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1st Pass Pages

This is an electronic version of the print textbook. Due to electronic rights
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Discrete Mathematics with Applications,

c 2011, 2004, 1995 Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning
Fourth Edition
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright
Susanna S. Epp
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 14 13 12 11 10

1.1 Variables 1
Using Variables in Mathematical Discourse; Introduction to Universal, Existential,
and Conditional Statements

1.2 The Language of Sets 6

The Set-Roster and Set-Builder Notations; Subsets; Cartesian Products

1.3 The Language of Relations and Functions 13

Deﬁnition of a Relation from One Set to Another; Arrow Diagram of a Relation;
Deﬁnition of Function; Function Machines; Equality of Functions

Chapter 2 The Logic of Compound Statements 23

2.1 Logical Form and Logical Equivalence 23

Statements; Compound Statements; Truth Values; Evaluating the Truth of More Gen-
eral Compound Statements; Logical Equivalence; Tautologies and Contradictions;
Summary of Logical Equivalences

2.2 Conditional Statements 39

Logical Equivalences Involving →; Representation of If-Then As Or; The Nega-
tion of a Conditional Statement; The Contrapositive of a Conditional Statement; The
Converse and Inverse of a Conditional Statement; Only If and the Biconditional;
Necessary and Sufﬁcient Conditions; Remarks

2.3 Valid and Invalid Arguments 51

Modus Ponens and Modus Tollens; Additional Valid Argument Forms: Rules of
Inference; Fallacies; Contradictions and Valid Arguments; Summary of Rules of
Inference

2.4 Application: Digital Logic Circuits 64

Black Boxes and Gates; The Input/Output Table for a Circuit; The Boolean Expres-
sion Corresponding to a Circuit; The Circuit Corresponding to a Boolean Expres-
sion; Finding a Circuit That Corresponds to a Given Input/Output Table; Simplifying
Combinational Circuits; NAND and NOR Gates

2.5 Application: Number Systems and Circuits for Addition 78

Binary Representation of Numbers; Binary Addition and Subtraction; Circuits for
Computer Addition; Two’s Complements and the Computer Representation of

Negative Integers; 8-Bit Representation of a Number; Computer Addition with

Negative Integers; Hexadecimal Notation

Chapter 3 The Logic of Quantiﬁed Statements 96

3.1 Predicates and Quantiﬁed Statements I 96

The Universal Quantifier: ∀; The Existential Quantifier: ∃; Formal Versus Informal
Language; Universal Conditional Statements; Equivalent Forms of Universal and
Existential Statements; Implicit Quantification; Tarski’s World

3.2 Predicates and Quantiﬁed Statements II 108

Negations of Quantiﬁed Statements; Negations of Universal Conditional Statements;
The Relation among ∀, ∃, ∧, and ∨; Vacuous Truth of Universal Statements; Variants
of Universal Conditional Statements; Necessary and Sufﬁcient Conditions, Only If

3.3 Statements with Multiple Quantiﬁers 117

Translating from Informal to Formal Language; Ambiguous Language; Negations
of Multiply-Quantiﬁed Statements; Order of Quantiﬁers; Formal Logical Notation;
Prolog

3.4 Arguments with Quantiﬁed Statements 132

Universal Modus Ponens; Use of Universal Modus Ponens in a Proof; Universal
Modus Tollens; Proving Validity of Arguments with Quantiﬁed Statements; Using
Diagrams to Test for Validity; Creating Additional Forms of Argument; Remark on
the Converse and Inverse Errors

Chapter 4 Elementary Number Theory

and Methods of Proof 145

4.1 Direct Proof and Counterexample I: Introduction 146

Deﬁnitions; Proving Existential Statements; Disproving Universal Statements by
Counterexample; Proving Universal Statements; Directions for Writing Proofs of
Universal Statements; Variations among Proofs; Common Mistakes; Getting Proofs
Started; Showing That an Existential Statement Is False; Conjecture, Proof, and
Disproof

4.2 Direct Proof and Counterexample II: Rational Numbers 163

More on Generalizing from the Generic Particular; Proving Properties of Rational
Numbers; Deriving New Mathematics from Old

4.3 Direct Proof and Counterexample III: Divisibility 170

Proving Properties of Divisibility; Counterexamples and Divisibility; The Unique
Factorization of Integers Theorem

4.4 Direct Proof and Counterexample IV: Division into Cases

and the Quotient-Remainder Theorem 180
Discussion of the Quotient-Remainder Theorem and Examples; div and mod; Alter-
native Representations of Integers and Applications to Number Theory; Absolute
Value and the Triangle Inequality

4.5 Direct Proof and Counterexample V: Floor and Ceiling 191

Deﬁnition and Basic Properties; The Floor of n/2

4.6 Indirect Argument: Contradiction and Contraposition 198

Proof by Contradiction; Argument by Contraposition; Relation between Proof by
Contradiction and Proof by Contraposition; Proof as a Problem-Solving Tool

4.7 Indirect Argument: Two Classical Theorems 207

√
The Irrationality of 2; Are There Inﬁnitely Many Prime Numbers?; When to Use
Indirect Proof; Open Questions in Number Theory

4.8 Application: Algorithms 214

An Algorithmic Language; A Notation for Algorithms; Trace Tables; The Division
Algorithm; The Euclidean Algorithm

Chapter 5 Sequences, Mathematical Induction,

and Recursion 227

5.1 Sequences 227

Explicit Formulas for Sequences; Summation Notation; Product Notation; Properties
of Summations and Products; Change of Variable; Factorial and n Choose r Notation;
Sequences in Computer Programming; Application: Algorithm to Convert from Base
10 to Base 2 Using Repeated Division by 2

