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Linear State Space Control Systems 1st Edition Robert L.
Williams Ii Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Robert L. Williams II, Douglas A. Lawrence
ISBN(s): 0471735558
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 2.60 MB
Year: 2007
Language: english
 LINEAR STATE-SPACE
CONTROL SYSTEMS

Robert L. Williams II
Douglas A. Lawrence
Ohio University

JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC.

Linear State-Space Control Systems. Robert L. Williams II and Douglas A. Lawrence

Copyright  2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN: 978-0-471-73555-7
Copyright  2007 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey

Published simultaneously in Canada.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Williams, Robert L., 1962-

Linear state-space control systems / Robert L. Williams II and Douglas A.
Lawrence.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN 0-471-73555-8 (cloth)
1. Linear systems. 2. State-space methods. 3. Control theory. I.
Lawrence, Douglas A. II. Title.
QA402.W547 2007
629.8
32—dc22
2006016111

Printed in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
To Lisa, Zack, and especially Sam, an aspiring author.—R.L.W.

To Traci, Jessica, and Abby.—D.A.L.

 CONTENTS

Preface ix

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Historical Perspective and Scope / 1
1.2 State Equations / 3
1.3 Examples / 5
1.4 Linearization of Nonlinear Systems / 17
1.5 Control System Analysis and Design using
MATLAB / 24
1.6 Continuing Examples / 32
1.7 Homework Exercises / 39

2 State-Space Fundamentals 48
2.1 State Equation Solution / 49
2.2 Impulse Response / 63
2.3 Laplace Domain Representation / 63
2.4 State-Space Realizations Revisited / 70
2.5 Coordinate Transformations / 72
2.6 MATLAB for Simulation and Coordinate
Transformations / 78
2.7 Continuing Examples for Simulation
and Coordinate Transformations / 84
2.8 Homework Exercises / 92
v
vi CONTENTS

3 Controllability 108
3.1 Fundamental Results / 109
3.2 Controllability Examples / 115
3.3 Coordinate Transformations
and Controllability / 119
3.4 Popov-Belevitch-Hautus Tests for
Controllability / 133
3.5 MATLAB for Controllability and Controller Canonical
Form / 138
3.6 Continuing Examples for Controllability
and Controller Canonical Form / 141
3.7 Homework Exercises / 144

4 Observability 149
4.1 Fundamental Results / 150
4.2 Observability Examples / 158
4.3 Duality / 163
4.4 Coordinate Transformations and Observability / 165
4.5 Popov-Belevitch-Hautus Tests for Observability / 173
4.6 MATLAB for Observability and Observer Canonical
Form / 174
4.7 Continuing Examples for Observability and Observer
Canonical Form / 177
4.8 Homework Exercises / 180

5 Minimal Realizations 185

5.1 Minimality of Single-Input, Single Output
Realizations / 186
5.2 Minimality of Multiple-Input, Multiple Output
Realizations / 192
5.3 MATLAB for Minimal Realizations / 194
5.4 Homework Exercises / 196

6 Stability 198
6.1 Internal Stability / 199
6.2 Bounded-Input, Bounded-Output Stability / 218
6.3 Bounded-Input, Bounded-Output Stability Versus
Asymptotic Stability / 220
6.4 MATLAB for Stability Analysis / 225
 CONTENTS vii

6.5 Continuing Examples: Stability Analysis / 227

6.6 Homework Exercises / 230

7 Design of Linear State Feedback Control Laws 234

7.1 State Feedback Control Law / 235

7.2 Shaping the Dynamic Response / 236
7.3 Closed-Loop Eigenvalue Placement via State
Feedback / 250
7.4 Stabilizability / 263
7.5 Steady-State Tracking / 268
7.6 MATLAB for State Feedback Control Law Design / 278
7.7 Continuing Examples: Shaping Dynamic Response
and Control Law Design / 283
7.8 Homework Exercises / 293

8 Observers and Observer-Based Compensators 300

8.1 Observers / 301

8.2 Detectability / 312
8.3 Reduced-Order Observers / 316
8.4 Observer-Based Compensators and the Separation
Property / 323
8.5 Steady-State Tracking with Observer-Based
Compensators / 337
8.6 MATLAB for Observer Design / 343
8.7 Continuing Examples: Design of State
Observers / 348
8.8 Homework Exercises / 351

9 Introduction to Optimal Control 357

9.1 Optimal Control Problems / 358

9.2 An Overview of Variational Calculus / 360
9.3 Minimum Energy Control / 371
9.4 The Linear Quadratic Regulator / 377
9.5 MATLAB for Optimal Control / 397
9.6 Continuing Example 1: Linear Quadratic
Regulator / 399
9.7 Homework Exercises / 403
viii CONTENTS

Appendix A Matrix Introduction 407

A.1 Basics / 407
A.2 Matrix Arithmetic / 409
A.3 Determinants / 412
A.4 Matrix Inversion / 414

Appendix B Linear Algebra 417

B.1 Vector Spaces / 417
B.2 Subspaces / 419
B.3 Standard Basis / 421
B.4 Change of Basis / 422
B.5 Orthogonality and Orthogonal Complements / 424
B.6 Linear Transformations / 426
B.7 Range and Null Space / 430
B.8 Eigenvalues, Eigenvectors, and Related Topics / 435
B.9 Norms for Vectors and Matrices / 444

Appendix C Continuing MATLAB Example m-file 447

References 456

Index 459
 PREFACE

This textbook is intended for use in an advanced undergraduate or first-

year graduate-level course that introduces state-space methods for the
analysis and design of linear control systems. It is also intended to serve
practicing engineers and researchers seeking either an introduction to or
a reference source for this material. This book grew out of separate lec-
ture notes for courses in mechanical and electrical engineering at Ohio
University. The only assumed prerequisites are undergraduate courses in
linear signals and systems and control systems. Beyond the traditional
undergraduate mathematics preparation, including calculus, differential
equations, and basic matrix computations, a prior or concurrent course
in linear algebra is beneficial but not essential.
This book strives to provide both a rigorously established foundation
to prepare students for advanced study in systems and control theory and
a comprehensive overview, with an emphasis on practical aspects, for
graduate students specializing in other areas. The reader will find rigor-
ous mathematical treatment of the fundamental concepts and theoretical
results that are illustrated through an ample supply of academic examples.
In addition, to reflect the complexity of real-world applications, a major
theme of this book is the inclusion of continuing examples and exercises.
Here, practical problems are introduced in the first chapter and revisited in
subsequent chapters. The hope is that the student will find it easier to apply
new concepts to familiar systems. To support the nontrivial computations
associated with these problems, the book provides a chapter-by-chapter
ix
x PREFACE

tutorial on the use of the popular software package MATLAB and the associ-
ated Control Systems Toolbox for computer-aided control system analysis
and design. The salient features of MATLAB are illustrated in each chapter
through a continuing MATLAB example and a pair of continuing examples.
This textbook consists of nine chapters and three appendices organized
as follows. Chapter 1 introduces the state-space representation for lin-
ear time-invariant systems. Chapter 2 is concerned primarily with the
state equation solution and connections with fundamental linear systems
concepts along with several other basic results to be used in subsequent
chapters. Chapters 3 and 4 present thorough introductions to the impor-
tant topics of controllability and observability, which reveal the power of
state-space methods: The complex behavior of dynamic systems can be
characterized by algebraic relationships derived from the state-space sys-
tem description. Chapter 5 addresses the concept of minimality associated
with state-space realizations of linear time-invariant systems. Chapter 6
deals with system stability from both internal and external (input-output)
viewpoints and relationships between them. Chapter 7 presents strate-
gies for dynamic response shaping and introduces state feedback control
laws. Chapter 8 presents asymptotic observers and dynamic observer-
based compensators. Chapter 9 gives an introduction to optimal control,
focusing on the linear quadratic regulator. Appendix A provides a sum-
mary of basic matrix computations. Appendix B provides an overview of
basic concepts from linear algebra used throughout the book. Appendix
C provides the complete MATLAB program for the Continuing MATLAB
Example.
Each chapter concludes with a set of exercises intended to aid
the student in his or her quest for mastery of the subject matter.
Exercises will be grouped into four categories: Numerical Exercises,
Analytical Exercises, Continuing MATLAB Exercises, and Continuing
Exercises. Numerical Exercises are intended to be straightforward
problems involving numeric data that reinforce important computations.
Solutions should be based on hand calculations, although students are
strongly encouraged to use MATLAB to check their results. Analytical
Exercises are intended to require nontrivial derivations or proofs of facts
either asserted without proof in the chapter or extensions thereof. These
exercises are by nature more challenging than the Numerical Exercises.
Continuing MATLAB Exercises will revisit the state equations introduced
in Chapter 1. Students will be called on to develop MATLAB m-files
incrementally for each exercise that implement computations associated
with topics in each chapter. Continuing Exercises are also cumulative
and are patterned after the Continuing Examples introduced in Chapter
1. These exercises are based on physical systems, so the initial task will
 PREFACE xi

be to derive linear state equation representations from the given physical

descriptions. The use of MATLAB also will be required over the course of
working these exercises, and the experience gained from the Continuing
MATLAB Exercises will come in handy .
 1
INTRODUCTION

This chapter introduces the state-space representation for linear time-

invariant systems. We begin with a brief overview of the origins of
state-space methods to provide a context for the focus of this book. Fol-
lowing that, we define the state equation format and provide examples to
show how state equations can be derived from physical system descrip-
tions and from transfer-function representations. In addition, we show
how linear state equations arise from the linearization of a nonlinear state
equation about a nominal trajectory or equilibrium condition.
This chapter also initiates our use of the MATLAB software package
for computer-aided analysis and design of linear state-space control sys-
tems. Beginning here and continuing throughout the book, features of
MATLAB and the accompanying Control Systems Toolbox that support each
chapter’s subject matter will be presented and illustrated using a Continu-
ing MATLAB Example. In addition, we introduce two Continuing Examples
that we also will revisit in subsequent chapters.

