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TRIBOLOGY OF
CERAMICS AND
COMPOSITES
 TRIBOLOGY OF
CERAMICS AND
COMPOSITES
A Materials Science Perspective

BIKRAMJIT BASU
Department of Materials Science and Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology
Kanpur, India

Materials Research Center

Indian Institute of Science
Bangalore, India

MITJAN KALIN
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
University of Ljubljana
Ljubljana, Slovenia

A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC., PUBLICATION

Copyright © 2011 by The American Ceramic Society. All rights reserved.

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.

Published simultaneously in Canada.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form
or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as
permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior
written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee
to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400,
fax (978) 750-4470, or on the web at www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission
should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street,
Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201) 748-6011, fax (201) 748-6008, or online at http://www.wiley.com/go/
permissions.

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts
in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or
completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of
merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales
representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be
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For general information on our other products and services or for technical support, please contact our
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Basu, Bikramjit.
â•… Tribology of ceramics and composites : a materials science perspective / Bikramjit Basu and
Mitjan Kalin.
â•…â•…â•… p. cm.
â•… Includes index.
â•… ISBN 978-0-470-52263-9 (cloth)
1.╇ Ceramic materials–Mechanical properties.â•… 2.╇ Ceramic materials–Fatigue.â•… 3.╇ Mechanical
wear.╅ 4.╇ Friction.╅ 5.╇ Tribology.╅ I.╇ Kalin, Mitjan.╅ II.╇ Title.
â•… TA455.C43B38 2011
â•… 621.8'9–dc22
2010045250

oBook ISBN: 978-1-118-02166-8

ePDF ISBN: 978-1-118-02164-4
ePub ISBN: 978-1-118-02165-1

Printed in the United States of America.

10â•… 9â•… 8â•… 7â•… 6â•… 5â•… 4â•… 3â•… 2â•… 1

 Bikramjit Basu dedicates this book
with a great sense of gratitude
to his parents,
Mr. Manoj Mohan Basu and Mrs. Chitra Basu

Mitjan Kalin would like to dedicate this book

to Matija, his inspiration, pride, and happiness;
and to Janja, for her understanding and support
 CONTENTS

PREFACE xvii

FOREWORD BY PROF. IAN HUTCHINGS xxi

FOREWORD BY PROF. KARL-HEINZ ZUM GAHR xxiii

ABOUT THE AUTHORS xxv

SECTION Iâ•… FUNDAMENTALS

CHAPTER 1â•… INTRODUCTION 3

Referencesâ•… 6

CHAPTER 2â•… OVERVIEW: TRIBOLOGICAL MATERIALS 7

2.1 Introductionâ•… 7
2.2 Definition and Classification of Ceramicsâ•… 8
2.3 Properties of Structural Ceramicsâ•… 9
2.4 Applications of Structural Ceramicsâ•… 11
2.5 Closing Remarksâ•… 14
Referencesâ•… 16

CHAPTER 3â•… OVERVIEW: MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF CERAMICS 18

3.1 Theory of Brittle Fractureâ•… 18

3.2 Cracking in Brittle Materialsâ•… 23
3.3 Definition and Measurement of Basic Mechanical Propertiesâ•… 24
3.3.1 Hardnessâ•… 24
3.3.2 Compressive Strengthâ•… 27
3.3.3 Flexural Strengthâ•… 28
3.3.4 Elastic Modulusâ•… 30
3.3.5 Fracture Toughnessâ•… 31
3.4 Toughening Mechanismsâ•… 33
3.5 Closing Remarksâ•… 37
Referencesâ•… 37

vii
viiiâ•… CONTENTS

CHAPTER 4â•… SURFACES AND CONTACTS 39

4.1 Surface Roughnessâ•… 39

4.2 Surface Topography and Asperitiesâ•… 41
4.3 Real Contact Areaâ•… 42
4.4 Contact Load Distribution and Hertzian Stressesâ•… 44
4.5 Closing Remarksâ•… 47
Referencesâ•… 48

