

9 Importing and Exporting Data 93

9.1 Importing Data using pandas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
9.2 Importing Data without pandas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
9.3 Saving or Exporting Data using pandas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
9.4 Saving or Exporting Data without pandas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
9.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
CONTENTS xi

10 Inf, NaN and Numeric Limits 103

10.1 inf and NaN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
10.2 Floating point precision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
10.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

11 Logical Operators and Find 107

11.1 >, >=, <, <=, ==, != . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
11.2 and, or, not and xor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
11.3 Multiple tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
11.4 is* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
11.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

12 Advanced Selection and Assignment 113

12.1 Numerical Indexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
12.2 Logical Indexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
12.3 Performance Considerations and Memory Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
12.4 Assignment with Broadcasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
12.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

13 Flow Control, Loops and Exception Handling 127

13.1 Whitespace and Flow Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
13.2 if . . . elif . . . else . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
13.3 for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
13.4 while . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
13.5 try . . . except . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
13.6 List Comprehensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
13.7 Tuple, Dictionary and Set Comprehensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
13.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

14 Dates and Times 137

14.1 Creating Dates and Times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
14.2 Dates Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
14.3 Numpy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

15 Graphics 141
15.1 seaborn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
15.2 2D Plotting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
15.3 Advanced 2D Plotting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
15.4 3D Plotting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
15.5 General Plotting Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
15.6 Exporting Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
15.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
xii CONTENTS

16 pandas 161
16.1 Data Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
16.2 Statistical Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
16.3 Time-series Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
16.4 Importing and Exporting Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
16.5 Graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
16.6 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197

17 Structured Arrays 203

17.1 Mixed Arrays with Column Names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
17.2 Record Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206

18 Custom Function and Modules 207

18.1 Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
18.2 Variable Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
18.3 Example: Least Squares with Newey-West Covariance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
18.4 Anonymous Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
18.5 Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
18.6 Packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
18.7 PYTHONPATH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
18.8 Python Coding Conventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
18.9 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
18.A Listing of econometrics.py . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220

19 Probability and Statistics Functions 225

19.1 Simulating Random Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
19.2 Simulation and Random Number Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
19.3 Statistics Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
19.4 Continuous Random Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
19.5 Select Statistics Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
19.6 Select Statistical Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
19.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241

20 Statistical Analysis with statsmodels 243

20.1 Regression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243

21 Non-linear Function Optimization 247

21.1 Unconstrained Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
21.2 Derivative-free Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
21.3 Constrained Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
21.4 Scalar Function Minimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
21.5 Nonlinear Least Squares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
CONTENTS xiii

21.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258

22 String Manipulation 259

22.1 String Building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
22.2 String Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
22.3 Formatting Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
22.4 Regular Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
22.5 Safe Conversion of Strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269

23 File System Operations 271

23.1 Changing the Working Directory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
23.2 Creating and Deleting Directories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
23.3 Listing the Contents of a Directory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
23.4 Copying, Moving and Deleting Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
23.5 Executing Other Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
23.6 Creating and Opening Archives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
23.7 Reading and Writing Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
23.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276

24 Performance and Code Optimization 277

24.1 Getting Started . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
24.2 Timing Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
24.3 Vectorize to Avoid Unnecessary Loops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
24.4 Alter the loop dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
24.5 Utilize Broadcasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
24.6 Use In-place Assignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
24.7 Avoid Allocating Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
24.8 Inline Frequent Function Calls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
24.9 Consider Data Locality in Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
24.10Profile Long Running Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
24.11Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285

25 Improving Performance using Numba 287

25.1 Quick Start . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
25.2 Supported Python Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
25.3 Supported NumPy Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
25.4 Diagnosing Performance Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
25.5 Replacing Python function with C functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
25.6 Other Features of Numba . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
25.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
 COMPÔTE OF BARBERRIES FOR DESSERT.