1.1 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE AND SCOPE

Any scholarly account of the history of control engineering would have

to span several millennia because there are many examples throughout

Linear State-Space Control Systems. Robert L. Williams II and Douglas A. Lawrence

Copyright  2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN: 978-0-471-73555-7
1
2 INTRODUCTION

ancient history, the industrial revolution, and into the early twentieth
century of ingeniously designed systems that employed feedback mech-
anisms in various forms. Ancient water clocks, south-pointing chariots,
Watt’s flyball governor for steam engine speed regulation, and mecha-
nisms for ship steering, gun pointing, and vacuum tube amplifier stabiliza-
tion are but a few. Here we are content to survey important developments
in the theory and practice of control engineering since the mid-1900s in
order to provide some perspective for the material that is the focus of this
book in relation to topics covered in most undergraduate controls courses
and in more advanced graduate-level courses.
In the so-called classical control era of the 1940s and 1950s, systems
were represented in the frequency domain by transfer functions. In addi-
tion, performance and robustness specifications were either cast directly in
or translated into the frequency domain. For example, transient response
specifications were converted into desired closed-loop pole locations or
desired open-loop and/or closed-loop frequency-response characteristics.
Analysis techniques involving Evans root locus plots, Bode plots, Nyquist
plots, and Nichol’s charts were limited primarily to single-input, single-
output systems, and compensation schemes were fairly simple, e.g., a
single feedback loop with cascade compensation. Moreover, the design
process was iterative, involving an initial design based on various sim-
plifying assumptions followed by parameter tuning on a trial-and-error
basis. Ultimately, the final design was not guaranteed to be optimal in
any sense.
The 1960s and 1970s witnessed a fundamental paradigm shift from the
frequency domain to the time domain. Systems were represented in the
time domain by a type of differential equation called a state equation.
Performance and robustness specifications also were specified in the time
domain, often in the form of a quadratic performance index. Key advan-
tages of the state-space approach were that a time-domain formulation
exploited the advances in digital computer technology and the analysis
and design methods were well-suited to multiple-input, multiple-output
systems. Moreover, feedback control laws were calculated using analytical
formulas, often directly optimizing a particular performance index.
The 1980’s and 1990’s were characterized by a merging of frequency-
domain and time-domain viewpoints. Specifically, frequency-domain per-
formance and robustness specifications once again were favored, coupled
with important theoretical breakthroughs that yielded tools for handling
multiple-input, multiple-output systems in the frequency domain. Further
advances yielded state-space time-domain techniques for controller syn-
thesis. In the end, the best features of the preceding decades were merged
into a powerful, unified framework.
 STATE EQUATIONS 3

The chronological development summarized in the preceding para-

graphs correlates with traditional controls textbooks and academic curric-
ula as follows. Classical control typically is the focus at the undergraduate
level, perhaps along with an introduction to state-space methods. An in-
depth exposure to the state-space approach then follows at the advanced
undergraduate/first-year graduate level and is the focus of this book. This,
in turn, serves as the foundation for more advanced treatments reflecting
recent developments in control theory, including those alluded to in the
preceding paragraph, as well as extensions to time-varying and nonlinear
systems.
We assume that the reader is familiar with the traditional undergrad-
uate treatment of linear systems that introduces basic system properties
such as system dimension, causality, linearity, and time invariance. This
book is concerned with the analysis, simulation, and control of finite-
dimensional, causal, linear, time-invariant, continuous-time dynamic sys-
tems using state-space techniques. From now on, we will refer to members
of this system class as linear time-invariant systems.
The techniques developed in this book are applicable to various types of
engineering (even nonengineering) systems, such as aerospace, mechani-
cal, electrical, electromechanical, fluid, thermal, biological, and economic
systems. This is so because such systems can be modeled mathematically
by the same types of governing equations. We do not formally address
the modeling issue in this book, and the point of departure is a linear
time-invariant state-equation model of the physical system under study.
With mathematics as the unifying language, the fundamental results and
methods presented here are amenable to translation into the application
domain of interest.

1.2 STATE EQUATIONS

A state-space representation for a linear time-invariant system has the

general form
ẋ(t) = Ax(t) + Bu(t)
x(t0 ) = x0 (1.1)
y(t) = Cx(t) + Du(t)

in which x(t) is the n-dimensional state vector

 
x1 (t)
 x2 (t) 
x(t) = 
 ... 


xn (t)
4 INTRODUCTION

whose n scalar components are called state variables. Similarly, the

m-dimensional input vector and p-dimensional output vector are given,
respectively, as
   
u1 (t) y1 (t)
 u2 (t)   y2 (t) 
u(t) =  .
 .. 
 y(t) =  . 
 .. 
um (t) yp (t)
Since differentiation with respect to time of a time-varying vector quan-
tity is performed component-wise, the time-derivative on the left-hand side
of Equation (1.1) represents
 
ẋ1 (t)
 ẋ2 (t) 
ẋ(t) = 
 ... 


ẋn (t)
Finally, for a specified initial time t0 , the initial state x(t0 ) = x0 is a
specified, constant n-dimensional vector.
The state vector x(t) is composed of a minimum set of system variables
that uniquely describes the future response of the system given the current
state, the input, and the dynamic equations. The input vector u(t) contains
variables used to actuate the system, the output vector y(t) contains the
measurable quantities, and the state vector x(t) contains internal system
variables.
Using the notational convention M = [mij ] to represent the matrix
whose element in the ith row and j th column is mij , the coefficient
matrices in Equation (1.1) can be specified via
A = [aij ] B = [bij ] C = [cij ]
D = [dij ]
having dimensions n × n, n × m, p × n, and p × m, respectively. With
these definitions in place, we see that the state equation (1.1) is a compact
representation of n scalar first-order ordinary differential equations, that is,
ẋi (t) = ai1 x1 (t) + ai2 x2 (t) + · · · + ain xn (t)
+ bi1 u1 (t) + bi2 u2 (t) + · · · + bim um (t)
for i = 1, 2, . . . , n, together with p scalar linear algebraic equations
yj (t) = cj 1 x1 (t) + cj 2 x2 (t) + · · · + cjn xn (t)
+ dj 1 u1 (t) + dj 2 u2 (t) + · · · + dj m um (t)
 EXAMPLES 5

D
x0

u(t) + x(t) x(t) + + y(t)

B ∫ C
+

FIGURE 1.1 State-equation block diagram.

for j = 1, 2, . . . , p. From this point on the vector notation (1.1) will

be preferred over these scalar decompositions. The state-space descrip-
tion consists of the state differential equation ẋ(t) = Ax(t) + Bu(t) and
the algebraic output equation y(t) = Cx(t) + Du(t) from Equation (1.1).
Figure 1.1 shows the block diagram for the state-space representation of
general multiple-input, multiple-output linear time-invariant systems.
One motivation for the state-space formulation is to convert a cou-
pled system of higher-order ordinary differential equations, for example,
those representing the dynamics of a mechanical system, to a coupled
set of first-order differential equations. In the single-input, single-output
case, the state-space representation converts a single nth-order differen-
tial equation into a system of n coupled first-order differential equations.
In the multiple-input, multiple-output case, in which all equations are of
the same order n, one can convert the system of k nth-order differential
equations into a system of kn coupled first-order differential equations.

1.3 EXAMPLES

In this section we present a series of examples that illustrate the construc-

tion of linear state equations. The first four examples begin with first-
principles modeling of physical systems. In each case we adopt the strat-
egy of associating state variables with the energy storage elements in the
system. This facilitates derivation of the required differential and algebraic
equations in the state-equation format. The last two examples begin with
transfer-function descriptions, hence establishing a link between transfer
functions and state equations that will be pursued in greater detail in later
chapters.

Example 1.1 Given the linear single-input, single-output, mass-spring-

damper translational mechanical system of Figure 1.2, we now derive the
6 INTRODUCTION

y(t)

m f(t)
c

FIGURE 1.2 Translational mechanical system.

ky(t)

m f (t)
cy(t)

FIGURE 1.3 Free-body diagram.

system model and then convert it to a state-space description. For this

system, the input is force f (t) and the output is displacement y(t).
Using Newton’s second law, the dynamic force balance for the free-
body diagram of Figure 1.3 yields the following second-order ordinary
differential equation
mÿ(t) + cẏ(t) + ky(t) = f (t)
that models the system behavior. Because this is a single second-order
differential equation, we need to select a 2 × 1 state vector. In general,
energy storage is a good criterion for choosing the state variables. The
total system energy at any time is composed of potential spring energy
ky(t)2 /2 plus kinetic energy mẏ(t)2 /2 associated with the mass displace-
ment and velocity. We then choose to define the state variables as the
mass displacement and velocity:
 
x1 (t) x1 (t) = y(t)
x(t) =
x2 (t) x2 (t) = ẏ(t) = ẋ1 (t)
Therefore,
ẏ(t) = x2 (t)
ÿ(t) = ẋ2 (t)
Substituting these two state definitions into the original system equation
gives
mẋ2 (t) + cx2 (t) + kx1 (t) = f (t)
 EXAMPLES 7

The original single second-order differential equation can be written as

a coupled system of two first-order differential equations, that is,
ẋ1 (t) = x2 (t)
c k 1
ẋ2 (t) = − x2 (t) − x1 (t) + f (t)
m m m
The output is the mass displacement

y(t) = x1 (t)

The generic variable name for input vectors is u(t), so we define:

u(t) = f (t)

We now write the preceding equations in matrix-vector form to get a

valid state-space description. The general state-space description consists
of the state differential equation and the algebraic output equation. For
Example 1.1, these are
State Differential Equation
ẋ(t) = Ax(t) + Bu(t)
   
  0 1   0
ẋ1 (t) x (t)
= k c  1 +  1  u(t)
ẋ2 (t) − − x2 (t)
m m m
Algebraic Output Equation
y(t) = Cx(t) + Du(t)
 
x1 (t)
y(t) = [ 1 0 ] + [0]u(t)
x2 (t)
The two-dimensional single-input, single-output system matrices in this
example are (with m = p = 1 and n = 2):
   
0 1 0
A=  k c  B= 1  C = [1 0]
− −
m m m
D=0
In this example, the state vector is composed of the position and
velocity of the mass m. Two states are required because we started with
one second-order differential equation. Note that D = 0 in this example
because no part of the input force is directly coupled to the output.

8 INTRODUCTION

Example 1.2 Consider the parallel electrical circuit shown in

Figure 1.4. We take the input to be the current produced by the
independent current source u(t) = i(t) and the output to be the capacitor
voltage y(t) = v(t).
It is often convenient to associate state variables with the energy
storage elements in the network, namely, the capacitors and inductors.
Specifically, capacitor voltages and inductor currents, while not only
directly characterizing the energy stored in the associated circuit element,
also facilitate the derivation of the required differential equations. In this
example, the capacitor voltage coincides with the voltage across each
circuit element as a result of the parallel configuration.
This leads to the choice of state variables, that is,

x1 (t) = iL (t)
x2 (t) = v(t)

In terms of these state variables, the inductor’s voltage-current relationship

is given by
x2 (t) = Lẋ1 (t)

Next, Kirchhoff’s current law applied to the top node produces

1
x2 (t) + x1 (t) + C ẋ2 (t) = u(t)
R
These relationships can be rearranged so as to isolate state-variable
time derivatives as follows:
1
ẋ1 (t) = x2 (t)
L
1 1 1
ẋ2 (t) = − x1 (t) − x2 (t) + u(t)
C RC C

iL(t) +
i(t) R L C v(t)
−

FIGURE 1.4 Parallel electrical circuit.

 EXAMPLES 9

This pair of coupled first-order differential equations, along with the

output definition y(t) = x2 (t), yields the following state-space description
for this electrical circuit:
State Differential Equation
   
  1  
0 0
ẋ1 (t)  L  x1 (t)  1  u(t)
= 1 1  +
ẋ2 (t) x2 (t)
− − C
C RC
Algebraic Output Equation
 
x1 (t)
y(t) = [ 0 1 ] + [0]u(t)
x2 (t)

from which the coefficient matrices A, B, C, and D are found by inspec-

tion, that is,
   
1
0 0
 L  1
A= 1 1  B = C = [0 1]
− − C
C RC
D=0

Note that D = 0 in this example because there is no direct coupling

between the current source and the capacitor voltage.