CHAPTER 5â•… FRICTION 49

5.1 Introductionâ•… 49
5.2 Laws of Frictionâ•… 49
5.3 Friction Mechanismsâ•… 51
5.4 Friction of Common Engineering Materialsâ•… 54
5.5 Closing Remarksâ•… 58
Referencesâ•… 59

CHAPTER 6â•… FRICTIONAL HEATING AND CONTACT TEMPERATURE 60

6.1 Tribological Process and Contact Temperatureâ•… 60

6.2 Concept of “Bulk” and “Flash” Temperatureâ•… 61
6.3 Importance and Relevance of Some Ready-to-Use Analytical Modelsâ•… 63
6.4 Review of Some Frequently Employed Ready-to-Use Modelsâ•… 64
6.4.1 Assumptions in Various Modelsâ•… 65
6.4.2 Model Descriptions and Implicationsâ•… 65
6.4.2.1 Archard Modelâ•… 66
6.4.2.2 Kong–Ashby Modelâ•… 67
Referencesâ•… 68

CHAPTER 7â•… WEAR MECHANISMS 70

7.1 Introductionâ•… 70
7.2 Classification of Wear Mechanismsâ•… 72
7.2.1 Adhesive Wearâ•… 73
7.2.2 Abrasive Wearâ•… 75
7.2.2.1 Abrasion of Compositesâ•… 77
7.2.3 Fatigue Wearâ•… 78
7.2.4 Oxidation and Tribochemical Wearâ•… 80
7.2.5 Fretting Wearâ•… 81
7.2.5.1 Fretting Modesâ•… 82
7.2.5.2 Mechanics of Elastic Contacts under Fretting Conditionsâ•… 84
7.2.5.3 Mechanics of Elastic–Plastic Contacts under Fretting
Conditionsâ•… 86
7.2.5.4 Fretting Regimesâ•… 86
7.2.5.5 Determination of Fretting Regimesâ•… 89
7.2.5.6 Fretting Mapsâ•… 89
7.2.5.7 Velocity Accommodation in Frettingâ•… 91
7.2.5.8 Friction Logsâ•… 92
7.2.6 Solid Particle Erosionâ•… 92
7.2.6.1 Erosion of Ductile Materialsâ•… 94
7.2.6.2 Erosion of Brittle Materialsâ•… 96
 CONTENTS â•… ix
7.3 Closing Remarksâ•… 98
Referencesâ•… 99

CHAPTER 8â•… LUBRICATION 101

8.1 Lubrication Regimesâ•… 101

8.2 Stribeck Curveâ•… 107
Referencesâ•… 109

SECTION IIâ•… FRICTION AND WEAR OF STRUCTURAL CERAMICS

CHAPTER 9â•… OVERVIEW: STRUCTURAL CERAMICS 113

9.1 Introductionâ•… 113

9.2 Zirconia Crystal Structures and Transformation Characteristics of Tetragonal
Zirconiaâ•… 114
9.3 Transformation Tougheningâ•… 116
9.3.1 Micromechanical Modelingâ•… 116
9.4 Stabilization of Tetragonal Zirconiaâ•… 117
9.5 Different Factors Influencing Transformation Tougheningâ•… 118
9.5.1 Grain Sizeâ•… 119
9.5.2 Yttria Contentâ•… 121
9.5.3 Yttria Distributionâ•… 122
9.6 Stress-Induced Microcrackingâ•… 125
9.7 Development of SiAlON Ceramicsâ•… 126
9.8 Microstructure of S-sialon Ceramicsâ•… 127
9.9 Mechanical Properties and Crack Bridging of SiAlON Ceramicâ•… 129
9.10 Properties of Titanium Diboride Ceramicsâ•… 132
Referencesâ•… 138