5.2 Mathematical Induction I 244

Principle of Mathematical Induction; Sum of the First n Integers; Proving an Equal-
ity; Deducing Additional Formulas; Sum of a Geometric Sequence

5.3 Mathematical Induction II 258

Comparison of Mathematical Induction and Inductive Reasoning; Proving Divisibil-
ity Properties; Proving Inequalities; A Problem with Trominoes

5.4 Strong Mathematical Induction

and the Well-Ordering Principle for the Integers 268
Strong Mathematical Induction;Binary Representation of Integers;The Well-Ordering
Principle for the Integers

5.5 Application: Correctness of Algorithms 279

Assertions; Loop Invariants; Correctness of the Division Algorithm; Correctness of
the Euclidean Theorem

5.6 Deﬁning Sequences Recursively 290

Definition of Recurrence Relation; Examples of Recursively Defined Sequences;
Recursive Definitions of Sum and Product

5.7 Solving Recurrence Relations by Iteration 304

The Method of Iteration; Using Formulas to Simplify Solutions Obtained by Itera-
tion; Checking the Correctness of a Formula by Mathematical Induction; Discovering
That an Explicit Formula Is Incorrect

5.8 Second-Order Linear Homogenous Recurrence Relations

with Constant Coefﬁcients 317
Derivation of a Technique for Solving These Relations; The Distinct-Roots Case;
The Single-Root Case

5.9 General Recursive Deﬁnitions and Structural Induction 328

Recursively Deﬁned Sets; Using Structural Induction to Prove Properties about
Recursively Deﬁned Sets; Recursive Functions

Chapter 6 Set Theory 336

6.1 Set Theory: Deﬁnitions and the Element Method of Proof 336
Subsets; Proof and Disproof; Set Equality; Venn Diagrams; Operations on Sets; The
Empty Set; Partitions of Sets; Power Sets; Cartesian Products; An Algorithm to
Check Whether One Set Is a Subset of Another (Optional)

6.2 Properties of Sets 352

Set Identities; Proving Set Identities; Proving That a Set Is the Empty Set

6.3 Disproofs, Algebraic Proofs, and Boolean Algebras 367

Disproving an Alleged Set Property; Problem-Solving Strategy; The Number of Sub-
sets of a Set; “Algebraic” Proofs of Set Identities

6.4 Boolean Algebras, Russell’s Paradox, and the Halting Problem 374
Boolean Algebras; Description of Russell’s Paradox; The Halting Problem

Chapter 7 Functions 383

7.1 Functions Deﬁned on General Sets 383

Additional Function Terminology; More Examples of Functions; Boolean Functions;
Checking Whether a Function Is Well Deﬁned; Functions Acting on Sets

7.2 One-to-One and Onto, Inverse Functions 397

One-to-One Functions; One-to-One Functions on Inﬁnite Sets; Application: Hash
Functions; Onto Functions; Onto Functions on Inﬁnite Sets; Relations between Expo-
nential and Logarithmic Functions; One-to-One Correspondences; Inverse Functions

7.3 Composition of Functions 416

Deﬁnition and Examples; Composition of One-to-One Functions; Composition of
Onto Functions

7.4 Cardinality with Applications to Computability 428

Deﬁnition of Cardinal Equivalence; Countable Sets; The Search for Larger Inﬁnities:
The Cantor Diagonalization Process; Application: Cardinality and Computability

Chapter 8 Relations 442

8.1 Relations on Sets 442

Additional Examples of Relations; The Inverse of a Relation; Directed Graph of a
Relation; N -ary Relations and Relational Databases

8.2 Reﬂexivity, Symmetry, and Transitivity 449

Reﬂexive, Symmetric, and Transitive Properties; Properties of Relations on Inﬁnite
Sets; The Transitive Closure of a Relation

8.3 Equivalence Relations 459

The Relation Induced by a Partition; Deﬁnition of an Equivalence Relation; Equiva-
lence Classes of an Equivalence Relation

8.4 Modular Arithmetic with Applications to Cryptography 478

Properties of Congruence Modulo n; Modular Arithmetic; Extending the Euclidean
Algorithm; Finding an Inverse Modulo n; RSA Cryptography; Euclid’s Lemma;
Fermat’s Little Theorem; Why Does the RSA Cipher Work?; Additional Remarks
on Number Theory and Cryptography

8.5 Partial Order Relations 498

Antisymmetry; Partial Order Relations; Lexicographic Order; Hasse Diagrams;
Partially and Totally Ordered Sets; Topological Sorting; An Application; PERT and
CPM

Chapter 9 Counting and Probability 516

9.1 Introduction 517

Deﬁnition of Sample Space and Event; Probability in the Equally Likely Case; Count-
ing the Elements of Lists, Sublists, and One-Dimensional Arrays

9.2 Possibility Trees and the Multiplication Rule 525

Possibility Trees; The Multiplication Rule; When the Multiplication Rule Is Difﬁcult
or Impossible to Apply; Permutations; Permutations of Selected Elements

9.3 Counting Elements of Disjoint Sets: The Addition Rule 540

The Addition Rule; The Difference Rule; The Inclusion/Exclusion Rule

9.4 The Pigeonhole Principle 554

Statement and Discussion of the Principle; Applications; Decimal Expansions of
Fractions; Generalized Pigeonhole Principle; Proof of the Pigeonhole Principle

9.5 Counting Subsets of a Set: Combinations 565

r -Combinations; Ordered and Unordered Selections; Relation between Permutations
and Combinations; Permutation of a Set with Repeated Elements; Some Advice
about Counting; The Number of Partitions of a Set into r Subsets

9.6 r-Combinations with Repetition Allowed 584

Multisets and How to Count Them; Which Formula to Use?