Example 1.3 Consider the translational mechanical system shown in

Figure 1.5, in which y1 (t) and y2 (t) denote the displacement of the asso-
ciated mass from its static equilibrium position, and f (t) represents a
force applied to the first mass m1 . The parameters are masses m1 and
m2 , viscous damping coefficient c, and spring stiffnesses k1 and k2 . The
input is the applied force u(t) = f (t), and the outputs are taken as the
mass displacements. We now derive a mathematical system model and
then determine a valid state-space representation.
Newton’s second law applied to each mass yields the coupled second-
order differential equations, that is,

m1 ÿ1 (t) + k1 y1 (t) − k2 [y2 (t) − y1 (t)] = f (t)

m2 ÿ2 (t) + cẏ2 (t) + k2 [y2 (t) − y1 (t)] = 0

Here, the energy-storage elements are the two springs and the two masses.
Defining state variables in terms of mass displacements and velocities
10 INTRODUCTION

y1(t) y2(t)

f(t)

k1 k2 c
m1 m2

FIGURE 1.5 Translational mechanical system.

yields
x1 (t) = y1 (t)
x2 (t) = y2 (t) − y1 (t)
x3 (t) = ẏ1 (t)
x4 (t) = ẏ2 (t)

Straightforward algebra yields the following state equation representa-

tion:
State Differential Equation
   
0 0 1 0
    0
ẋ1 (t)  0 0 −1 1  x1 (t)  0 
 
 ẋ2 (t)   k1 k2   x2 (t)   
 ẋ (t)  =  − 0 0   + 1  u(t)

3  m1 m1  x3 (t)  m1 
ẋ4 (t)  −k2 c  x4 (t)
0 0 − 0
m2 m2
Algebraic Output Equation
 
   x1 (t)
  
y1 (t) 1 0 0 0  x2 (t)  0
= +
0  x3 (t) 
u(t)
y2 (t) 1 1 0 0
x4 (t)
from which the coefficient matrices A, B, C, and D can be identified.
Note that D = [ 0 0 ]T because there is no direct feedthrough from the
input to the output.
Now, it was convenient earlier to define the second state variable as
the difference in mass displacements, x2 (t) = y2 (t) − y1 (t), because this
relative displacement is the amount the second spring is stretched. Instead
 EXAMPLES 11

we could have defined the second state variable based on the absolute
mass displacement, that is x2 (t) = y2 (t), and derived an equally valid
state-space representation. Making this one change in our state variable
definitions, that is,
x1 (t) = y1 (t)
x2 (t) = y2 (t)
x3 (t) = ẏ1 (t)
x4 (t) = ẏ2 (t)
yields the new A and C matrices
 
0 0 1 0
 0 0 0 1 
 
 (k1 + k2 ) k2 
A = − 0 0 
 m1 m1 
 k2 −k2 c 
0 −
m2 m2 m2
 
1 0 0 0
C=
0 1 0 0
The B and D matrices are unchanged.

Example 1.4 Consider the electrical network shown in Figure 1.6. We

now derive the mathematical model and then determine a valid state-space
representation. The two inputs are the independent voltage and current
sources vin (t) and iin (t), and the single output is the inductor voltage vL (t).
In terms of clockwise circulating mesh currents i1 (t), i2 (t), and i3 (t),
Kirchhoff’s voltage law applied around the leftmost two meshes yields
d
R1 i1 (t) + vC1 (t) + L [i1 (t) − i2 (t)] = vin (t)
dt
d
L [i2 (t) − i1 (t)] + vC2 (t) + R2 [i2 (t) − i3 (t)] = 0
dt
and Kirchhoff’s current law applied to the rightmost mesh yields

i3 (t) = −iin (t)

In addition, Kirchoff’s current law applied at the top node of the induc-
tor gives
iL (t) = i1 (t) − i2 (t)
12 INTRODUCTION

+ vC1(t) − + vC2(t) −

R1
C1 C2
vin(t) + iin(t)
L iL(t) R2
−
i1(t) i2(t) i3(t)

FIGURE 1.6 Electrical circuit.

As in Example 1.2, it is again convenient to associate state variables

with the capacitor and inductor energy-storage elements in the network.
Here, we select

x1 (t) = vC1 (t)

x2 (t) = vC2 (t)
x3 (t) = iL (t)

We also associate inputs with the independent sources via

u1 (t) = vin (t)

u2 (t) = iin (t)

and designate the inductor voltage vL (t) as the output so that

y(t) = vL (t) = Lẋ3 (t)

Using the relationships

C1 ẋ1 (t) = i1 (t)

C2 ẋ2 (t) = i2 (t)
x3 (t) = C1 ẋ1 (t) − C2 ẋ2 (t)

the preceding circuit analysis now can be recast as

R1 C1 ẋ1 (t) + Lẋ3 (t) = −x1 (t) + u1 (t)

R2 C2 ẋ2 (t) − Lẋ3 (t) = −x2 (t) − R2 u2 (t)
C1 ẋ1 (t) − C2 ẋ2 (t) = x3 (t)
 EXAMPLES 13

Packaging these equations in matrix form and isolating the state-variable

time derivatives gives
   −1
ẋ1 (t) R1 C1 0 L
 ẋ2 (t)  =  0 R2 C2 −L 
ẋ3 (t) C1 −C2 0
     
−1 0 0 x1 (t) 1 0  
 0 −1 0   x2 (t)  +  0 −R2  u1 (t) 
u2 (t)
0 0 0 x3 (t) 0 0

Calculating and multiplying through by the inverse and yields the state
differential equation, that is,
 1 −1 R2 
   (R1 + R2 )C1 (R1 + R2 )C1 (R1 + R2 )C1   
ẋ1 (t)   x1 (t)
 −1 −1 −R1 
 ẋ2 (t)  =    x2 (t) 
 (R + R )C (R + R )C (R + R )C 
ẋ3 (t)  1 2 2 1 2 2 1 2 2  x3 (t)
 −R2 R1 −R1 R2 
(R1 + R2 )L (R1 + R2 )L (R1 + R2 )L
 1 −R2 
 (R1 + R2 )C1 (R1 + R2 )C1 
  
 1 −R  u1 (t)
+ 
2
 (R + R )C (R1 + R2 )C2 
 1 2 2  u2 (t)
 R2 R1 R2 
(R1 + R2 )L (R1 + R2 )L
which is in the required format from which coefficient matrices A and B
can be identified. In addition, the associated output equation y(t) = Lẋ3 (t)
can be expanded to the algebraic output equation as follows
 
  x1 (t)
−R2 R1 −R1 R2
y(t) =  x2 (t) 
(R1 + R2 ) (R1 + R2 ) (R1 + R2 ) x (t) 3
  
R2 R1 R2 u1 (t)
+
(R1 + R2 ) (R1 + R2 ) u2 (t)

from which coefficient matrices C and D can be identified.

Note that in this example, there is direct coupling between the indepen-
dent voltage and current source inputs vin (t) and iin (t) and the inductor
voltage output vL (t), and hence the coefficient matrix D is nonzero.

14 INTRODUCTION

Example 1.5 This example derives a valid state-space description for

a general third-order differential equation of the form

¨˙ + a2 ÿ(t) + a1 ẏ(t) + a0 y(t) = b0 u(t)

y(t)

The associated transfer function definition is

b0
H (s) =
s3 + a2 s2 + a1 s + a0
Define the following state variables:
 
x1 (t) x1 (t) = y(t)

x(t) = x2 (t)  x2 (t) = ẏ(t) = ẋ1 (t)
x3 (t) x3 (t) = ÿ(t) = ẍ1 (t) = ẋ2 (t)

Substituting these state-variable definitions into the original differential

equation yields the following:

ẋ3 (t) = −a0 x1 (t) − a1 x2 (t) − a2 x3 (t) + b0 u(t)

The state differential and algebraic output equations are then

State Differential Equation
      
ẋ1 (t) 0 1 0 x1 (t) 0
 ẋ2 (t)  =  0 0 1    
x2 (t) + 0  u(t)
ẋ3 (t) −a0 −a1 −a2 x3 (t) b0

Algebraic Output Equation

 
x1 (t)
y(t) = [ 1 0 0 ]  x2 (t)  + [0]u(t)
x3 (t)

from which the coefficient matrices A, B, C, and D can be identified.

D = 0 in this example because there is no direct coupling between the
input and output.
This example may be generalized easily to the nth-order ordinary dif-
ferential equation

d n y(t) d n−1 y(t) d 2 y(t) dy(t)

n
+ an−1 n−1
+ · · · + a2 2
+ a1 + a0 y(t) = b0 u(t)
dt dt dt dt
(1.2)
 EXAMPLES 15

For this case, the coefficient matrices A, B, C, and D are

   
0 1 0 ··· 0 0
 0 0 1 ··· 0  0
 . ..   . 
A=  ..
..
.
..
.
..
.   
.  B =  .. 
 0 0 0 ··· 1  0
−a0 −a1 −a2 · · · −an−1 b0
C = [1 0 0 ··· 0] D = [0] (1.3)

Example 1.6 Consider a single-input, single-output system represented
by the third-order transfer function with second-order numerator polyno-
mial
b2 s 2 + b1 s + b0
H (s) = 3
s + a2 s 2 + a1 s + a0
If we attempted to proceed as in the preceding example in defining state
variables in terms of the output y(t) and its derivatives, we eventually
would arrive at the relationship
ẋ3 (t) = −a0 x1 (t) − a1 x2 (t) − a2 x3 (t) + b2 ü(t) + b1 u̇(t) + b0 u(t)
This is not consistent with the state-equation format because of the pres-
ence of time derivatives of the input, so we are forced to pursue an
alternate state-variable definition. We begin by factoring the transfer func-
tion according to H (s) = H2 (s)H1 (s) with
1
H1 (s) = H2 (s) = b2 s 2 + b1 s + b0
s 3 + a2 s 2 + a1 s + a0
and introducing an intermediate signal w(t) with Laplace transform W (s)
so that
W (s) = H1 (s)U (s)
1
= 3 U (s)
s + a2 s + a1 s + a0
2

Y (s) = H2 (s)W (s)

= (b2 s 2 + b1 s + b0 )W (s)
A block-diagram interpretation of this step is shown in Figure 1.7. In
the time domain, this corresponds to
¨ẇ(t) + a2 ẅ(t) + a1 ẇ(t) + a0 w(t) = u(t)
y(t) = b2 ẅ(t) + b1 ẇ(t) + b0 w(t)
16 INTRODUCTION

U(s) W(s) Y(s)

H1(s) H2(s)

FIGURE 1.7 Cascade block diagram.