When this fruit is first ripe it requires, from its excessive acidity,
nearly its weight of sugar to render it palatable; but after hanging
some time upon the trees it becomes much mellowed in flavour, and
may be sufficiently sweetened with a smaller proportion. According
to the state of the fruit then, take for each pound (leaving it in
bunches) from twelve to sixteen ounces of sugar, and boil it with
three-quarters of a pint of water until it forms a syrup. Throw in the
bunches of fruit, and simmer them for five or six minutes. If their
weight of sugar be used, they will become in that time perfectly
transparent. As all vessels of tin affect the colour of the barberries,
they should be boiled in a copper stewpan, or in a German
enamelled one, which would be far better.
Barberries, 1 lb.; sugar, 12 to 16 oz.; water, 3/4 pint; fruit simmered
in syrup, 5 to 6 minutes.
 BLACK CAPS PAR EXCELLENCE.

(For the Second-course, or for Dessert.)

Cut a dozen fine Norfolk biffins in two without paring them, scoop
out the cores, and fill the cavities with thin strips of fresh lemon-rind
and with candied orange-peel. Cover the bottom of a flat shallow tin
with a thick layer of fine pale brown sugar, press the two halves of
each apple together, and place them closely in the tin; pour half a
bottle of raisin or of any other sweet wine over them, and be careful
to moisten the tops of all; sift white sugar thickly on them, and set the
tin into a very hot oven at first, that the outsides of the apples may
catch or become black; then draw them to the mouth of the oven,
and bake them gently until they are soft quite through. The Norfolk
biffin answers for this dish far better than any other kind of apple, but
the winter queening, and some few firm sorts beside, can be used
for it with fair success. These for variety may be cored without being
divided, and filled with orange marmalade. The black caps served
hot, as a second-course dish, are excellent.
Norfolk biffins, 12; rinds fresh lemons, 1 to 2; candied orange-rind,
2 to 3 oz.; pale brown sugar, 3/4 lb.; raisin or other wine, 1/2 bottle;
little sifted sugar: 3/4 to 1 hour, or more.
Obs.—The apples dressed as above resemble a rich confection,
and will remain good for ten days or a fortnight; sometimes much
longer even. The receipt is an admirable one.
 GATEAU DE POMMES.

Boil together for fifteen minutes a pound of well-refined sugar and

half a pint of water; then add a couple of pounds of nonsuches, or of
any other finely-flavoured apples which can be boiled easily to a
smooth pulp, and the juice of a couple of small, or of one very large
lemon. Stew these gently until the mixture is perfectly free from
lumps, then boil it quickly, keeping it stirred, without quitting it, until it
forms a very thick and dry marmalade. A few minutes before it is
done add the finely grated rinds of a couple of lemons; when it
leaves the bottom of the preserving-pan visible and dry, press it into
moulds of tasteful form; and either store it for winter use, or if wanted
for table, serve it plain for rice-crust, or ornament it with spikes of
blanched almonds, and pour a custard round it for a second-course
dish (entremets).
Sugar, 1 lb.; water, 1/2 pint: 15 minutes. Nonsuches or other
apples, 2 lbs.; juice, 1 large or 2 small lemons: 2 hours or more.
 GATEAU OF MIXED FRUITS. (GOOD.)

Extract the juice from some fresh red currants by simmering them
very gently for a few minutes over a slow fire: strain it through a
folded muslin, and to one pound of it add a pound and a half of
nonsuches or of freshly gathered codlings, pared, and rather deeply
cored, that the fibrous part of the apple may be avoided. Boil these
quite slowly until the mixture is perfectly smooth, then, to evaporate
part of the moisture, let the boiling be quickened. In from twenty-five
to thirty minutes draw the pan from the fire, and throw in gradually a
pound and a quarter of sugar in fine powder: mix it well with the fruit,
and when it is dissolved continue the boiling rapidly for twenty
minutes longer, keeping the mixture constantly stirred; put it into a
mould, and store it, when cold, for winter use, or serve it for rice-
crust, or for the second course: in the latter case decorate it with
spikes of blanched almonds, or pistachio-nuts, and heap solid
whipped cream round it, or pour a custard into the dish. For rice-
crust it may be garnished with dice of the palest apple-jelly.
Juice of red currants, 1 lb.; nonsuches, or codlings (pared and
cored), 1-1/2 lb.: 25 to 30 minutes. Sugar, 1-1/2 lb.: 20 minutes.
Obs.—A portion of raspberries, if still in season, may be mixed
with the currants for this gâteau, should the flavour be liked.
For other and excellent varieties of gâteaux of fruit, see Newton
solid, and damson solid, Chapter XXIV. Ripe peaches and
nonsuches will likewise do well for it. Codlings answer perfectly for
the preceding receipt, and the preparation is of fine colour and very
pleasant flavour: it ought to cut in clear firm slices. Other varieties of
fruit can be mingled in the same manner.
 JELLIES.