CHAPTER 10â•… CASE STUDY: TRANSFORMATION-TOUGHENED ZIRCONIA 142

10.1 Backgroundâ•… 142

10.2 Wear Resistanceâ•… 144
10.3 Morphological Characterization of the Worn Surfacesâ•… 146
10.4 Zirconia Phase Transformation and Wear Behaviorâ•… 149
10.5 Wear Mechanismsâ•… 152
10.6 Relationship among Microstructure, Toughness, and Wearâ•… 154
10.7 Influence of Humidity on Tribological Properties of Self-Mated Zirconiaâ•… 156
10.8 Wear Mechanisms in Different Humidityâ•… 157
10.9 Tribochemical Wear in High Humidityâ•… 160
10.10 Closing Remarksâ•… 163
Referencesâ•… 164

CHAPTER 11â•… CASE STUDY: SIALON CERAMICS 167

11.1 Introductionâ•… 167

11.2 Materials and Experimentsâ•… 168
11.3 Tribological Properties of Compositionally Tailored Sialon versus β-Sialonâ•… 172
11.4 Tribological Properties of S-Sialon Ceramicâ•… 179
xâ•… CONTENTS

11.5 Concluding Remarksâ•… 182

Referencesâ•… 183

CHAPTER 12â•… CASE STUDY: MAX PHASE—TI3SIC2 185

12.1 Backgroundâ•… 185

12.2 Frictional Behaviorâ•… 188
12.3 Wear Resistance and Wear Mechanismsâ•… 188
12.4 Raman Spectroscopy and Atomic Force Microscopy Analysisâ•… 190
12.5 Transition in Wear Mechanismsâ•… 193
12.6 Summaryâ•… 194
Referencesâ•… 195

CHAPTER 13â•…
CASE STUDY: TITANIUM DIBORIDE CERAMICS
AND COMPOSITES 197

13.1 Introductionâ•… 197

13.2 Materials and Experimentsâ•… 198
13.3 Tribological Properties of TiB2–MoSi2 Ceramicsâ•… 200
13.3.1 Friction and Wearâ•… 200
13.3.2 Wear and Dissipated Energyâ•… 202
13.3.3 Wear and Abrasion Parameterâ•… 203
13.3.4 Material Removal Mechanismsâ•… 204
13.4 Tribological Properties of TiB2–TiSi2 Ceramicsâ•… 204
13.5 Closing Remarksâ•… 206
Referencesâ•… 208

SECTION IIIâ•…
FRICTION AND WEAR OF BIOCERAMICS AND
BIOCOMPOSITES

CHAPTER 14â•… OVERVIEW: BIOCERAMICS AND BIOCOMPOSITES 213

14.1 Introductionâ•… 213

14.2 Some Useful Definitions and Their Implicationsâ•… 215
14.2.1â•… Biomaterialsâ•… 215
14.2.2 Biocompatibilityâ•… 216
14.2.3 Host Responseâ•… 216
14.3 Experimental Evaluation of Biocompatibilityâ•… 217
14.4 Wear of Implantsâ•… 221
14.5 Coating on Metalsâ•… 223
14.6 Glass-Ceramicsâ•… 224
14.7 Biocompatible Ceramicsâ•… 226
14.7.1 Bioinert Ceramicsâ•… 226
14.7.2 Calcium Phosphate-Based Biomaterialsâ•… 226
14.8 Outlookâ•… 228
Referencesâ•… 229

CHAPTER 15â•… CASE STUDY: POLYMER-CERAMIC BIOCOMPOSITES 233

15.1 Introductionâ•… 233

15.2 Materials and Experimentsâ•… 235
 CONTENTS â•… xi
15.3 Frictional Behaviorâ•… 237
15.4 Wear-Resistance Propertiesâ•… 240
15.5 Wear Mechanismsâ•… 242
15.6 Correlation among Wear Resistance, Wear Mechanisms, Material Properties, and
Contact Pressureâ•… 247
15.7 Concluding Remarksâ•… 248
Referencesâ•… 249