9.7 Pascal’s Formula and the Binomial Theorem 592

Combinatorial Formulas; Pascal’s Triangle; Algebraic and Combinatorial Proofs of
Pascal’s Formula; The Binomial Theorem and Algebraic and Combinatorial Proofs
for It; Applications

9.8 Probability Axioms and Expected Value 605

Probability Axioms; Deriving Additional Probability Formulas; Expected Value

9.9 Conditional Probability, Bayes’ Formula, and

Independent Events 611
Conditional Probability; Bayes’ Theorem; Independent Events

Chapter 10 Graphs and Trees 625

10.1 Graphs: Deﬁnitions and Basic Properties 625

Basic Terminology and Examples of Graphs; Special Graphs; The Concept of Degree

10.2 Trails, Paths, and Circuits 642

Deﬁnitions; Connectedness; Euler Circuits; Hamiltonian Circuits

10.3 Matrix Representations of Graphs 661

Matrices; Matrices and Directed Graphs; Matrices and Undirected Graphs; Matrices
and Connected Components; Matrix Multiplication; Counting Walks of Length N

10.4 Isomorphisms of Graphs 675

Deﬁnition of Graph Isomorphism and Examples; Isomorphic Invariants; Graph
Isomorphism for Simple Graphs

10.5 Trees 683

Deﬁnition and Examples of Trees; Characterizing Trees

10.6 Rooted Trees 694

Deﬁnition and Examples of Rooted Trees; Binary Trees and Their Properties

10.7 Spanning Trees and Shortest Paths 701

Deﬁnition of a Spanning Tree; Minimum Spanning Trees; Kruskal’s Algorithm;
Prim’s Algorithm; Dijkstra’s Shortest Path Algorithm

Chapter 11 Analysis of Algorithm Efﬁciency 717

11.1 Real-Valued Functions of a Real Variable and Their Graphs 717

Graph of a Function; Power Functions; The Floor Function; Graphing Functions
Deﬁned on Sets of Integers; Graph of a Multiple of a Function; Increasing and
Decreasing Functions

11.2 O-, -, and -Notations 725

Deﬁnition and General Properties of O-, -, and -Notations; Orders of Power
Functions; Orders of Polynomial Functions; Orders for Functions of Integer Vari-
ables; Extension to Functions Composed of Rational Power Functions

11.3 Application: Analysis of Algorithm Efﬁciency I 739

Computing Orders of Simple Algorithms; The Sequential Search Algorithm; The
Insertion Sort Algorithm; Time Efﬁciency of an Algorithm

11.4 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions:

Graphs and Orders 751
Graphs of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions; Application: Number of Bits
Needed to Represent an Integer in Binary Notation; Application: Using Logarithms
to Solve Recurrence Relations; Exponential and Logarithmic Orders

11.5 Application: Analysis of Algorithm Efﬁciency II 764

Binary Search; Divide-and-Conquer Algorithms; The Efﬁciency of the Binary Search
Algorithm; Merge Sort; Tractable and Intractable Problems; A Final Remark on
Algorithm Efﬁciency

Chapter 12 Regular Expressions and Finite-State Automata 779

12.1 Formal Languages and Regular Expressions 780

Deﬁnitions and Examples of Formal Languages and Regular Expressions; The Lan-
guage Deﬁned by a Regular Expression; Practical Uses of Regular Expressions

12.2 Finite-State Automata 791

Deﬁnition of a Finite-State Automaton; The Language Accepted by an Automa-
ton; The Eventual-State Function; Designing a Finite-State Automaton; Simulating a
Finite-State Automaton Using Software; Finite-State Automata and Regular Expres-
sions; Regular Languages

12.3 Simplifying Finite-State Automata 808

*-Equivalence of States; k-Equivalence of States; Finding the *-Equivalence Classes;
The Quotient Automaton; Constructing the Quotient Automaton; Equivalent Automata

Appendix A Properties of the Real Numbers A-1

Appendix B Solutions and Hints to Selected Exercises A-4

Index I-1

Themes of a Discrete Mathematics Course

Discrete mathematics describes processes that consist of a sequence of individual steps.
This contrasts with calculus, which describes processes that change in a continuous fash-
ion. Whereas the ideas of calculus were fundamental to the science and technology of the
industrial revolution, the ideas of discrete mathematics underlie the science and technol-
ogy of the computer age. The main themes of a ﬁrst course in discrete mathematics are
logic and proof, induction and recursion, discrete structures, combinatorics and discrete
probability, algorithms and their analysis, and applications and modeling.

Logic and Proof Probably the most important goal of a ﬁrst course in discrete math-
ematics is to help students develop the ability to think abstractly. This means learning
to use logically valid forms of argument and avoid common logical errors, appreciating
what it means to reason from deﬁnitions, knowing how to use both direct and indirect

xiv

argument to derive new results from those already known to be true, and being able to
work with symbolic representations as if they were concrete objects.

Induction and Recursion An exciting development of recent years has been the
increased appreciation for the power and beauty of “recursive thinking.” To think recur-
sively means to address a problem by assuming that similar problems of a smaller nature
have already been solved and ﬁguring out how to put those solutions together to solve
the larger problem. Such thinking is widely used in the analysis of algorithms, where
recurrence relations that result from recursive thinking often give rise to formulas that are
veriﬁed by mathematical induction.