Now, the key observation is that a state equation describing the rela-
tionship between input u(t) and output w(t) can be written down using
the approach of the preceding example. That is, in terms of state variables

x1 (t) = w(t)
x2 (t) = ẇ(t) = ẋ1 (t)
x3 (t) = ẅ(t) = ẍ1 (t) = ẋ2 (t)

we have
      
ẋ1 (t) 0 1 0 x1 (t) 0
 ẋ2 (t)  =  0 0 1   x2 (t)  +  0  u(t)
ẋ3 (t) −a0−a1 −a2 x3 (t) 1
 
x1 (t)
w(t) = [ 1 0 0 ]  x2 (t)  + [0]u(t)
x3 (t)

As the final step, we recognize that an equation relating the true system
output y(t) and our chosen state variables follows from

y(t) = b0 w(t) + b1 ẇ(t) + b2 ẅ(t)

= b0 x1 (t) + b1 x2 (t) + b2 x3 (t)

which gives the desired state equations:

State Differential Equation
      
ẋ1 (t) 0 1 0 x1 (t) 0
 ẋ2 (t)  =  0 0 1   x2 (t) + 0  u(t)
 
ẋ3 (t) −a0 −a1 −a2 x3 (t) 1

Algebraic Output Equation

 
x1 (t)
y(t) = [ b0 b1 b2 ]  x2 (t)  + [0]u(t)
x3 (t)
 LINEARIZATION OF NONLINEAR SYSTEMS 17

At this point, it should be clear how to extend this approach to systems

of arbitrary dimension n beginning with a transfer function of the form
bn−1 s n−1 + · · · + b1 s + b0
H (s) =
s n + an−1 s n−1 + · · · + a1 s + a0
Notice that the numerator polynomial in H (s) has degree strictly less
than the denominator polynomial degree, so H (s) is referred to as a strictly
proper rational function (ratio of polynomials in the complex variable
s). The preceding state-equation construction can be extended further to
handle proper transfer functions
bn s n + bn−1 s n−1 + · · · + b1 s + b0
H (s) =
s n + an−1 s n−1 + · · · + a1 s + a0
in which the numerator and denominator polynomial degrees are equal.
The procedure involves first using polynomial division to write H (s) as
a strictly proper part plus a constant

b̂n−1 s n−1 + · · · + b̂1 s + b̂0

H (s) = + bn
s n + an−1 s n−1 + · · · + a1 s + a0

in which the reader may verify that b̂i = bi − bn ai , for i = 0, 1, . . . , n −

1. Next, the coefficient matrices A, B, and C are found from the numerator
and denominator polynomial coefficients of the strictly proper component
and, in addition, D = bn .

In general, we say that a state equation is a state-space realization of a
given system’s input-output behavior if it corresponds to the relationship
Y (s) = H (s)U (s) in the Laplace domain or to the associated differential
equation relating y(t) and u(t) in the time domain (for zero initial con-
ditions). The exact meaning of corresponds to will be made precise in
the next chapter. The preceding example serves to illustrate that a state-
space realization of a single-input, single-output system can be written
down by inspection simply by plugging the numerator and denomina-
tor coefficients into the correct locations in the coefficient matrices C
and A, respectively. Owing to its special structure, this state equation is
referred to as the phase-variable canonical form realization as well as the
controller canonical form realization.

1.4 LINEARIZATION OF NONLINEAR SYSTEMS

Linear state equations also arise in the course of linearizing nonlinear

state equations about nominal trajectories. We begin with a more general
18 INTRODUCTION

nonlinear, time-varying state equation

ẋ(t) = f [x(t), u(t), t]

x(t0 ) = x0 (1.4)
y(t) = h[x(t), u(t), t]

where x(t), u(t), and y(t) retain their default vector dimensions and
f (·, ·, ·) and h(·, ·, ·) are continuously differentiable functions of their
(n + m + 1)-dimensional arguments. Linearization is performed about a
nominal trajectory defined as follows.

Definition 1.1 For a nominal input signal, ũ(t), the nominal state tra-
jectory x̃(t) satisfies
˙
x̃(t) = f [x̃(t), ũ(t), t]

and the nominal output trajectory ỹ(t) satisfies

ỹ(t) = h[x̃(t), ũ(t), t]

If ũ(t) = ũ, a constant vector, a special case is an equilibrium state x̃

that satisfies
0 = f (x̃, ũ, t)

for all t.

Deviations of the state, input, and output from their nominal trajectories
are denoted by δ subscripts via
xδ (t) = x(t) − x̃(t)
uδ (t) = u(t) − ũ(t)
yδ (t) = y(t) − ỹ(t)

Using the compact notation

 
∂f ∂fi
(x, u, t) = (x, u, t) (n × n)
∂x ∂xj
 
∂f ∂fi
(x, u, t) = (x, u, t) (n × m)
∂u ∂uj
 
∂h ∂hi
(x, u, t) = (x, u, t) (p × n)
∂x ∂xj
 
∂h ∂hi
(x, u, t) = (x, u, t) (p × m)
∂u ∂uj
 LINEARIZATION OF NONLINEAR SYSTEMS 19

and expanding the nonlinear maps in Equation (1.4) in a multivariate

Taylor series about [x̃(t), ũ(t), t] we obtain

ẋ(t) = f [x(t), u(t), t]

∂f
= f [x̃(t), ũ(t), t] + [x̃(t), ũ(t), t][x(t) − x̃(t)]
∂x
∂f
+ [x̃(t), ũ(t), t][u(t) − ũ(t)] + higher-order terms
∂u
y(t) = h[x(t), u(t), t]
∂h
= h[x̃(t), ũ(t), t] + [x̃(t), ũ(t), t][x(t) − x̃(t)]
∂x
∂h
+ [x̃(t), ũ(t), t][u(t) − ũ(t)] + higher-order terms
∂u
On defining coefficient matrices
∂f
A(t) = (x̃(t), ũ(t), t)
∂x
∂f
B(t) = (x̃(t), ũ(t), t)
∂u
∂h
C(t) = (x̃(t), ũ(t), t)
∂x
∂h
D(t) = (x̃(t), ũ(t), t)
∂u
rearranging slightly, and substituting deviation variables [recognizing that
˙
ẋδ (t) = ẋ(t) − x̃(t)] we have

ẋδ (t) = A(t)xδ (t) + B(t)uδ (t) + higher-order terms

yδ (t) = C(t)xδ (t) + D(t)uδ (t) + higher-order terms

Under the assumption that the state, input, and output remain close to
their respective nominal trajectories, the high-order terms can be neglected,
yielding the linear state equation

ẋδ (t) = A(t)xδ (t) + B(t)uδ (t)

yδ (t) = C(t)xδ (t) + D(t)uδ (t) (1.5)

which constitutes the linearization of the nonlinear state equation (1.4)

about the specified nominal trajectory. The linearized state equation
20 INTRODUCTION

approximates the behavior of the nonlinear state equation provided that the
deviation variables remain small in norm so that omitting the higher-order
terms is justified.
If the nonlinear maps in Equation (1.4) do not explicitly depend on t,
and the nominal trajectory is an equilibrium condition for a constant nom-
inal input, then the coefficient matrices in the linearized state equation are
constant; i.e., the linearization yields a time-invariant linear state equation.

Example 1.7 A ball rolling along a slotted rotating beam, depicted in

Figure 1.8, is governed by the equations of motion given below. In this
example we will linearize this nonlinear model about a given desired
trajectory for this system.
 
Jb
+ m p̈(t) + mg sin θ (t) − mp(t)θ̇(t)2 = 0
r2
[mp(t)2 + J + Jb ]θ̈ (t) + 2 mp(t)ṗ(t)θ̇(t) + mgp(t) cos θ (t) = τ (t)

in which p(t) is the ball position, θ (t) is the beam angle, and τ (t) is the
applied torque. In addition, g is the gravitational acceleration constant, J
is the mass moment of inertia of the beam, and m, r, and Jb are the mass,
radius, and mass moment of inertia of the ball, respectively. We define
state variables according to

x1 (t) = p(t)
x2 (t) = ṗ(t)
x3 (t) = θ (t)
x4 (t) = θ̇ (t)

)
p(t

q(t)

t(t)

FIGURE 1.8 Ball and beam apparatus.

 LINEARIZATION OF NONLINEAR SYSTEMS 21

In addition, we take the input to be the applied torque τ (t) and the
output to be the ball position p(t), so
u(t) = τ (t)
y(t) = p(t)

The resulting nonlinear state equation plus the output equation then are
ẋ1 (t) = x2 (t)
ẋ2 (t) = b[x1 (t)x4 (t)2 − g sin x3 (t)]
ẋ3 (t) = x4 (t)
−2mx1 (t)x2 (t)x4 (t) − mgx1 (t) cos x3 (t) + u(t)
ẋ4 (t) =
mx1 (t)2 + J + Jb
y(t) = x1 (t)

in which b = m/[(Jb /r 2 ) + m].

We consider nominal trajectories corresponding to a steady and level
beam and constant-velocity ball position responses. In terms of an initial
ball position p0 at the initial time t0 and a constant ball velocity v0 , we take
x̃1 (t) = p̃(t) = v0 (t − t0 ) + p0
˙
x̃2 (t) = p̃(t) = v0
x̃3 (t) = θ̃ (t) = 0
x̃ (t) = θ̃˙ (t) = 0
4

ũ(t) = τ̃ (t) = mg x̃1 (t)

for which it remains to verify that Definition 1.1 is satisfied. Comparing

x̃˙ 1 (t) = v0
x̃˙ 2 (t) = 0
x̃˙ 3 (t) = 0
x̃˙ 4 (t) = 0

with
x̃2 (t) = v0
b(x̃1 (t)x̃4 (t)2 − g sin x̃3 (t)) = b(0 − g sin(0)) = 0
x̃4 (t) = 0
22 INTRODUCTION

−2mx̃1 (t)x̃2 (t)x̃4 (t)−

mg x̃1 (t) cos x̃3 (t) + ũ(t) 0 − mg x̃1 (t) cos(0) + mg x̃1 (t)
= =0
mx̃1 (t)2 + J + Jb mx̃1 (t)2 + J + Jb

we see that x̃(t) is a valid nominal state trajectory for the nominal input
ũ(t). As an immediate consequence, the nominal output is ỹ(t) = x̃1 (t) =
p̃(t). It follows directly that deviation variables are specified by
 
p(t) − p̃(t)
 ṗ(t) − p̃(t)
˙ 
xδ (t) = 
 θ (t) − 0 


θ̇ (t) − 0
uδ (t) = τ (t) − mg p̃(t)
yδ (t) = p(t) − p̃(t)