CHAPTER 16â•… CASE STUDY: NATURAL TOOTH AND DENTAL RESTORATIVE

MATERIALS 251

16.1 Introductionâ•… 251

16.2 Materials and Methodsâ•… 254
16.2.1 Preparation of Human Tooth Materialâ•… 254
16.3 Tribological Tests on Tooth Materialâ•… 255
16.4 Production and Characterization of Glass-Ceramicsâ•… 255
16.5 Wear Experiments on Glass-Ceramicsâ•… 256
16.6 Microstructure and Hardness of Human Tooth Materialâ•… 257
16.7 Tribological Properties of Human Tooth Materialâ•… 260
16.7.1 Friction Behaviorâ•… 260
16.7.2 Wear Mechanismsâ•… 262
16.8 Wear Properties of Glass-Ceramicsâ•… 262
16.9 Discussion of Wear Mechanisms of Glass-Ceramicsâ•… 266
16.10 Comparison with Existing Glass-Ceramic Materialsâ•… 271
16.11 Concluding Remarksâ•… 273
Referencesâ•… 274

CHAPTER 17â•… CASE STUDY: GLASS-INFILTRATED ALUMINA 276

17.1 Introductionâ•… 276

17.2 Materials and Experimentsâ•… 277
17.3 Frictional Propertiesâ•… 278
17.4 Wear Resistance and Wear Mechanismsâ•… 278
17.5 Wear Debris Analysis and Tribochemical Reactionsâ•… 282
17.6 Influence of Glass Infiltration on Wear Propertiesâ•… 283
17.7 Concluding Remarksâ•… 284
Referencesâ•… 285

CHAPTER 18â•… TRIBOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF CERAMIC BIOCOMPOSITES 287

18.1 Backgroundâ•… 287

18.2 Tribological Properties of Mullite-Reinforced Hydroxyapatiteâ•… 288
18.3 Friction and Wear Rateâ•… 288
18.3.1 Effect of Simulated-Body-Fluid Medium on Wear of Mullite-Reinforced
Hydroxyapatiteâ•… 289
18.3.2 Surface Topography of Mullite-Reinforced Hydroxyapatite after Fretting
Wearâ•… 293
18.3.3 Frictional Behaviorâ•… 293
18.3.4 Wear Micromechanisms of Hydroxyapatite-Based Materials in Simulated
Body Fluidâ•… 296
xiiâ•… CONTENTS

18.4 Concluding Remarksâ•… 298

Referencesâ•… 302

SECTION IVâ•… FRICTION AND WEAR OF NANOCERAMICS

CHAPTER 19â•… OVERVIEW: NANOCERAMIC COMPOSITES 307

19.1 Introductionâ•… 307

19.2 Processing of Bulk Nanocrystalline Ceramicsâ•… 309
19.3 Overview of Developed Nanoceramics and Ceramic Nanocompositesâ•… 309
19.3.1 Monolithic Nanoceramicsâ•… 311
19.3.2 Alumina-Based Nanocompositesâ•… 313
19.3.3 Tungsten Carbide-Based Nanocompositesâ•… 314
19.3.4 Zirconia-Based Nanocompositesâ•… 317
19.4 Overview of Tribological Properties of Ceramic Nanocompositesâ•… 318
19.5 Concluding Remarksâ•… 320
Referencesâ•… 322

CHAPTER 20â•…
CASE STUDY: NANOCRYSTALLINE YTTRIA-STABILIZED
TETRAGONAL ZIRCONIA POLYCRYSTALLINE CERAMICS 325

20.1 Introductionâ•… 325

20.2 Materials and Experimentsâ•… 327
20.3 Tribological Propertiesâ•… 329
20.4 Tribomechanical Wear of Yttria-Stabilized Zirconia Nanoceramic with Varying
Yttria Dopantâ•… 330
20.5 Comparison with Other Stabilized Zirconia Ceramicsâ•… 335
20.6 Concluding Remarksâ•… 335
Referencesâ•… 336