Discrete Structures Discrete mathematical structures are the abstract structures that
describe, categorize, and reveal the underlying relationships among discrete mathemat-
ical objects. Those studied in this book are the sets of integers and rational numbers,
general sets, Boolean algebras, functions, relations, graphs and trees, formal languages
and regular expressions, and ﬁnite-state automata.

Combinatorics and Discrete Probability Combinatorics is the mathematics of count-

ing and arranging objects, and probability is the study of laws concerning the measure-
ment of random or chance events. Discrete probability focuses on situations involving
discrete sets of objects, such as ﬁnding the likelihood of obtaining a certain number of
heads when an unbiased coin is tossed a certain number of times. Skill in using combina-
torics and probability is needed in almost every discipline where mathematics is applied,
from economics to biology, to computer science, to chemistry and physics, to business
management.

Algorithms and Their Analysis The word algorithm was largely unknown in the mid-
dle of the twentieth century, yet now it is one of the ﬁrst words encountered in the study
of computer science. To solve a problem on a computer, it is necessary to ﬁnd an algo-
rithm or step-by-step sequence of instructions for the computer to follow. Designing an
algorithm requires an understanding of the mathematics underlying the problem to be
solved. Determining whether or not an algorithm is correct requires a sophisticated use
of mathematical induction. Calculating the amount of time or memory space the algo-
rithm will need in order to compare it to other algorithms that produce the same output
requires knowledge of combinatorics, recurrence relations, functions, and O-, -, and
-notations.

Applications and Modeling Mathematical topics are best understood when they are
seen in a variety of contexts and used to solve problems in a broad range of applied
situations. One of the profound lessons of mathematics is that the same mathematical
model can be used to solve problems in situations that appear superﬁcially to be totally
dissimilar. A goal of this book is to show students the extraordinary practical utility of
some very abstract mathematical ideas.

Special Features of This Book

Mathematical Reasoning The feature that most distinguishes this book from other
discrete mathematics texts is that it teaches—explicitly but in a way that is accessible to
ﬁrst- and second-year college and university students—the unspoken logic and reasoning
that underlie mathematical thought. For many years I taught an intensively interactive
transition-to-abstract-mathematics course to mathematics and computer science majors.
This experience showed me that while it is possible to teach the majority of students to

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
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body meets with in 1st. Its velocity, and the form and
its motion in a fluid.magnitude of the surface opposed to the
fluid.
2nd. Upon the density and tenacity of
the fluid or cohesion of its particles, and
also upon the friction which will be caused
by the roughness of the surface of the
body.
3rd. Upon the degree of compression
to which this fluid, supposed to be perfectly
elastic, is subjected, upon which will
depend the rapidity with which it will close
in and fill the space behind the body in
motion.
The resistance of a Firstly, with regard to the velocity of
fluid to a body as the body. It is evident that a plane moving
the squares of the through a fluid in a direction perpendicular
velocities.
to its surface, must impart to the particles
of the fluid with which it comes in contact,
a velocity equal to its own; and,
consequently, from this cause alone, the
resistances would be as the velocities; but
the number of particles struck in a certain
time being also as the velocities, from these
two causes combined, the resistance of a
fluid to a body in motion, arising from the
inertia of the particles of the fluid, will be as
the square of the velocity.
Cohesion of the Secondly, a body moving in a fluid
particles of a fluid, must overcome the force of cohesion of
and friction. those parts which are separated, and the
friction, both which are independent of the [118]
velocity. The total resistance then, from
cohesion, friction, and inertia, will be partly
constant and partly as the square of the
velocity.
Result. The resistances therefore are as the
squares of the velocities in the same fluid,
and as the squares of the velocities
multiplied by the densities in different
fluids.
Hitherto, however, we have imagined a
fluid which does not exist in nature; that is
to say, a discontinued fluid, or one which
has its particles separated and
unconnected, and also perfectly non-elastic.
Atmosphere, and its Now, in the atmosphere, no one
properties bearing particle that is contiguous to the body can
on the question of be moved without moving a great number
its resistance.
of others, some of which will be distant
from it. If the fluid be much compressed,
and the velocity of the moving body much
less than that with which the particles of
the fluid will rush into vacuum in
consequence of the compression, it is clear
that the space left by the moving body will
be almost instantaneously filled up, (plate
23, fig. 2); and the resistance of such a
medium would be less the greater the
compression, provided the density were the
same, because the velocity of rushing into a
vacuum will be greater the greater the
compression. Also, in a greatly compressed
fluid, the form of the fore part of the body
influences the amount of the retarding force
but very slightly, while in a non-compressed
fluid this force would be considerably
affected by the peculiar shape which might
be given to the projectile.
Resistance Thirdly. If the body can be moved so
increased when the rapidly that the fluid cannot instantaneously
body moves so fast press in behind it, as is found to be the
that a vacuum is case in the atmosphere, the resisting power
formed behind it. of the medium must be considerably
increased, for the projectile being deprived
of the pressure of the fluid on its hind part,
must support on its fore part the whole
weight of a column of the fluid, over and
above the force employed in moving the
portion of the fluid in contact with it, which
force is the sole source of resistance in the
discontinued fluid. Also, the condensation of
the air in front of the body will influence
considerably the relation between the
resistances and the velocities of an oblique
surface: and it is highly probable that
although the resistances to a globe may for
slow motions be nearly proportional to the
squares of the velocities, they will for great
velocities increase in a much higher ratio.