CALF’S FEET JELLY. (ENTREMETS.)

We hear inexperienced
housekeepers frequently
complain of the difficulty of
rendering this jelly perfectly
transparent; but by mixing with
the other ingredients, while quite
cold, the whites, and the
crushed shells of a sufficient
number of eggs, and allowing
the head of scum which gathers
on the jelly to remain Modern Jelly Mould.
undisturbed after it once forms,
they will scarcely fail to obtain it
clear. It should be strained through a thick flannel, or beaver-skin,
bag of a conical form (placed before the fire, should the weather be
at all cold, or the mixture will jelly before it has run through), and if
not perfectly clear it must be strained, again and again, until it
becomes so; though we generally find that once suffices. Mix
thoroughly in a large stewpan five half-pints of strong calf’s feet stock
(see page 453), a full pint of sherry, half a pound of sugar roughly
powdered, the juice of two fine lemons, the rind of one and a half cut
very thin, the whites and shells of four large eggs, and half an ounce
of isinglass. Let these remain a few minutes off the fire, that the
sugar may dissolve more easily; then let the jelly be brought to boil
gradually, and do not stir it after it begins to heat. When it has boiled
gently for sixteen minutes, draw it from the fire, and let it stand a
short time before it is poured into a jelly-bag, under which a bowl
should be placed to receive it. When clear and cool, put it into
moulds which have been laid for some hours in water: these should
always be of earthenware in preference to metal. If to be served in
glasses, or roughed, the jelly will be sufficiently firm without the
isinglass, of which, however, we recommend a small quantity to be
thrown in always when the jelly begins to boil, as it facilitates the
clearing.
Calf’s feet stock, 2-1/2 pints; sugar, 1/2 lb.; sherry, 1 pint; juice of
lemons, 2 large; rind of 1-1/2; whites and shells of eggs, 4 large, or 5
small: 16 minutes.
Obs. 1.—After the jelly has dropped through the bag, an
exceedingly agreeable beverage may be obtained by pouring in
some boiling water; from one to three half pints, according to the
quantity of jelly which has been made. The same plan should be
pursued in making orange or lemon jelly for an invalid.
Obs. 2.—As it is essential to the transparency of calf’s feet jelly of
all kinds that the whole of the ingredients should be quite cold when
they are mixed, and as the stock can only be measured in a liquid
state, to which it must be reduced by heating, the better plan is, to
measure it when it is first strained from the feet, and to put apart the
exact quantity required for a receipt; but when this has not been
done, and it is necessary to liquefy it, it must be left until quite cold
again before it is used. For the manner of preparing and clarifying it,
see the beginning of this chapter.
 ANOTHER RECEIPT FOR CALF’S FEET JELLY.