With
 
  x2
f1 (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , u)  
b(x1 x4 2 − g sin x3 )
 f2 (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , u)   
f (x, u) =   =
 x4 

f3 (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , u)  −2mx1 x2 x4 − mgx1 cos x3 + u 
f4 (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , u)
mx1 2 + J + Jb

partial differentiation yields

 
0 1 0 0
bx4 2 0 −bg cos x3 2bx1 x4 
∂f  
(x, u) =   0 0 0 1 

∂x  ∂f4 −2mx1 x4 mgx1 sin x3 −2mx1 x2 
∂x1 mx1 2 + J + Jb mx1 2 + J + Jb mx1 2 + J + Jb

where
[(−2mx2 x4 − mg cos x3 )(mx1 2 + J + Jb )]−
∂f4 [(−2mx1 x2 x4 − mgx1 cos x3 + u)(2mx1 )]
=
∂x1 (mx1 2 + J + Jb )2
 
0
 0 
∂f  
(x, u) =  0 
∂u  1 
mx1 2 + J + Jb
 LINEARIZATION OF NONLINEAR SYSTEMS 23

∂h
(x, u) = [ 1 0 0 0]
∂x
∂h
(x, u) = 0
∂u
Evaluating at the nominal trajectory gives
∂f
A(t) = [x̃(t), ũ(t)]
∂x
 
0 1 0 0
 0 0 −bg 0 
 
=
 0 0 0 1 

 −mg −2mp̃(t)v0 
0 0
mp̃(t)2 + J + Jb mp̃(t)2 + J + Jb
 
0
 0 
∂f  
B(t) = [x̃(t), ũ(t)] = 
 0 

∂u  1 
mp̃(t) + J + Jb
2

∂h
C(t) = [x̃(t), ũ(t)] = [ 1 0 0 0]
∂x
∂h
D(t) = [x̃(t), ũ(t)] = 0 (1.6)
∂u
which, together with the deviation variables defined previously, specifies
the linearized time-varying state equation for the ball and beam system.
A special case of the nominal trajectory considered thus far in this
example corresponds to zero ball velocity v0 = 0 and, consequently, con-
stant ball position p̃(t) = p0 . The beam must remain steady and level, so
the nominal state trajectory and input reduce to
x̃1 (t) = p̃(t) = p0
˙
x̃1 (t) = p̃(t) =0
x̃1 (t) = θ̃ (t) = 0
x̃ (t) = θ̃˙ (t) = 0
1

ũ(t) = τ̃ (t) = mg p0

with an accompanying impact on the deviation variables. Given that the

nonlinear ball and beam dynamics are time invariant and that now the
24 INTRODUCTION

nominal state trajectory and input are constant and characterize an equi-
librium condition for these dynamics, the linearization process yields a
time-invariant linear state equation. The associated coefficient matrices
are obtained by making the appropriate substitutions in Equation (1.6)
to obtain
 
0 1 0 0
 0 0 −bg 0 
∂f  
A= 
(x̃, ũ) =  0 0 0 1
∂x 
 −mg 
0 0 0
m p0 + J + Jb
2
 
0
 0 
∂f  
B= 
(x̃, ũ) =  0 
∂u 
 1 
m p0 + J + Jb
2

∂h
C= (x̃, ũ) = [ 1 0 0 0]
∂x
∂h
D= (x̃, ũ) = 0

∂u

1.5 CONTROL SYSTEM ANALYSIS AND DESIGN USING MATLAB

In each chapter we include a section to identify and explain the use

of MATLAB software and MATLAB functions for state-space analysis and
design methods. We use a continuing example to demonstrate the use of
MATLAB throughout; this is a single-input, single-output two–dimensional
rotational mechanical system that will allow the student to perform all
operations by hand to compare with MATLAB results. We assume that the
Control Systems Toolbox is installed with MATLAB.

MATLAB: General, Data Entry, and Display

In this section we present general MATLAB commands, and we start the
Continuing MATLAB Example. We highly recommend the use of MATLAB
m-files, which are scripts and functions containing MATLAB commands
that can be created and modified in the MATLAB Editor and then executed.
Throughout the MATLAB examples, bold Courier New font indicates MAT-
LAB function names, user inputs, and variable names; this is given for
emphasis only. Some useful MATLAB statements are listed below to help
the novice get started.
 CONTROL SYSTEM ANALYSIS AND DESIGN USING MATLAB 25

General MATLAB Commands:

help Provides a list of topics for which you can
get online help.
help fname Provides online help for MATLAB function
fname .
% The % symbol at any point in the code
indicates a comment; text beyond the % is
ignored by MATLAB and is highlighted in
green .
; The semicolon used at the end of a line
suppresses display of the line’s result to
the MATLAB workspace.
clear This command clears the MATLAB
workspace, i.e., erases any previous
user-defined variables.
clc Clears the cursor.
figure(n) Creates an empty figure window (numbered
n) for graphics.
who Displays a list of all user-created variable
names.
whos Same as who but additionally gives the
dimension of each variable.
size(name) Responds with the dimension of the matrix
name .
length(name) Responds with the length of the vector
name .
eye(n) Creates an n × n identity matrix In .
zeros(m,n) Creates a m × n array of zeros.
ones(m,n) Creates a m × n array of ones.
t = t0:dt:tf Creates an evenly spaced time array starting
from initial time t0 and ending at final
time tf , with steps of dt .
disp(‘string’) Print the text string to the screen.
name = input(‘string’) The input command displays a text
string to the user, prompting for input;
the entered data then are written to the
variable name .

In the MATLAB Editor (not in this book), comments appear in green,

text strings appear in red, and logical operators and other reserved pro-
gramming words appear in blue.
26 INTRODUCTION

MATLAB for State-Space Description

MATLAB uses a data-structure format to describe linear time-invariant sys-
tems. There are three primary ways to describe a linear time-invariant
system in MATLAB: (1) state-space realizations specified by coefficient
matrices A, B, C, and D (ss); (2) transfer functions with (num, den),
where num is the array of polynomial coefficients for the transfer-function
numerator and den is the array of polynomial coefficients for the transfer-
function denominator (tf); and (3) transfer functions with (z, p, k), where
z is the array of numerator polynomial roots (the zeros), p is the array
of denominator polynomial roots (the poles), and k is the system gain.
There is a fourth method, frequency response data (frd), which will not
be considered in this book. The three methods to define a continuous-time
linear time-invariant system in MATLAB are summarized below:

SysName = ss(A,B,C,D);
SysName = tf(num,den);
SysName = zpk(z,p,k);

In the first statement (ss), a scalar 0 in the D argument position will

be interpreted as a zero matrix D of appropriate dimensions. Each of
these three statements (ss, tf, zpk) may be used to define a system
as above or to convert between state-space, transfer-function, and zero-
pole-gain descriptions of an existing system. Alternatively, once the linear
time-invariant system SysName is defined, the parameters for each system
description may be extracted using the following statements:

[num,den] = tfdata(SysName);
[z,p,k] = zpkdata(SysName);
[A,B,C,D] = ssdata(SysName);

In the first two statements above, if we have a single-input, single-

output system, we can use the switch 'v': tfdata(SysName,'v') and
zpkdata(SysName,'v'). There are three methods to access data from
the defined linear time-invariant SysName: set get commands, direct
structure referencing, and data-retrieval commands. The latter approach is
given above; the first two are:

set(SysName,PropName,PropValue);
PropValue = get(SysName,PropName);
SysName.PropName = PropValue;
% equivalent to ‘set’ command
 CONTROL SYSTEM ANALYSIS AND DESIGN USING MATLAB 27

PropValue = SysName.PropName;
% equivalent to ‘get’ command

In the preceding, SysName is set by the user as the desired name for
the defined linear time-invariant system. PropName (property name) rep-
resents the valid properties the user can modify, which include A, B, C, D
for ss, num, den, variable (the default is ‘s ’ for a continuous system
Laplace variable) for tf, and z, p, k, variable (again, the default is
‘s ’) for zpk. The command set(SysName) displays the list of proper-
ties for each data type. The command get(SysName) displays the value
currently stored for each property. PropValue (property value) indicates
the value that the user assigns to the property at hand. In previous MATLAB
versions, many functions required the linear time-invariant system input
data (A, B, C, D for state space, num, den for transfer function, and z, p,
k for zero-pole-gain notation); although these still should work, MATLAB’s
preferred mode of operation is to pass functions the SysName linear time-
invariant data structure. For more information, type help ltimodels and
help ltiprops at the MATLAB command prompt.

Continuing MATLAB Example

Modeling A single-input, single-output rotational mechanical system is
shown in Figure 1.9. The single input is an externally applied torque τ (t),
and the output is the angular displacement θ (t). The constant parameters
are motor shaft polar inertia J , rotational viscous damping coefficient
b, and torsional spring constant kR (provided by the flexible shaft). This
example will be used in every chapter to demonstrate the current topics via
MATLAB for a model that will become familiar. To derive the system model,
MATLAB does not help (unless the Symbolic Math Toolbox capabilities of
MATLAB are used).
In the free-body diagram of Figure 1.10, the torque resulting from
the rotational viscous damping opposes the instantaneous direction of
the angular velocity and the torque produced by the restoring spring

b
kR

q(t) t(t)

FIGURE 1.9 Continuing MATLAB Example system.

28 INTRODUCTION

b q(t) kRq(t)

t(t)

FIGURE 1.10 Continuing MATLAB Example free-body diagram.

opposes the instantaneous direction of the angular displacement. We apply

Euler’s rotational law (the rotational equivalent of Newton’s Second Law),
to
 derive the system  model. Euler’s rotational law may be stated as
M = J α, where M is the sum of moments, J is the polar moment
of inertia, and α is the shaft angular acceleration.

M = J θ̈ (t) = τ (t) − bθ̇ (t) − kR θ (t)

This system can be represented by the single second-order linear time-

invariant ordinary differential equation

J θ̈ (t) + bθ̇ (t) + kR θ (t) = τ (t)

This equation is the rotational equivalent of a translational mechanical

mass-spring-damper system with torque τ (t) as the input and angular
displacement θ (t) as the output.

State-Space Description Now we derive a valid state-space descrip-

tion for the Continuing MATLAB Example. That is, we specify the state
variables and derive the coefficient matrices A, B, C, and D. We start with
the second-order differential equation above for which we must define two
state variables xi (t), i = 1, 2. Again, energy-storage elements guide our
choice of states:
x1 (t) = θ (t)
x2 (t) = θ̇ (t) = ẋ1 (t)

We will have two first-order differential equations, derived from the

original second-order differential equation, and ẋ1 (t) = x2 (t) from above.
The state differential equation is
   
  0 1   0
ẋ1 (t) x (t)
=  −kR −b  1 +  1  τ (t)
ẋ2 (t) x2 (t)
J J J
 CONTROL SYSTEM ANALYSIS AND DESIGN USING MATLAB 29

TABLE 1.1 Numerical Parameters for the Continuing MATLAB Example

Parameter Value Units Name
2
J 1 kg-m motor shaft polar inertia
b 4 N-m-s motor shaft damping constant
kR 40 N-m/rad torsional spring constant

The algebraic output equation is:

 
x1 (t)
y(t) = [ 1 0 ] + [0]τ (t)
x2 (t)

The coefficient matrices A, B, C, D for this Continuing MATLAB

Example are thus:
   
0 1 0
A =  kR b B=1 C = [1 0]
− −
J J J
D=0
This specifies a two–dimensional single-input, single-output system
with m = 1 input, p = 1 output, and n = 2 states. Let us assume the con-
stant parameters listed in Table 1.1 for the continuing MATLAB example.
Then the numerical coefficient matrices are
   
0 1 0
A= B= C = [1 0] D=0
−40 −4 1

Chapter by chapter we will present MATLAB code and results dealing

with the topics at hand for the Continuing MATLAB Example. These code
segments will be complete only if taken together over all chapters (i.e.,
ensuing code portions may require previously defined variables in earlier
chapters to execute properly). Appendix C presents this complete program
for all chapters. To get started, we need to define the coefficient matrices
A, B, C, and D in MATLAB. Then we can find the system transfer function
and zero-pole-gain descriptions.