CHAPTER 21â•…
CASE STUDY: NANOSTRUCTURED TUNGSTEN
CARBIDE–ZIRCONIA NANOCOMPOSITES 338

21.1 Introductionâ•… 338

21.2 Materials and Experimentsâ•… 339
21.3 Friction and Wear Characteristicsâ•… 340
21.4 Wear Mechanismsâ•… 345
21.5 Explanation of High Wear Resistance of Ceramic Nanocompositesâ•… 347
21.6 Concluding Remarksâ•… 349
Referencesâ•… 349

SECTION Vâ•… LIGHTWEIGHT COMPOSITES AND CERMETS

CHAPTER 22â•… OVERVIEW: LIGHTWEIGHT METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES AND

CERMETS 353

22.1 Development of Metal Matrix Compositesâ•… 353

22.2 Development of Cermetsâ•… 356
Referencesâ•… 358
 CONTENTS â•… xiii
CHAPTER 23â•…
CASE STUDY: MAGNESIUM–SILICON CARBIDE PARTICULATE-
REINFORCED COMPOSITES 362

23.1 Introductionâ•… 362

23.2 Materials and Experimentsâ•… 363
23.3 Load-Dependent Friction and Wear Propertiesâ•… 363
23.4 Fretting-Duration-Dependent Tribological Propertiesâ•… 366
23.5 Tribochemical Wear of Magnesium–Silicon Carbide Particulate-Reinforced
Compositesâ•… 371
23.6 Concluding Remarksâ•… 375
Referencesâ•… 376

CHAPTER 24â•…
CASE STUDY: TITANIUM CARBONITRIDE–NICKEL-
BASED CERMETS 377

24.1 Introductionâ•… 377

24.2 Materials and Experimentsâ•… 379
24.3 Energy Dissipation and Abrasion at Low Loadâ•… 381
24.4 Influence of Type of Secondary Carbides on Sliding Wear of Titanium
Carbonitride–Nickel Cermetsâ•… 386
24.4.1 Wear Mechanismsâ•… 387
24.5 Tribochemical Wear of Titanium Carbonitride–Based Cermetsâ•… 387
24.5.1 Evolution of Tribochemistry and Contact Temperatureâ•… 387
24.6 Influence of Tungsten Carbide Content on Load-Dependent Sliding Wear
Propertiesâ•… 393
24.7 High Temperature Wear of Titanium Carbonitride–Nickel Cermetsâ•… 397
24.7.1 Wear Mechanismsâ•… 398
24.7.2 Discussion of High-Temperature Oxidation and Its Relation to Material
Removalâ•… 401
24.7.3 Thermal Oxidationâ•… 402
24.7.4 Influence of Different Secondary Carbide Additionâ•… 403
24.8 Summary of Key Resultsâ•… 403
Referencesâ•… 404

CHAPTER 25â•… CASE STUDY: (W,Ti)C–CO CERMETS 407

25.1 Introductionâ•… 407

25.2 Materials and Experimentsâ•… 408
25.3 Microstructure and Mechanical Propertiesâ•… 409
25.4 Wear Propertiesâ•… 410
25.5 Correlation between Mechanical Properties and Wear Resistanceâ•… 413
25.6 Concluding Remarksâ•… 418
Referencesâ•… 419

SECTION VIâ•…
FRICTION AND WEAR OF CERAMICS IN A
CRYOGENIC ENVIRONMENT
CHAPTER 26â•… OVERVIEW: CRYOGENIC WEAR PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS 423

26.1 Backgroundâ•… 423

26.2 Designing a High-Speed Cryogenic Wear Testerâ•… 425
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Welcome to our website – the ideal destination for book lovers and
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