To four calf’s feet well cleaned and divided, pour a gallon of water
and let them stew until it is reduced to rather less than two quarts; or
if, after the flesh has quite fallen from the bones, the liquor on being
strained off should exceed that quantity, reduce it by rapid boiling in
a clean uncovered pan over a very clear fire. When it is perfectly firm
and cold, take it clear of fat and sediment, and add to it a bottle of
sherry, which should be of good quality (for poor, thin wines are not
well adapted to the purpose), three-quarters of a pound of sugar
broken small, the juice of five large or of six moderate-sized lemons,
and the whites, with the shells finely crushed, of seven eggs, or of
more should they be very small. The rinds of three lemons, pared
exceedingly thin, may be thrown into the jelly a few minutes before it
is taken from the fire; or they may be put into the jelly-bag previously
to its being poured through, when they will impart to it a slight and
delicate flavour, without deepening its colour much. If it is to be
moulded, something more than half an ounce of isinglass should be
dropped lightly in where the liquid becomes visible through the head
of scum, when the mixture begins to boil; for if not sufficiently firm, it
will break when it is dished. It may be roughed, or served in glasses
without this addition; and in a liquid state will be found an admirable
ingredient for Oxford, or other punch.
Calf’s feet, 4; water, 1 gallon: to be reduced more than half.
Sherry, 1 bottle; sugar, 3/4 lb. (more to taste); juice of 5 large
lemons, or of six moderate-sized; whites and shells of 7 eggs, or
more if small; rinds of lemons, 3 (for moulding, nearly 3/4 oz. of
isinglass): 15 to 20 minutes.
Obs.—An excellent and wholesome jelly for young people may be
made with good orange or raisin wine, instead of sherry; to either of
these the juice of three or four oranges, with a small portion of the
rind, may be added instead of part of the lemons.
 MODERN VARIETIES OF CALF’S FEET JELLY.

In modern cookery a number of excellent jellies are made with the

stock of calves’ feet, variously flavoured. Many of them are
compounded entirely without wine, a small quantity of some fine
liqueur being used as a substitute; and sometimes cinnamon, or
vanilla, or Seville orange-rind with a slight portion of acid, takes
place of this. For aristocratic tables, indeed, it is the present fashion
to serve them very lightly and delicately flavoured. Their cost is thus
materially diminished. Fresh strawberries dropped into clear calf’s
feet jelly just before it sets, impart a delicious fragrance to it, when
they are of a choice kind; and other fruit is mingled with it often; but
none has so good an effect, though many sorts when tastefully
employed give an excellent appearance to it. The Belgrave mould, of
which the description will be found at page 470, is well adapted for
highly ornamental jellies; and we recommend its adoption for this
class of dishes.
 APPLE CALF’S FEET JELLY.

Pour a quart of prepared apple-juice (see page 456), on a pound

of fresh apples pared and cored, and simmer them until they are well
broken; strain the juice, and let it stand until cold; then measure, and
put a pint and a half of it into a stewpan with a quart of calf’s feet
stock (see page 453), nine ounces of sugar broken small, or roughly
pounded, the juice of two fine lemons, and the thin rinds of one and
a half, with the whites and shells of eight eggs. Let it boil gently for
ten minutes, then strain it through a flannel-bag, and when cool put it
into moulds. It will be very clear, and firm, and of pleasant flavour.
Apples of good quality should be used for it, and the quantity of
sugar must be regulated by the time of year, as the fruit will have lost
much of its acidity during the latter part of the season. This receipt,
which is the result of our own experiment, and which we have found
very successful, was first tried just after Christmas, with pearmains
and Ripstone pippins. A little syrup of preserved ginger, or a small
glass of fine white brandy, would, perhaps, to some tastes, improve
the jelly; but we give it simply as we have had it proved ourselves.
Prepared apple juice, 1 quart; fresh apples, 1 lb.: 1/2 to 3/4 hour.
Strained juice, 1-1/2 pint; calf’s feet stock, 1 quart; sugar, 9 oz.; juice
of lemons, 2; rind of 1-1/2; whites and shells of eggs, 8: 10 minutes.
Obs.—We would recommend the substitution of quinces for
apples in this receipt as likely to afford a very agreeable variety of
the jelly: or equal portions of the two fruits might answer well. Unless
the stock be very stiff, add isinglass to this, as to the calf’s feet jelly,
when it is to be moulded.
 ORANGE CALF’S FEET JELLY.