%-------------------------------------------------
% Chapter 1. State-Space Description
%-------------------------------------------------

J = 1;
b = 4;
kR = 40;
30 INTRODUCTION

A = [0 1;-kR/J -b/J]; % Define the

% state-space
% realization
B = [0;1/J];
C = [1 0];
D = [0];

JbkR = ss(A,B,C,D); % Define model from

% state-space

JbkRtf = tf(JbkR); % Convert to

% transfer function
JbkRzpk = zpk(JbkR); % Convert to
% zero-pole
% description

[num,den] = tfdata(JbkR,'v'); % Extract transfer

% function
% description
[z,p,k] = zpkdata(JbkR,'v'); % Extract zero-pole
% description

JbkRss = ss(JbkRtf) % Convert to

% state-space
% description

The ss command yields

a =
x1 x2
x1 0 1
x2 -40 -4

b =
u1
x1 0
x2 1

c =
x1 x2
y1 1 0
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
Ma Ida!

IDA
Se ho il diritto di parlarti così! Proteggimi che lo devi. Sai bene che
non posso avere altro rifugio, che non lo devo..... Oh adesso leggi,
leggi, poichè siamo soli.

CARLO (siede e squaderna i brani sulla tavola)

IDA (va alla porta del biliardo: torna)

Vedrai che affetto, che amor di fratello, che amicizia leale, che
sentimenti illibati...

CARLO (colla fronte fra le mani)

Dio santo! Se almeno non fosse lui!

IDA
E chi vuoi dunque che sia!

(Carlo legge rapidamente; poco a poco gli si spiana la

fronte, la contrazione dei lineamenti cede luogo ad una
espressione di accoramento, di pietà. Si alza e si caccia
in tasca la lettera. Un silenzio).

SCENA VII.
CLAUDIO e Detti

CLAUDIO (viene avanti lentamente)

Abbiamo giuocato. La signora Chiara e Trota, contro Minchiotti e me.
Abbiamo perduto... Minchiotti ne è desolato. Trota non gli dà pace.
Ma con me non c’è caso che gli riesca la rivincita.
 IDA
Vado io. Saremo due dame e due cavalieri. (sottovoce a Carlo)
Tragedie, no.

SCENA VIII.
CARLO e CLAUDIO

Carlo rimonta la scena, a capo chino. Claudio siede sul

canapè, spiega un giornale. Un silenzio.

CARLO (dopo averlo osservato dal fondo, torna

lentamente)
Notizie?

CLAUDIO
Guardavo la cronaca: arresto, incendio, ferimenti... duello... Anche
un duello, nella nostra città. A. C. pubblicista, R. B. avvocato. Ferito
R. B. al braccio; i duellanti si comportarono colle regole della più
perfetta cavalleria; eccetera... (lascia il giornale).

CARLO
Ti sei battuto mai?

CLAUDIO (alzandosi)
Mai.

CARLO
Nemmeno io. (dopo una pausa) Ne fui in procinto, una volta. Avevo
avuto una questione con un compagno, all’Università; il duello era
deciso, a condizioni gravi. — Mio padre lo seppe; perdette la testa,
povero vecchio, e trovò modo di chiudermi in casa. Pensai di
ammattire dalla rabbia, dalla vergogna.
Sul terreno, un amico mio, giovane uffiziale, prese il mio posto,
senz’altro. Colpì l’avversario al capo, subito. Vedendolo barcollare
con gli occhi pieni di sangue, buttò l’arma ed avanzò istintivamente
la mano per sorreggerlo. L’altro cieco, fuori di sè, non comprese:
avventò l’ultima sciabolata, un mal colpo che colse il mio amico nella
mano e troncò più che mezza l’articolazione... Si parlò di amputare
per evitare il tetano. — Vedo ancora la faccia di sua madre! — Lui,
freddo e sereno, rispondeva che nella sua condizione di militare
preferiva la morte alla perdita della destra. Fu irremovibile... Guarì...
Ma ti ricordi com’era impedito nella destra tuo padre. (dopo una
pausa) Quello era un uomo. (stende la mano a Claudio)

CLAUDIO (si scuote ed esita a dar la sua)

CARLO (prontissimo)
No? (lo guarda fissamente con un sorriso amaro)

CLAUDIO (turbato)
Che hai?

CARLO (abbassando la voce)

Penso... che la tua passione per mia moglie è la più gran disgrazia
che ci potesse toccare.

CLAUDIO
Carlo!

CARLO
Non negare... è inutile.

CLAUDIO (si lascia andare sul canapè e nasconde la

faccia)

CARLO (in piedi, vicino)

Soffri?... Soffri proprio tanto?... Deve essere così, perchè... perchè se
così non fosse!... Ti ho conosciuto retto, sincero, incapace di
simulare; già, dev’essere così. Oh! poi lo so che si soffre,
terribilmente; tanto più quando si è caldi, appassionati, nervosi;
quando per temperamento non si sa moderar niente. (con accento di
collera) Già, vai nelle impressioni a testa bassa, coi pugni stretti;
prendi la vita a passo di carica, tu. (calmandosi) Si soffre tanto, che
dopo, — perchè c’è un dopo, sai — dopo pare impossibile di essere
usciti vivi dalla burrasca, e, non si ritorna mai quelli di prima... Eh,
ma non bisogna immaginarsi che la malattia non abbia rimedio.
Tanto più in questo caso. Dal modo con cui sono andate le cose,
niente di estremo, fiamma viva, e... quanto più una fiamma è viva
tanto meno la dura. Temporale d’estate, cielo nero, tuoni, lampi; e
poi di nuovo il sole. Ma diavolo! Lo rivedrai presto, più bello di prima.
Presto (con amarezza) prima di me forse, che pure..... (muove alcuni
passi per la scena).

CLAUDIO

(scopre il viso e lo guarda con gli occhi smarriti)

CARLO (torna e siede vicino)

Ragioniamo. Trova un disastro paragonabile a quello che avrebbe
potuto accadere se... Ti sfido a trovarlo. (rispondendo ad un atto di
Claudio) Sì, sì, so quello che vuoi dire: amor puro, niente speranze...
Chi può comandarsi di non sperare? È naturale: se ami, speri... Ah!
per carità, lasciamo andare. Ti parrà che io abbia cento cose per la
testa?... Non ho che mia moglie. Ho sofferto anch’io in questi ultimi
tempi. Timori vaghi, apprensioni: tutte assurdità, dicevo; ma sentivo
il mistero. Ho per Ida la massima stima, la più illimitata fiducia, ma
mi pareva cambiata... Quando penso (si alza) che avrebbe potuto
corrisponderti! Alla mia età, quando par d’aver trovato la pace, la
felicità, non ci si rinunzia più. Se perdessi mia moglie, in un modo od
in un altro, — m’intendi? — penso che ne morrei, ecco. (con forza)
Santo Dio, la vita ha doveri, lavori, ambizioni, rimedi! Anche l’amore
ha le sue rivincite per voi giovani. Tu lo sei tanto; alla tua età si cade
e si risorge, come niente, e poi... e poi si scorda. Ah Claudio! in
questo caso il dovere deve passare innanzi all’amore..... Diavolo,
no!... Non ti voglio parlare così. C’è rimedio, ma bisogna volerlo...
Essere traditi da chi si ama, è un affar serio... è il maggior dolore
umano... E poi, e poi, così no, così non si avrebbe più un’ora di pace!

CLAUDIO (con energia, alzandosi)

Partirò, Carlo, ti giuro che partirò!

CARLO
Aah! Ci salvi, sai. Va bene così, lo sapevo. Senti, la colpa non è tutta
tua, dovevo badare, pensarci anch’io. Sei giovane, l’acqua va per il
suo verso. Ma come è bene che ci siamo spiegati! — Ora viaggerai,
tornerai contento, ci rivedremo. Sono convinto che non è necessario
che tu vada in capo al mondo e per lungo tempo. Cambiar ambiente,
veder paesi nuovi, cose nuove, facce nuove — ti raccomando le
facce nuove — E al tuo ritorno: acqua passata non macina più!...
Non ho ancor parlato a mia moglie, ma te lo dico in confidenza, è
probabile che io mi stabilisca in campagna, non questo ma un
altr’anno. La presenza del padrone è frutto del campo, come dice un
agricoltore di cinquecent’anni fa; e con ragione. Dunque anche
questo sarà per il meglio. Tu in città, noi due qui... No, vado
tropp’oltre, tornerai guarito e di questo non ne parleremo mai più.
Ecco, restiamo intesi, quando ti vedrò ricomparire, colla mano stesa,
così... sarà come se tu lo giurassi. — Va bene così? M’hai inteso?
(venendo a lui) E anche ora subito, me la darai la mano, senza
esitazione, a fronte alta, così da uomo a uomo?

(Claudio gliela stringe con slancio affettuoso).

SCENA IX.
CHIARA, IDA, TROTA, IGNAZIO dalla sala del biliardo. Detti
 CHIARA
Ah! confidenze, tenerezze, congratulazioni?

CARLO (freddo)
Un po’ d’ogni cosa.

TROTA
Abbiamo aspettato...

CARLO
Avevamo un mondo di cose da dirci, con Claudio.

CHIARA
Questa è amicizia! Dir che sono insieme dall’alba.

CLAUDIO
Non lo saremo più per un pezzo.

CHIARA
Oh! che novità?

IGNAZIO
Perchè mai?

CLAUDIO
Si parte...

TROTA
Ah! E dove vai?

CARLO (pronto)
È ancor un segreto.
 CLAUDIO
È un progetto che maturavo da tempo, aspettavo occasione e mezzi,
ora c’è tutto. Parto domani. Non mi fermerò che un giorno in città,
per salutare un amico e veder di deciderlo a venir con me, e poi...
via.

TROTA
E l’amico, sarebbe?

CHIARA
Anche questo è un segreto!

CLAUDIO
No. È Laneri.

CHIARA
Eh!... Piero Laneri?.... difficile.

CLAUDIO
Perchè? — È libero, ricco, solo...

CHIARA
Non mi par uomo da viaggi, ecco tutto,

TROTA (avrà dato a Chiara lo scialle, riacceso il

lampioncino d’Ignazio)
E allora, buon viaggio!