ON THE VELOCITY WITH WHICH

AIR WILL RUSH INTO A VACUUM.
The velocity of the When considering the resistance of the
rush of air into a air to a body in motion, it is important that
vacuum. the velocity with which air will rush into a
vacuum should be determined; and this will
depend upon its pressure or elasticity.
Result. It has been calculated, that air will rush
into a vacuum at the rate of about 1,344
feet per second when the barometer stands
at 30 inches, so that should a projectile be
moving through the atmosphere at a
greater velocity than this, say 1,600 feet
per second, then would there be a vacuum
formed behind the ball, and instead of
having merely the resistance due to the
inertia of the particles of the air, it would, in
addition, suffer that from the whole
pressure of a column of the medium, equal
to that indicated by the barometer.

[119]
UPON THE
RESISTANCE OF THE
AIR TO BODIES OF
DIFFERENT FORMS.

Difficulties of the The influence of the form of a body

question. upon the resistance offered to it by a fluid,
is a problem of the greatest difficulty; and
although the most celebrated
mathematicians have turned their attention
to the subject, still, even for slow motions,
they have only been able to frame strictly
empirical formula, founded upon the data
derived from practice; while with regard to
the resistance at very high velocities, such
as we have to deal with, very little light has
hitherto been thrown upon the subject.
Compressed fluid. When a body moves in the
atmosphere, the particles which are set in
motion by the projectile, act upon those in
proximity to them, and these again upon
others; and also from the elasticity of the
fluid, it would be compressed before the
body in a degree dependant upon the
motion and form of the body. Moreover, the
atmosphere itself partakes so much of the
nature of an infinitely compressed fluid, as
to constantly follow the body without loss of
density when the motion is slow, but not
when the velocity is great, so that the same
law will not hold good for both. In an
infinitely compressed fluid (that is, one
which would fill up the space left behind the
body instantaneously) the parts of the fluid
which the body presses against in its
motion would instantaneously communicate
the pressure received by them throughout
the whole mass, so that the density of the
fluid would not undergo any change, either
in front of the body or behind it,
consequently the resistance to the body
would be much less than in a fluid partially
compressed like the atmosphere; and the
form of the body would not have the same
effect in diminishing or increasing the
amount of resistance.
When a vacuum is When the velocity of a body moving in
formed behind the the atmosphere is so great that a vacuum is
ball. formed behind it, the action of the fluid
approaches to that of the discontinued fluid.

RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS WITH

SLOW MOTIONS.
Resistance in 1st. It appears from the various
proportion to experiments that have been made upon
surface. bodies moving in the atmosphere, that the
resistance is nearly as the surface,
increasing a very little above that proportion
in the greater surfaces.
Resistance as
squares of velocity.
2nd. That the resistance to the same
surface with different velocities, is in slow
motions nearly as the squares of the
velocity, but gradually increasing more and
more in proportion as the velocities
increase.
Rounded and 3rd. The round ends, and sharp ends [120]
pointed ends suffer of solids, suffer less resistance than the flat
less resistance. or plane ends of the same diameter. Hence
the flat end of the cylinder and of a
hemisphere, or of a cone, suffer more
resistance than the round or sharp ends of
the same.
Sharp ends not 4th. The sharper ends have not always
always least the smaller resistances; for instance, the
resistance. round end of a hemisphere has less
resistance than the pointed end of a cone,
whose angle with the axis is 25° 42′.
Form of base 5th. When the hinder parts of bodies
affects resistance. are of different forms, the resistances are
different, though the fore parts are the
same. Hence the resistance to the fore part
of a cylinder is less than that on the equally
flat surface of the cone or hemisphere,
owing to the shape of the base of the
cylinder. The base of the hemisphere has
less resistance than the cone, and the
round side of the hemisphere less than that
of the whole sphere.
Only proved for The above refers only to slow motions,
slow motions. and the results given, from experiments
with very small velocities; and it is to be
expected, that with very rapid motions the
form of the fore, as well as the hind part, of
the projectile, will influence the amount of
resistance in a much higher degree.
Form of hind part. That form for the hind part will be best
which has the greatest pressure upon it,
when moving with a certain velocity.
Best shape for fore The ogivale form seems, from
and hind part. experiment, to fulfil the former condition.
The best form for the hind part, for rapid
motions, has not been determined; it may,
however, be considered to be of much less
importance than the shape of the fore part.
Form determined by Of course the best form can be
extent of range. determined by extent of range, but
deductions from this will depend upon such
a variety of circumstances, the effects of
some of which must be entirely
hypothetical, that the correctness of any
formulæ obtained in this manner must be
very uncertain.
Form suggested by Sir Isaac Newton, in his “Principia,” has
Sir I. Newton. given an indication of that form of body,
which, in passing through a fluid, would
experience less resistance than a solid body
of equal magnitude of any other form. It is
elongated.
Axis of elongated It is plain, however, that the minimum
bodies must be of resistance would not be obtained with a
fixed. shot of an elongated form, unless the axis
can be kept in the direction of the
trajectory; as not only will the axis
perpetually deviate from the true direction,
but the projectile will turn over and rotate
round its shorter axis, that is, if fired out of
a smooth bore.
Advantages of Conical bullets have an advantage,
conical bullets. from their pointed end, which enables them
to pass through the air with greater facility;
and for the same reason they are better
calculated to penetrate into any matter than
spherical ones.
Disadvantages of A solid bullet cannot be pointed without
conical bullets. sending backward the centre of gravity. The
sharper the point, the more it is liable to
injury, and if the apex of the cone does not
lie true, in the axis of the projectile, then
such an imperfection of figure is calculated
to cause greater deflections in the flight
than any injury which a round surface is
likely to sustain. In penetrating into solid
bodies, it is also important that the centre
of gravity should be near its work.