(Author’s Receipt.)
To a pint and a half of firm calf’s feet stock, put a pint of strained
China-orange juice mixed with that of one or two lemons; add to
these six ounces of sugar, broken small, the very thin rinds of three
oranges and one lemon, and the whites of six eggs with half the
shells crushed small. Stir these gently over a clear fire until the head
of scum begins to form, but not at all afterwards. Simmer the jelly for
ten minutes from the first full boil; take it from the fire, let it stand a
little, then pour it through a jelly-bag until perfectly clear. This is an
original, and entirely new receipt, which we can recommend to the
reader, the jelly being very pale, beautifully transparent, and delicate
in flavour: it would, we think, be peculiarly acceptable to such
invalids as are forbidden to take wine in any form.
The proportions both of sugar and of lemon-juice must be
somewhat varied according to the season in which the oranges are
used.
Strong calf’s feet stock, 1-1/2 pint; strained orange-juice, mixed
with a small portion of lemon-juice, 1 pint; sugar, 6 oz.; rinds of
oranges, 3; of lemon, 1: 10 minutes.
Obs.—A small pinch of isinglass thrown into the jelly when it
begins to boil will much assist to clear it. When the flavour of Seville
oranges is liked, two or three can be used with the sweet ones.
 ORANGE ISINGLASS JELLY.

To render this perfectly transparent the juice of the fruit must be

filtered, and the isinglass clarified; but it is not usual to take so much
trouble for it. Strain as clear as possible, first through a sieve or
muslin, then through a thick cloth or jelly bag, one quart of China
orange-juice, mixed with as much lemon-juice as will give it an
agreeable degree of acidity, or with a small proportion of Seville
orange-juice. Dissolve two ounces and a half of isinglass in a pint of
water, skim it well, throw in half a pound of sugar, and a few strips of
the orange-rind, pour in the orange-juice, stir the whole well together,
skim it clean without allowing it to boil, strain it through a cloth or
through a muslin, many times folded, and when nearly cold put it into
the moulds.[159] This jelly is sometimes made without any water, by
dissolving the isinglass and sugar in the juice of the fruit.
159. In France, orange-jelly is very commonly served in the halved rinds of the
fruit, or in little baskets made as we shall hereafter direct, page 466.

Orange-juice, 1 quart; water, 1 pint; isinglass, 2-1/2 oz.; sugar, 1/2

lb.
 VERY FINE ORANGE JELLY.

(Sussex Place Receipt.)

On two ounces and a half of the finest isinglass, pour a full but an
exact pint of spring water; press down the isinglass and turn it over
until the whole is well moistened; then place it over a gentle fire and
let it dissolve gradually; remove the scum after it has simmered for
two or three minutes, then pour it out, and set it aside to cool. In
another pint of spring water boil a pound of highly refined sugar for
five or six minutes; turn this syrup into a bowl, and when it is only just
warm, throw into it the very thinly pared rinds of two fine lemons, of
two Seville oranges, and of two China oranges, with the juice of five
China, and of two Seville oranges, and of three lemons. When this
mixture is cold, but not beginning to thicken, mix it well with the liquid
isinglass, and strain it through a fine lawn sieve, or through a square
of muslin folded in four; pour it into moulds which have been laid in
cold water, and when wanted for the table, loosen it from them by
wrapping about them, closely, a cloth which has been dipped into
boiling water, and by passing a knife round the edges.
Nothing can be more refined and delicate in flavour than the
above; but the appearance of the jelly may be improved by clarifying
the isinglass, and its colour by boiling the fruit-rinds in the syrup for
three or four minutes, and by leaving them in it until it is strained.
The oranges and lemons, if good, will yield from two-thirds to three-
quarters of a pint of juice, and the quantity of jelly will be sufficient to
fill one large high mould, or two smaller ones which contain about a
pint and a quarter each.
When the isinglass is clarified, allow half an ounce more of it; take
about a teaspoonful of the white of a fresh egg, beat it a little, add
the pint of cold water to it, whisk them together for a minute or two,
and then pour them on the isinglass; stir it occasionally as it is
heating, but not after the head of scum is formed: boil it gently for
two or three minutes, skim, and strain it. The oranges and lemons
should be dipped into fresh water and wiped dry before they are
pared; and should a muslin strainer (that is to say, a large square of
common clean muslin) be used for the jelly, it should be laid after
being washed in the usual manner into plenty of hot water, and then
into cold, and be well rinsed in, and wrung from each.
 ORANGES FILLED WITH JELLY.