IGNAZIO
Scriverà eh?... Le daremo un banchetto al ritorno!

TROTA
A quando?
 CARLO
Oh presto, speriamo! (Chiara, Trota, Ignazio stringono la mano a
Claudio che li accompagna all’uscita).

SCENA X.
CARLO, IDA, CLAUDIO

Un breve silenzio. Carlo ed Ida da una parte, Claudio

dall’altra.

CARLO (va a lui)

Ti rivedrò ancora, domani?

CLAUDIO
Partirò prestissimo, sai.

CARLO
Oh, ti saluterò ad ogni modo!

CLAUDIO (fa un passo avanti e s’inchina)

Baronessa, con tutta l’anima auguro che sia tanto felice! (entra nella
sua camera, cala la tela).
 ATTO II.

La scena rappresenta una sala molto elegante. Nel fondo un uscio

con portiera mette al buffet. Porte laterali, illuminazione da serata.

SCENA I.
CHIARA, IGNAZIO

Chiara, coi guanti ed il ventaglio nella sinistra, va

osservando intorno se tutto è ben disposto. Entra
Ignazio.

CHIARA
Dove vai?

IGNAZIO
Esco.

CHIARA
Sì, ma...

IGNAZIO
Esco un momento, per fumare un sigaro, prendere aria.

CHIARA
Fumalo a casa... Eh qui no, veh: in camera tua!
 IGNAZIO
E l’aria?

CHIARA
Che aria?

IGNAZIO
L’aria libera.

CHIARA
Sul terrazzino.

IGNAZIO
Misericordia! Freddo, sai, freddo umido. Stavo dietro i cristalli
poc’anzi, vedevo passar bronchiti, polmoniti, pleuriti, tutte le brutte
malattie in ite.

CHIARA
E nella strada?...

IGNAZIO
Passano alte...

CHIARA
Meno parole...

IGNAZIO
Ma perchè non devo uscire?... Sicuro, perchè non devo?

CHIARA
Perchè stasera avrò probabilmente pochi uomini e molte signore. Ci
sarà sproporzione e quindi freddezza.
 IGNAZIO
Maaa... ma devo far da uomo?

CHIARA
Uno di più.

IGNAZIO (brontolando)
Ma non sono un uomo io, sono tuo marito. E poi, chi sa, non sei
nemmeno sicura di quello che dici. Vedrai, verranno di quelli sui quali
non avrai contato. Vi saranno presentazioni. Trota non mancherà di
presentarti qualcheduno, è affar suo. L’ho incontrato stamane e mi
ha salutato così..... col bastone come con una sciabola. Vuol dire che
era di buon umore. Vuol anche dire che non v’è broncio fra di voi.
Quand’è corrucciato con te non mi saluta più.

CHIARA (seduta si abbottona i guanti).

IGNAZIO
Dunque proprio...

CHIARA
Quante volte ti ho a dir le cose.

IGNAZIO
Santa pazienza! (brontolando) Dal quarantotto che si combatte per
l’indipendenza; l’hanno ottenuta tutti, meno io.

CHIARA
Eh?... Animo, va e fa presto. Fra un momento avremo qui i Galliari.

IGNAZIO
Oh! Il barone e la baronessa?

CHIARA
Non ne conosco altri.

IGNAZIO
Nemmeno io. Ma dunque sono qui? Li credevo fissi in campagna.

CHIARA
Lo sono. Vengono espressamente per il mio primo mercoledì. Ida me
lo ha scritto.

IGNAZIO
Bisogna dirlo: gentili, molto gentili.

CHIARA
Avremo anche Serra.

IGNAZIO
Claudio?... Ah bravo! Come lo rivedrò volentieri dopo un anno.

CHIARA (impaziente)
Vai?

IGNAZIO
Vado. Ecco qui Trota. (a Trota che entra) Buona sera. Adesso trotto
via.....(si ferma a ridere sulla soglia, gli altri non gli badano).

SCENA II.
CHIARA e TROTA

CHIARA
Così?
 TROTA
Così...

CHIARA
Tardi, sa.

TROTA
Tardi, euh? (guarda l’orologio) Le nove, poco più.

CHIARA
L’avevo pregato di venir alle otto. Potevo aver bisogno di lei per
tante cose, per questi preparativi; non posso pensare a tutto; al
buffet, per esempio. Ignazio non è buono che a mangiare.

TROTA (guarda intorno)

Qui, tutto benone. Al buffet ci andrò subito. Ah! ma ho fatto tutto,
sa. Sono stato dal veterinario a veder Bijou. Bene; fuor di pericolo;
fra otto giorni lo riavrà qui, carino, vispo, più bello di prima. Oggi
guaiva, abbaiava, mi leccava le mani, non voleva che io me ne
andassi...

CHIARA
Poverino...

TROTA
Mi ha detto un mondo di cose per lei.

CHIARA
Povero canino mio!

TROTA
Ho preso le poltrone per lunedì, prima rappresentazione della
Carmen, per lei e per me; quanto a Minchiotti...
 CHIARA
Avanti.

TROTA
Che altro? — Ah! sono andato a veder l’appartamento vuoto, che
vorrebbe prender sul Corso. No, no, no, non le conviene. Vi sono
inconvenienti gravi.

CHIARA
Ne riparleremo.

TROTA
Notizie. Il matrimonio del commendatore Farina con la vedova
Carbone è una favola, fondata sul contrasto dei nomi. Il ballo di casa
Ponterio è rimandato, nessuno capisce il perchè.

CHIARA
Sì, sì, ma e Serra?

TROTA
Ah, veda che mi scordavo!... Dunque, sì; sono stato a trovarlo nel
quartierino che si è preso appena tornato. Oh, bello! libero, allegro,
sfogato. Mi ha fatto veder le rarità raccolte nel viaggio: tappeti, armi,
ninnoli, e certe pelli curiose... Ho trovato là Piero Laneri. Fumava sul
divano; sono più amici che mai...

CHIARA
Sta bene. Ma ha fatto sì o no il mio invito?

TROTA
Altro, non l’ho detto...?

CHIARA
Verrà?

TROTA
Che sì...

CHIARA
Basta.

TROTA
Però s’è fatto pregare. Diventato un orso; tornato da un mese, non
ha ancor visto nessuno... molte disposizioni da prendere; proposito
fermo di far vita ritirata, austera, laboriosa. Infatti deve lavorar
molto, la scrivania era ingombra di libri, di carte. Poi s’è piegato, ha
promesso di venir senza fallo stasera, e m’ha incaricato di portarle i
suoi complimenti, ringraziamenti e saluti.

CHIARA
Avremo anche i Galliari.

TROTA
Ah! davvero?

CHIARA
Qual meraviglia? Stabilirsi in campagna, non vuol dire far voto di non
rimettere i piedi in città. Infine non sono in Siberia. Chi li impedisce
di venire ogni tanto a teatro, ad un ballo, ad una serata?

TROTA
Giusto. Ma è poco per chi vi andava ogni sera o quasi. Povera
baronessa! Già, Galliari è stato... è stato un vero...

CHIARA
Un egoista, come tutti voi. A lei piace la città, a lui garba la
campagna. Non si poteva andar avanti come avevano fatto finora,
sei mesi qui, sei mesi là. Non basta più, bisogna stabilirsi laggiù
addirittura.

TROTA
Pare che lo stato degli affari lo richiedesse; pare fosse venuto il
momento di sorvegliare da vicino la tenuta.

CHIARA
Quante storie! Sono ricchi, non han figlioli. Sacrificarsi così, negli
anni migliori, per qualche migliaio di lire di più all’anno. Oh, vi so dire
che se fossi io Ida...

TROTA
Eeeh! sicuro... Ma la baronessa anche si sarà ribellata.

CHIARA
Già ha fatto quel che ha potuto. Ma Galliari quando vuole, vuole. È
duro, cocciuto, lui. Non l’avrei sposato se avesse avuto due milioni.
Ho sempre diffidato di quell’apparenza bonaria; m’ha sempre fatto
l’effetto di un bel frutto d’alabastro colorito, piacevole all’occhio, ma
freddo alla mano, impossibile al dente.

TROTA
Ma le vuol bene.

CHIARA
All’Ida?... Grazie, obbligata!

TROTA
Tant’è vero, che la tiene in campagna, tutta per sè.

CHIARA
Oh, sì! Se fossi Ida, quello che non ho qui, glielo vorrei portar là. So
quel che mi dico.
 (Servo sulla porta. Entrano il barone e la baronessa
Galliari).

SCENA III.
CARLO, IDA. Detti

Chiara ed Ida si abbracciano.

CHIARA
Cara e gentile! Come sei buona, come m’ha fatto piacere il tuo
biglietto!

IDA
Oh, sai, a tante cose si rinunzia; ma ad una tua serata, no.

CHIARA
Come sei amabile! Avevo quasi rimorso nel mandarti l’invito;
pensavo: Dio mio, moverla di là, per farla venir qui ad annoiarsi...
(guardando Carlo) Pensavo anche al barone...

CARLO
Oh! ne chieda a mia moglie.

IDA
È vero, non ha fatto l’ombra d’una obbiezione.

CHIARA
Eh, ma allora c’è di che esser troppo orgogliosa!

(Servo sulla porta, entrano una signora ed una

signorina).
 CHIARA
Oh ecco! — Permettete? (va a riceverle. Entrano signori e signore).

SCENA IV.
IGNAZIO e Detti

Durante la scena seguitano ad arrivar persone. Chiara

riceve. Si formano crocchi, si parla, si ride. Poi Claudio
e Piero.

IGNAZIO (venendo ai signori Galliari)

Ah! eccoli; ma bravi, ma bene. Me l’aveva detto Chiara... Freddino
fuori, eh?

CARLO
Ah, sì, molto.

IGNAZIO
Il termometro... Eh non l’ho guardato! Che notizie dai cari luoghi?

CARLO
Buone, buone.

IGNAZIO
Sì, ma nebbia, brina, neve, gelo.

CARLO
Un po’ d’ogni cosa.

IGNAZIO
Ma loro avranno pensato a ripararsi: buone stufe, impannate doppie,
imposte che combaciano a perfezione...

IDA
Carlo ha pensato a tutto.

IGNAZIO
Per noi l’inverno laggiù non sarebbe possibile: abbiamo le muraglie
di carta, e poi cent’altri inconvenienti..... (guarda nei crocchi) Ma, e
Serra?

CARLO
Serra?... Deve trovarsi qui?

TROTA
Sono stato ad invitarlo io, a nome della signora.

IGNAZIO
Oh, l’ha visto lei? Come l’ha trovato?... Nero, eh? Colla barba lunga...

TROTA
Niente affatto. Tal quale com’era partendo.

CARLO
L’ho visto anch’io alla sfuggita, un giorno ch’ero venuto in città; ci
siamo abbracciati, abbiamo scambiate due parole appena. Lo rivedrò
con molto piacere.