[121]
RESISTANCE OF THE AIR, AS
AFFECTED BY THE WEIGHT OF
PROJECTILES.
Resistance Bodies of similar volume and figure
overcome by overcome the resistance of the air in
weight. proportion to their densities. The amount of
the air’s resistance is in proportion to the
magnitude of the surface.
Contents of circles. The superficial contents of circles are
as the squares of their diameters. Hence if
the ball A. (plate 23, fig. 3) be 2in. in
diameter, and the ball B. 4in., the amount of
resistance experienced would be as four to
sixteen.
Contents of The cubical contents, or weights of
spheres. spheres, are in proportion to the cubes of
their diameters. Hence the power to
overcome resistance in the balls A and B
would be as eight to sixty-four. Thus the
power to overcome resistance increases in
much greater proportion than the resistance
elicited by increasing the surface.
Advantages of Suppose an elongated body to have
elongated bullets. the diameter of its cylindrical portion equal
to that of the ball A., i.e., E.F. = C.D., (plate
23, fig. 4), and elongated so that its weight
should be equal to that of the spherical shot
B., it is evident that it would meet equal
resistance from the air, to the ball A.,
having, at the same time, as much power to
overcome resistance as the body B.
Elongated balls, by offering a larger
surface to the sides of the barrel, are less
liable to be affected by any imperfections in
the bore; whereas the spherical ball,
pressing only on its tangential point, will
give to any little hollows, or undulations,
wherever they occur.
Balls cannot be A spherical ball cannot be expanded
expanded. into the grooves, unless there be very little
windage, except by blows from the ramrod,
the gas escaping round the circumference
of the ball, and giving it an irregular motion
Elongated while passing down the barrel; but an
projectiles easily elongated projectile can be readily
expanded. expanded, and the facility of doing so is in
proportion to the difference of length
between its major and minor axis.
DEVIATIONS OF PROJECTILES
FROM SMOOTH-BORED GUNS.
Causes of deviation Very great irregularities occur in the
of shot. paths described by projectiles fired from
smooth-bored guns. It is a fact well known
to all practical artillerists, that if a number
of solid shot or any other projectile be fired
from the same gun, with equal charges and
elevations, and with gunpowder of the
same quality, the gun carriage resting on a
platform, and the piece being laid with the
greatest care before each round, very few
of the shot will range to the same distance;
and moreover, the greater part will be found
to deflect considerably (unless the range be
very short) to the right or left of the line in
which the gun is pointed.
Four causes of The causes of these deviations may be
deviation. stated as follows:—1st, Windage; 2nd,
Rotation; 3rd, Wind; 4th, from Rotation of
the Earth.

1st CAUSE, WINDAGE.

Action from Windage causes irregularity in the flight
windage. of a projectile, from the fact of the elastic [122]
gas acting in the first instance on its upper
portion, and driving it against the bottom of
the bore; the shot re-acts at the same time
that it is impelled forward by the charge,
and strikes the upper surface of the bore
some distance down, and so on by a
False direction. succession of rebounds, until it leaves the
bore in an accidental direction, and with a
rotatory motion, depending chiefly on the
position of the last impact against the bore.
Thus should the last impact of a
(concentric) shot when fired from a gun be
upon the right hand side of the bore, as
represented, (plate 23, fig. 5); the shot will
have a tendency to deflect to the left in the
Gives rotation. direction. While at the same time a rotation
will be given to it in the direction indicated
by the arrows.

2nd CAUSE, ROTATION.

Rotation without Every body may have a twofold motion,
translation. one by which it is carried forward, and the
other by which it may turn round on an axis
passing through its centre, called a motion
of rotation.
When a body has only a motion of
translation all the particles of which it is
composed move with equal swiftness, and
also in parallel directions; and by the first
law of motion, every particle put in such
motion will constantly move with the same
velocity in the same direction, unless it be
prevented by some external cause.
Rotation. By a motion of rotation, a body without
changing its place, turns round on an axis
Rotation and passing through its centre of gravity. A body
translation may have at the same time both a
combined. progressive and rotatory motion, without
either disturbing the other, and one may
suffer a change from the action of some
external force, while the other continues
the same as before.
Force through If the direction of the force be through
centre of gravity, the centre of gravity, it causes a progressive
causes progressive motion only, that is, if the body was at rest
motion only.
before, it will move forward in the direction
of the impressed force.
Effect of force on a If a body had a progressive motion
body in motion. before, then impressed force will cause it to
move faster or slower, or to change its
direction, according as the direction of this
second force conspires with or opposes its
former motion, or acts obliquely on its
direction.
Rotation not If a body, besides its progressive
disturbed by second motion had a motion of rotation also, this
force in direction of last will not be changed by the action of a
centre of gravity.
new force passing through the centre of
gravity.
Rotation of force If the direction of the force does not
does not pass pass through the centre of gravity, the
through the centre progressive motion will be altered, and the
of gravity.
body will then also acquire a rotatory
motion round an axis passing through the
centre of gravity, and perpendicular to a
plane passing through the direction of the
force and this centre.