This is one of the fanciful

dishes which make a pretty
appearance on a supper table,
and are acceptable when much
variety is desired. Take some
very fine China oranges, and
with the point of a small knife cut
out from the top of each a round
about the size of a shilling; then
with the small end of a tea or an
egg spoon, empty them entirely,
taking great care not to break
the rinds. Throw these into cold
water, and make jelly of the juice, which must be well pressed from
the pulp, and strained as clear as possible. Colour one half a fine
rose colour with prepared cochineal, and leave the other very pale;
when it is nearly cold, drain and wipe the orange rinds, and fill them
with alternate stripes of the two jellies; when they are perfectly cold
cut them into quarters, and dispose them tastefully in a dish with a
few light branches of myrtle between them. Calf’s feet or any other
variety of jelly, or different blancmanges, may be used at choice to fill
the rinds; the colours, however, should contrast as much as possible.
 TO MAKE ORANGE BASKETS FOR JELLY.

The oranges for these should be large. First, mark the handle of
the basket evenly across the stalk end of the fruit with the back of a
small knife, or with a silver one, and let it be quite half an inch wide;
then trace a line across from one end of the handle to the other
exactly in the middle of the orange, and when the other side is
marked in the same way, cut just through the rind with the point of a
penknife, being careful not to pierce the fruit itself; next, with a tea or
dessertspoon, take of the quartered rind on either side of the handle;
pass a penknife under the handle itself; work the point of a spoon
gently between the orange and the basket, until they are separated
in every part; then take the fruit between the thumb and fingers, and
press it carefully out through one of the spaces on either side of the
handle.
Baskets thus made may be filled with any of the jellies of which the
receipts are given here: but they should be nearly cold before they
are poured in; and they ought also to be very clear. Some of the
baskets may be filled with ratifias, and dished alternately with those
which contain the jelly.
 LEMON CALF’S FEET JELLY.

Break up a quart of strong calf’s feet stock, which should have

been measured while in a liquid state; let it be quite clear of fat and
sediment, for which a small additional quantity should be allowed;
add to it a not very full half-pint of strained lemon-juice, and ten
ounces of sugar, broken small (rather more or less according to the
state of the fruit), the rind of one lemon pared as thin as possible, or
of from two to three when a full flavour of it is liked, and the whites
with part of the shells crushed small, of five large or of six small
eggs. Proceed as for the preceding jellies, and when the mixture has
boiled five minutes throw in a small pinch of isinglass; continue the
boiling for five or six minutes longer, draw the pan from the fire, let it
stand to settle; then turn it into the jelly-bag. We have found it always
perfectly clear with once passing through; but should it not be so,
pour it in a second time.
Strong calf’s feet stock, 1 quart; strained lemon-juice, short 1/2
pint; sugar, 10 oz. (more or less according to state of fruit); rind of
from 1 to 3 large lemons; whites and part of shells of 5 large or 6
small eggs: 5 minutes. Pinch of isinglass: 5 minutes longer.
Obs.—About seven large lemons will produce the half pint of juice.
This quantity is for one mould only. The jelly will be found almost
colourless unless much of the rinds be used, and as perfectly
transparent as clear spring water: it is also very agreeable in flavour.
For variety, part of the juice of the fruit might be omitted, and its
place supplied by maraschino, or any other rich white liqueur of
appropriate flavour; and to render it safer eating, some syrup of
preserved ginger would be an excellent addition.
 CONSTANTIA JELLY.

Infuse in a pint of water for five minutes the rind of half a Seville
orange, pared extremely thin; add an ounce of isinglass; and when
this is dissolved throw in four ounces of good sugar in lumps; stir
well, and simmer the whole for a few minutes, then mix with it four
large wineglassesful of Constantia, and strain the jelly through a fine
cloth of close texture; let it settle and cool, then pour it gently from
any sediment there may be, into a mould which has been laid for an
hour or two into water. We had this jelly made in the first instance for
an invalid who was forbidden to take acids, and it proved so
agreeable in flavour that we can recommend it for the table. The
isinglass, with an additional quarter of an ounce, might be clarified,
and the sugar and orange-rind boiled with it afterwards.
Water, 1 pint; rind, 1/2 Seville orange: 5 minutes. Isinglass, 1 oz.;
sugar, 4 oz.: 5 to 7 minutes. Constantia, 4 large wineglassesful.
 RHUBARB ISINGLASS JELLY.