IDA
Io pure.

(entrano Claudio e Piero)

TROTA
Ecco Laneri; ah! ecco con lui Serra.

CHIARA
Ah! Serra, che piacere di rivederlo, dopo tanto tempo, dopo tante
cose...

CLAUDIO
Lei è mille volte gentile che si è ricordata di me.

PIERO
Sono io che l’ho portato; andando a cercarlo, temevo di trovarlo a
letto...

CLAUDIO
Oh! per quanto orso, quando prometto, mantengo. Qui poi mi sarei
troppo punito mancando.

(Chiara continua a ricevere. Piero salutando qua e là

altre persone si viene accostando a donna Ida che sarà
passata con Trota a sinistra. Claudio stringe la mano
ad Ignazio ed a Carlo).

CARLO
Meno male, per bacco! che ti ritrovo qui.

IGNAZIO
Sicuro, bravo, bravo!

CLAUDIO
Amici, cari amici...

IGNAZIO
Ebbene, avrà visto cose da non crederci? Cose dell’altro mondo. Mi
dica dov’è stato, quello che proprio gli ha fatto maggior impressione
nel viaggio.

CLAUDIO
Dirò tutto, non dubiti. Metterò tutto in un libro.

IGNAZIO
Ah! Perciò non vuol guastar la sorpresa? Ma con me poi... il libro lo
leggerò egualmente, sa. Mi dirà dove si vende.

CLAUDIO
Gliene farò un omaggio.

IGNAZIO
Grazie, gentilissimo sempre. (vedendo entrare un signore) Ecco quel
caro dottor Audisio! (va a lui).

CARLO
Come Dio vuole! A noi. Lasciati guardare. (affettuoso) Ti trovo bene,
sai. Tutto un altro. (finamente) E poi sei qui... dunque l’aria di fuori
t’ha fatto bene. (ilare) Non mi hai più quella faccia da... da...
Werther.

CLAUDIO
Oh, Werther!

CARLO (con intenzione)

Morto il Werther?

CLAUDIO
E sepolto.

CARLO
Ci vedremo, eh? (dopo una pausa) Ah! ma non hai ancor salutato
mia moglie?

CLAUDIO
Ma vado subito.

IDA (porgendo la mano a Claudio)

Finalmente!

CLAUDIO (inchinandosi)
Grazie, baronessa, per la gentile espressione.

IDA
Carlo è stato più fortunato di me.

CARLO
Eh, sì. T’ho incontrato tre giorni dopo il tuo ritorno.

CLAUDIO
È vero.

PIERO
Io poi fui il primo a dargli il benvenuto. (a donna Ida) Eravamo amici
prima che partisse: ora, dopochè è tornato nostro concittadino,
siamo inseparabili.

IDA
Suo, dica suo concittadino.

PIERO
Ha ragione purtroppo...

CARLO
E via, col tempo ritorneremo alla città anche noi.

(Si alza la tenda nel fondo e si vede la sala del buffet

con la tavola apparecchiata).

IGNAZIO (venendo a loro, subito)

Ecco il thè, si serve il thè. Donna Ida, badi che ho sentito parlare
d’una famosa torta, capolavoro del nostro cuoco di casa. (a Claudio
e Piero) Troveranno dei sandwichs, li ho visti passar nell’anticamera.
I vini, non è vero, Trota? sono a sinistra...

CHIARA (passando)
Ida, una tazza di thè?

IGNAZIO
Chi poi preferisse fumare?

CARLO
Vengo.

TROTA
Vengo anch’io.

IGNAZIO
Verremo poi al buffet con comodo, dopo gli altri.

CLAUDIO (a Chiara che ripassa)

Signora Chiara?... (le offre il braccio).

CHIARA (accettando)
Oh, Serra, proprio non mi par vero di rivederla. Ho pensato tante
volte a lei; dicevo: dov’è? che fa? si ricorda di noi? (si avviano).
 PIERO (avrà al braccio donna Ida; arrivano gli ultimi,
trovano calca all’entrata)
Baronessa, vogliamo aspettare?

(Tornano lentamente. Ida siede al posto che occupava)

PIERO
Aspetteremo qui, se crede, finchè potremo entrare anche noi. (dopo
aver guardato intorno) Come Dio vuole, ti posso parlare!

IDA
Piero!...

PIERO
Così non va, sai; è quasi un mese che non ci troviamo. A questa vita
non mi ci posso piegare. Mi pareva già atroce perderti per alcuni
mesi, pure mi ci adattavo. È vero che ti trovavo anche più
ingegnosa. Ora che l’assenza è stabile, si direbbe che fai quanto puoi
per rendermela più grave.

IDA
Piero, no, non parlar così. Soffro come te, più di te. Non sono viva
che quando ti vedo. Non penso ad altro mai che a trovare il modo di
venire...

PIERO
Non avresti bisogno di cercar tanto se tu m’amassi come t’amo io.
S’incomincia male, presto non saprai più venir sola.

IDA
Amico mio, senti...

PIERO
O non verrai più affatto, forse. Ah! ma allora verrò io. Verrò a trovarti
dove sarai, nasca quel che può nascere. — Mi conosci?

IDA
Piero, Piero, per amor mio...

PIERO
Darei la vita per te, e non posso far nulla. È la fatalità; tu sola puoi
agire; tutta la nostra felicità è nelle tue mani. Pensaci, sai, pensaci...
perchè, per Dio, avanti così, no!

(Le offre il braccio, entrano al buffet).

SCENA V.
CHIARA e TROTA

Chiara dal buffet, Trota dalla camera d’Ignazio.

Durante questa scena rientrano altre persone, si
aggruppano nel fondo, discorrono, ridono: la scena si
riempie poco a poco.

CHIARA
Non vedo Galliari?

TROTA
Di là con Minchiotti. Fumano, cianciano.

CHIARA
Bene, non occorr’altro.

TROTA (per tornare indietro)

Se v’è bisogno di lui?
 CHIARA
No, no, per amor del cielo!

TROTA
Oh! (stupefatto).

CHIARA
Niente.

TROTA
Si dice: non stuzzichiamo il can che dorme; si può dire come
variante: non cerchiamo un marito che fuma.

CHIARA
Zitto, zitto.

TROTA
Scommettiamo che la baronessa in questo momento è con Laneri?

CHIARA
Non scommetto.

TROTA
Si capisce, saremmo per il sì tutti due. E... (vedendo entrar donna
Ida al braccio di Claudio) Eh, perdiana, avremmo perduto!

SCENA VI.
IDA e CLAUDIO. Detti

IDA (lasciando il braccio di Claudio e sedendo)

Un anno... È stato via un anno?
 CLAUDIO
Più d’un anno.

IDA
Avrei desiderato d’essere una delle prime persone rivedute da lei.

CLAUDIO (fa un inchino con un breve sorriso)

IDA
Direi che dubita?

CLAUDIO
Perchè sarei troppo felice di crederlo.

(Un silenzio).

IDA
È andato lontano, non è vero, lontano di molto?

CLAUDIO
Oh, mi parve di sì.

IDA (ridendo)
Ah... le parve?

CLAUDIO
La distanza è cosa tanto relativa...

IDA
Ah, giusto! Mi dica adesso... oh, vorrei domandarle tante cose. È
tanto terribile la nostalgia?

CLAUDIO
Dicono che si muore.

IDA
Ah, dunque...

CLAUDIO
Dicono. Ma in fatto di dolori non si può credere che alla propria
esperienza.

IDA
E la sua esperienza?

CLAUDIO
La mia esperienza l’ho pagata un prezzo che mi parve molto elevato.
Dico: mi parve anche per questo... perchè poi, si sa...

IDA
Ah dopo! certo...

CLAUDIO
Dopo, la nozione esatta dell’intensità d’un dolore sfuma e si perde.
Oh sì, le assicuro che, lasciando il mio paese, ho provato uno strazio
al quale non credevo di sopravvivere. Ero incalzato da una smania
intollerabile di fuggire, eppure via via che mi allontanavo, pareva che
il cuore mi si struggesse nel petto. Lo sentivo diminuire quasi
materialmente. Pensavo: resterò senza e sarà la morte. Ecco, mi
vedevo davanti come l’impossibilità di reggere ancora, d’andar oltre,
di arrivare a sera, e superar la notte, ed affrontare il domani. Non
sono morto; è incredibile quello che può sopportare il cuore d’un
uomo...

IDA (che ascolta con gli occhi a terra)

E... così?
 CLAUDIO (cambiando tono)
Oh, così, poco a poco lo spasimo si attutì, sottentrò un dolor sordo,
che pareva poi dovesse durar sempre... Invece no, ogni giorno abolì
un pensiero, ogni notte consumò un ricordo. (con disinvoltura) E finii
col trovare naturalissimo di non essere più in patria, dal momento
che n’ero partito...

IDA
Lasciamo la patria, ma gli amici?

CLAUDIO (bruscamente)
Ah, gli amici? Bisogna averne per rimpiangerli.

IDA (con sentimento)

Serra, è ingiusto, sa.

CLAUDIO (guarda Carlo che rientra con Ignazio)

È vero; ho dovuto rimpiangerne anch’io.

IDA (dopo un momento, con gran dolcezza)

Ebbene, m’immagino che la lontananza debba influire sull’animo in
tanti modi... Mi par che debba trasformare l’aspetto delle cose.
Rivelare al pensiero le ragioni occulte, intime, vere di certi fatti.
Sopratutto addolcire le impressioni, dispor la mente a giudizi più
miti. (abbassando la voce) Fors’anche al perdono.....

CLAUDIO (con impeto)

Oh meglio, donna Ida, meglio assai. Con l’assenza e col tempo tutto
si cicatrizza. Forse è questione d’esercizio anche: il cuore, a forza di
dilatarsi per soffrire, prende una capacità prodigiosa; si fa elastico,
quel che prima lo colmava da farlo scoppiare, si adagia nel fondo. Si
diviene freddi, padroni di sè; il miglior modo forse di essere padroni
degli altri. Ve ne sono degli uomini fatti così, per esempio: Laneri...
 IDA (scuotendosi)
Laneri?!

CLAUDIO
Laneri, Piero Laneri, l’amico a cui lei dava il braccio poc’anzi.

IDA

E, dice di lui?

CLAUDIO
Che in lui il cuore pare un di più; non rimbalza, non s’accende, non
affretta mai i suoi palpiti... Così, dev’esser tanto felice.

IDA
Sono molto amici?

CLAUDIO
Quanto si può esserlo. Un’amicizia alimentata forse dalla varietà
stessa dei nostri caratteri, da...

IDA (continuando)
Dalla stima reciproca, da chi sa quali e quante confidenze...

CLAUDIO
Questo no, si può essere amici senza...

CARLO (che è venuto vicino)

Così, Ida, ti sei fatto raccontare un mondo di cose?

IDA
Poco per ora. (risolvendosi, dopo brevissima pausa) Ma abbiam
tempo; Serra viene alla campagna con noi.
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