CASES BEARING UPON THE

FOREGOING THEORY.
When ball is 1st Case. Suppose the ball to be
perfectly round, perfectly round, its centre of gravity and
centre of gravity figure to coincide, and let there be no
coincides with
figure, and no windage. In this case the force of the
windage. powder not only passes through the centre
of gravity of the shot, but proceeds in a
direction parallel to the axis of the bore,
and there would be but small friction due to
the weight of the shot.
If windage then 2nd Case. But as there is a [123]
rotation. considerable amount of friction between the
bore and the projectile in the case where
there is windage, the direction of this force
being opposite to that of the gunpowder,
and upon the surface of the ball, it will
therefore give rotation to the shot.
Eccentricity causes 3rd Case. Suppose the ball to be
rotation. perfectly round, but its centre of gravity not
to coincide with the centre of figure. In this
case the impelling force passes through the
centre of the ball, or nearly so, and acts in
a direction parallel to the axis of the piece;
but if the centre of gravity of the ball lie out
of the line of direction of the force of the
powder, the shot will be urged to turn round
its centre of gravity.
Angular velocity. The angular velocity communicated to
the body will depend, firstly, upon the
length of the perpendicular from the centre
of gravity upon the direction of the
impelling force, and secondly, upon the law
of density of the material or the manner in
which the metal is distributed. The direction
of rotations will depend upon the position of
the centre of figure with regard to that of
gravity. (Plate 23, fig. 6.)
Robins’ remarks. Robins remarks, bullets are not only
depressed beneath their original direction
by the action of gravity, but are also
frequently driven to the right or left of that
direction by the action of some other force.
If it were true that bullets varied their
direction by the action of gravity only, then
it ought to happen that the errors in their
flight to the right or left of the mark, should
increase in proportion to the distance of the
mark from the firer only.
Deflection not in But this is contrary to all experience,
proportion to for the same piece which will carry its bullet
distance. within an inch at ten yards, cannot be relied
upon to ten inches in one hundred yards,
much less to thirty inches in three hundred.
Now this irregularity can only arise
from the track of the bullet being incurvated
sideways as well as downwards. The reality
of this doubly incurvated track being
demonstrated, it may be asked what can be
the cause of a motion so different from
what has been hitherto supposed.
1st cause of 1st Cause. Is owing to the resistance of
increase, deflection. the air acting obliquely to the progressive
motion of the body, and sometimes arises
from inequalities in the resisted surface.
2nd cause, from 2nd Cause. From a whirling motion
whirling motion. acquired by the bullet round its axis, for by
this motion of rotation, combined with the
progressive motion, each part of the bullet’s
surface will strike the air in a direction very
different from what it would do if there was
no such whirl; and the obliquity of the
action of the air arising from this cause will
be greater, according as the rotatory motion
of the bullet is greater in proportion to its
progressive motion; and as this whirl will in
one part of the revolution conspire in some
degree with the progressive, and in another
part be equally opposed to it, the resistance
of the air on the fore part of the bullet will
be hereby affected, and will be increased in
that part where the whirling motion
conspires with the progressive; and
Direction of a shot diminished where it is opposed to it. And by
influenced by this means the whole effort of resistance,
position of axis instead of being in a direction opposite to
round which it
whirls.
the direction of the body, will become
oblique thereto, and will produce those
effects we have already mentioned. For
instance, if the axis of the whirl was
perpendicular to the horizon, then the [124]
incurvation would be to the right or left. If
that axis were horizontal to the direction of
the bullet, then the incurvation would be
upwards or downwards. But as the first
position of the axis is uncertain, and as it
may perpetually shift in the course of the
bullet’s flight, the deviation of the bullet is
not necessarily either in one certain
direction, nor tending to the same side in
one part of its flight that it does in another,
but it more usually is continually changing
the tendency of its deflection, as the axis
round which it whirls must frequently shift
its position during the progressive motion.
Doubly incurvated It is constantly found in practice that a
track. shot will deviate in a curved line, either
right or left, the curve rapidly increasing
towards the end of the range. This most
probably occurs from the velocity of rotation
decreasing but slightly, compared with the
initial velocity of the shot, or, if a strong
wind is blowing across the range during the
whole time of flight, the curve would
manifestly be increased according as the
velocity of the ball decreased.

ILLUSTRATIONS OF ROBINS’
THEORY OF ROTATION.
With ball and 1st Illustration. A wooden ball 41⁄2
double string. inches in diameter suspended by a double
string, nine feet long. It will be found that if
this ball receive a spinning motion by the
untwisting of the string it will remain
stationary. If it be made to vibrate, it will
continue to do so in the same vertical
plane. But if it be made to spin while it
vibrates it will be deflected to that side on
which the whirl combines with the
progressive motion.
By firing through 2nd Illustration. By firing through
screens. screens of thin paper placed parallel to each
other, at equal distances, the deflection or
track of bullets can easily be investigated. It
will be found that the amount of deflection
is wholly disproportioned to the increased
distance of the screens.
Bent muzzle. 3rd Illustration. To give further light
upon this subject, Mr. Robins took a barrel
and bent it at about three or four inches
from the muzzle to the left, the bend
making an angle of 3° or 4° with the axis of
the piece.
By firing at screens it was found that
although the ball passed through the first
screens to the left, it struck the butt to the
right of the vertical plane on which aim was
taken in line of the axis of the unbent
portion of the barrel. This was caused by
the friction of the ball on the right side of
the bent part of the muzzle, causing the ball
to spin from left to right.