(Author’s Original Receipt. Good.)

A jelly of beautiful tint, and excellent flavour, may be made with
fresh young rhubarb-stems, either of the giant or dwarf kind, if they
be of a bright pink colour. Wash, and drain or wipe them; slice
without paring them, taking them quite free from any coarse or
discoloured parts. Put two pounds and a half, and a quart of water
into an enamelled stewpan, which is more suitable to the purpose
than any other; throw in two ounces of sugar in lumps, and boil the
rhubarb very gently for twenty minutes, or until it is thoroughly
stewed, but not sufficiently so to thicken the juice. Strain it through a
muslin folded in four; measure a pint and a half of it; heat it afresh in
a clean pan; add an ounce and a half of the finest isinglass, and six
ounces or more of the best sugar in large lumps; stir it often until the
isinglass is entirely dissolved, then let it boil quickly for a few minutes
to throw up the scum; clear this off carefully, and strain the jelly twice
through a muslin strainer,[160] folded as the first; let it cool, and
mould it as usual.
160. These muslin strainers should be large, as it is necessary to fold them in
general to a quarter of their original size, to render them sufficiently thick for
clearing juice or jelly.
 STRAWBERRY ISINGLASS JELLY.

A great variety of equally elegant and excellent jellies for the table
may be made with clarified isinglass, clear syrup, and the juice of
almost any kind of fresh fruit; but as the process of making them is
nearly the same for all, we shall limit our receipts to one or two,
which will serve to direct the makers for the rest. Boil together
quickly for fifteen minutes one pint of water and three-quarters of a
pound of very good sugar; measure a quart of ripe richly-flavoured
strawberries without their stalks; the scarlet answer best, from the
colour which they give: on these pour the boiling syrup, and let them
stand all night. The next day clarify two ounces and a half of
isinglass in a pint of water, as directed at the beginning of this
chapter; drain the syrup from the strawberries very closely, add to it
two or three tablespoonsful of red currant juice, and the clear juice of
one large or two small lemons; and when the isinglass is nearly cold
mix the whole, and put it into moulds. The French, who excel in
these fruit-jellies, always mix the separate ingredients when they are
almost cold; and they also place them over ice for an hour or so after
they are moulded, which is a great advantage, as they then require
less isinglass, and are in consequence much more delicate. When
the fruit abounds, instead of throwing it into the syrup, bruise lightly
from three to four pints, throw two tablespoonsful of sugar over it,
and let the juice flow from it for an hour or two; then pour a little
water over, and use the juice without boiling, which will give a jelly of
finer flavour than the other.
Water, 1 pint; sugar, 3/4 lb.: 15 minutes. Strawberries, 1 quart;
isinglass, 2-1/2 oz.; water, 1 pint (white of egg, 1 to 2 teaspoonsful);
juice, 1 large or 2 small lemons.
 FANCY JELLIES.

Description of
Belgrave Mould.
Figure No. 1,
represents the
mould in its
entireness. No. 2,
shows the interior
of it (inverted). A is
a thin metal plate
which when turned
downwards forms
the bottom of the
No. 1. mould, and which No. 2.
is perforated in six
places to permit
the fluted columns B to pass through it. There is also a larger
aperture in the middle to admit the centre cylinder. The plate is fixed,
and the whole is held in its place by the part which folds over the
larger scallop D at either end. There is also a cover which fits to the
mould, and which is pressed on it before it is dipped into water, to
prevent its getting into the cylinders.
Transparent jelly is shown to much
advantage, and is particularly brilliant in
appearance, when moulded in shapes
resembling that of the engraving here,
which are now very commonly used for the
purpose.
The centre spaces can be filled, after the
jelly is dished, with very light whipped
cream, coloured and flavoured so as to eat
agreeably with it, and to please the eye as well: this may be
tastefully garnished with preserved, or with fresh fruit; but one of
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