ON ECCENTRIC PROJECTILES.
How to find centre Sir Howard Douglas, in his “Naval
of gravity. Gunnery,” states:—“The position of the
centre of gravity can be found by floating
the projectile in mercury, and marking its
vertex. Then mark a point upon the shot
diametrically opposite to that point, which
will give the direction of the axis in which
the two centres lie. Thus the shot can be
placed in the gun with its centre of gravity
in any desired position.”
“On making experiments, it appeared [125]
that not one shot in a hundred, when
floated in mercury, was indifferent as to the
position in which it was so floated, but
turned immediately, until the centre of
gravity arrived at the lowest point, and
consequently that not one shot in a
hundred was perfect in sphericity, and
homogeneity. Shells can be made eccentric
by being cast with a solid segment in the
interior sphere, left in the shell, or by boring
two holes in each shell, diametrically
opposite to one another, stopping up one
Effect of with 5lbs. of lead, and the other with wood.
eccentricity. When the centre of gravity was above the
centre of the figure, the ranges were the
longest, and when below, the shortest.
When to the right or left hand, the
deviations were also to the right or left. The
mean range which, with the usual shot, was
1640 yards, was, with the shot whose
centres of gravity and of figure were not
coincident, the centre of gravity being
upwards, equal to 2140 yards, being an
increase of 500 yards.
Ricochet of “With respect to the ricochet of
eccentric shot. eccentric spherical projectiles, the rotation
which causes deflection in the flight, must
act in the same manner to impede a
straight forward graze. When an ordinary
well formed homogenous spherical
projectile, upon which probably very little
rotation is impressed, makes a graze, the
bottom of the vertical diameter first touches
the plane, and immediately acquires, by the
reaction, a rotation upon its horizontal axis,
by which the shot rolls onwards throughout
the graze, probably for a straight forward
second flight. But in the case of an
eccentric spherical projectile, placed with its
centre of gravity to the right or to the left,
its rotation upon its vertical axis during the
graze must occasion a fresh deflection in its
second flight, and it is only when the centre
of gravity is placed in a vertical plane
passing through the axis of the gun, that
the rotation by touching the ground will not
disturb the direction of the graze, though
the extent of range to the first graze will be
affected more or less according as the
centre of gravity may have been placed
upwards or downwards. Whether the
rebounds take place from water, as in the
experiments made on board the “Excellent,”
or on land, as those carried on at
Shoeburyness, the shot, when revolving on
a vertical axis, instead of making a straight
forward graze, suffered deflection which
were invariably towards the same side of
the line of fire as the centre of gravity; and
at every graze up to the fourth, a new
deflection took place.
Knowledge derived “The results of these very curious and
from experiments instructive experiments fully explain the
with eccentric shot. extraordinary anomalies, as they have
heretofore been considered, in length of
range and in the lateral deviations: these
have been attributed to changes in the
state of the air, or the direction of the wind,
to differences in the strength of the
gunpowder, and to inequalities in the
degrees of windage. All these causes are,
no doubt, productive of errors in practice,
but it is now clear that those errors are
chiefly occasioned by the eccentricity and
nonhomogeneity of the shot, and the
accidental positions of the centre of gravity
of the projectile with respect to the axis of
the bore. The whole of these experiments
furnish decisive proof of the necessity of
paying the most scrupulous attention to the
figure and homogeneity of solid shot, and
concentricity of shells, and they exhibit the
remarkable fact that a very considerable [126]
increase of range may be obtained without
an increase in the charge, or elevation of
the gun.”
No advantage in It is not to be expected that eccentric
using eccentric projectiles would be applicable for general
projectiles. purposes, on account of the degree of
attention and care required in their service,
nor would much advantage be gained by
their use, as the momentum is not altered,
and it is only necessary to give the ordinary
shot a little more elevation in order to strike
the same object.
Range of elongated There is another point of great
projectiles at certain importance with regard to the range of
low elevations elongated projectiles. It is asserted by Sir
greater in air than
in vacuo.
W. Armstrong and others, that at certain
low elevations the range of an elongated
projectile is greater in the atmosphere than
in vacuo, and the following is the
explanation given by the former of this
apparent paradox. “In a vacuum, the
trajectory would be the same, whether the
projectile were elongated or spherical, so
long as the angle of elevation, and the
initial velocity were constant; but the
presence of a resisting atmosphere makes
this remarkable difference, that while it
greatly shortens the range of the round
shot, it actually prolongs that of the
elongated projectile, provided the angle of
elevation do not exceed a certain limit,
which, in my experiments, I have found to
be about 6°. This appears, at first, very
paradoxical, but it may be easily explained.
The elongated shot, if properly formed, and
having a sufficient rotation, retains the
same inclination to the horizontal plane
throughout its flight, and consequently
acquires a continually increasing obliquity to
the curve of its flight. Now the effect of this
obliquity is, that the projectile is in a
measure sustained upon the air, just as a
kite is supported by the current of air
meeting the inclined surface, and the result
is that its descent is retarded, so that it has
time to reach to a greater distance.”
Charge. The form and weight of the projectile
being determined as well as the inclination
of the grooves, the charge can be so
arranged as to give the necessary initial
velocity, and velocity of rotation; or if the
nature of projectile and charge be fixed, the
inclination of the grooves must be such as
will give the required results. The most
important consideration is the weight and
form of projectile; the inclination of the
grooves, the charge, weight of metal in the
gun, &c., are regulated almost entirely by it.
The charges used with rifle pieces are much
less than those with which smooth-bored
guns are fired, for little or none of the gas
is allowed to escape by windage, there
being therefore no loss of force; and it is
found by experience that, with
comparatively low initial velocities, the
elongated projectiles maintain their velocity,
and attain very long ranges.

Note.—The foregoing articles on “Theory,” are

principally extracted from “New Principles of
Gunnery by Robins,” “Treatise on Artillery, by Lieut.-
Colonel Boxer, R.A.” “The Rifle Musket, by Captain
Jervis, M.P., Royal Artillery.” “Elementary Lecturers on
Artillery, by Major H. C. Owen and Captain T. Dames,
Royal Artillery.”
THE END.
PLATE 1.
FIG. 1.

Powder Mill.
FIG. 2.
Old Eprouvette Pendulum
FIG. 3.