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AND CSS
COMPLETE

Contents
Contents
Preface viii CHAPTER TWO
Creating and Editing a Web Page
HTML5 and CSS Using Inline Styles
Objectives HTML 33
CHAPTER ONE Introduction HTML 34
Introduction to HTML, XHTML, Project — Rock Climbing Fun Web Page HTML 34
and CSS Overview HTML 34
Objectives HTML 1 Elements of a Web Page HTML 37
Introduction HTML 2 Browser Window Elements HTML 37
What Is the Internet? HTML 2 Text Elements HTML 38
What Is the World Wide Web? HTML 3 Image Elements HTML 38
Web Servers HTML 4 Hyperlink Elements HTML 38
Web Site Types and Purposes HTML 5 Defining Web Page Structure HTML 39
Web Browsers HTML 7 Defining the HTML Document HTML 39
What Is Hypertext Markup Language? HTML 8 To Start Notepad++ HTML 40
HTML Elements HTML 9 To Enable Word Wrap in Notepad++ HTML 42
Useful HTML Practices HTML 10 To Define the Web Page Structure
HTML Versions HTML 11 Using HTML Tags HTML 42
Cascading Style Sheets HTML 11 Formatting the Web Page HTML 45
Document Object Model (DOM) HTML 12 Entering Web Page Content HTML 46
Extensible Hypertext Markup To Enter a Paragraph of Text HTML 48
Language (XHTML) HTML 12 To Enter a Heading HTML 49
Tools for Creating HTML Documents HTML 13 Using Lists to Present Content HTML 49
Web Development Life Cycle HTML 15 To Create an Unordered List HTML 51
Web Site Planning HTML 16 More About List Formats HTML 51
Web Site Analysis HTML 16 Adding a Footer HTML 53
Web Site Design and Development HTML 17 To Add a Footer HTML 53
Web Site Testing HTML 22 Saving and Organizing HTML Files HTML 54
Web Site Implementation and Maintenance HTML 24 To Save an HTML File HTML 55
Be an Observant Web User HTML 25 Using a Browser to View a Web Page HTML 58
Chapter Summary HTML 25 To Start a Browser HTML 58
Learn It Online HTML 26 To View a Web Page in a Browser HTML 59
Apply Your Knowledge HTML 26 To Activate Notepad++ HTML 60
Extend Your Knowledge HTML 27 Improving the Appearance of Your
Make It Right HTML 28 Web Page HTML 60
In the Lab HTML 29 Using Style Sheets HTML 61
Cases and Places HTML 32 Using Web Page Divisions HTML 63

iii
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iv Contents HTML5 and CSS Complete

Types of Web Page Images HTML 64 Validating the HTML, Viewing the
Image Attributes HTML 65 Web Page, and Testing Links HTML 117
Other Visual Enhancements HTML 67 To Validate HTML Code HTML 118
To Add Color to a Web Page To Print an HTML File HTML 119
Heading HTML 69 To Test Links on a Web Page HTML 121
To Change the Bulleted List Style HTML 70 To Print a Web Page HTML 123
To Add a Horizontal Rule HTML 70 Editing the Second Web Page HTML 123
To Change the Footer Style HTML 71 To Open an HTML File HTML 125
To Refresh the View in a Browser HTML 72 Working with Classes in Style Statements HTML 126
Validating and Viewing HTML Code HTML 72 Adding an Image with Wrapped Text HTML 128
To Validate HTML Code HTML 73 Using Thumbnail Images HTML 130
To View HTML Source Code for a To Wrap Text Around Images Using
Web Page HTML 76 CSS Classes HTML 132
To Print a Web Page and an HTML File HTML 77 To Clear Text Wrapping HTML 134
Chapter Summary HTML 79 Adding Links Within a Web Page HTML 135
Learn It Online HTML 79 To Set Link Targets HTML 136
Apply Your Knowledge HTML 80 To Add Links to Link Targets Within a
Extend Your Knowledge HTML 81 Web Page HTML 137
Make It Right HTML 82 To Add Links to a Target at the Top of
In the Lab HTML 83 the Page HTML 138
Cases and Places HTML 86 To Copy and Paste HTML Code HTML 138
To Add an Image Link to a Web Page HTML 139
CHAPTER THREE To View and Test a Web Page HTML 141
Creating Web Pages with Links, Images, Chapter Summary HTML 142
and Embedded Style Sheets Learn It Online HTML 142
Objectives HTML 87 Apply Your Knowledge HTML 143
Introduction HTML 88 Extend Your Knowledge HTML 144
Project — Underwater Tours by Eloise Make It Right HTML 146
Web Site HTML 88 In the Lab HTML 147
Overview HTML 89 Cases and Places HTML 152
Using Links on a Web Page HTML 91
Linking to Another Web Page Within the CHAPTER FOUR
Same Web Site HTML 93 Creating Tables in a Web Site
Linking to a Web Page in Another Web Site HTML 94 Using an External Style Sheet
Linking Within a Web Page HTML 96 Objectives HTML 155
Linking to an E-mail Address HTML 96 Introduction HTML 156
Creating a Home Page HTML 97 Project — Oceanside Hotel and Sports
To Start Notepad++ HTML 98 Club Web Site HTML 156
To Add a Banner Image HTML 100 Overview HTML 158
To Add Paragraphs of Text HTML 102 Planning and Designing a Multipage
Adding a Text Link to Another Web Page Web Site HTML 159
Within the Same Web Site HTML 103 Creating Web Pages with Tables HTML 159
To Add a Text Link to Another Web Page Table Elements HTML 161
Within the Same Web Site HTML 104 Adding Style to Table Elements HTML 162
Adding an E-mail Link HTML 105 Table Borders, Headers, Captions, and Rules HTML 163
To Add an E-mail Link HTML 105 Determining the Need for, Planning,
Adding Other Information to an E-mail Link HTML 106 and Coding a Table HTML 164
To Add a Text Link to a Web Page in Determining If a Table Is Needed HTML 164
Another Web Site HTML 107 Planning the Table HTML 165
Using Absolute and Relative Paths HTML 107 Coding the Table HTML 166
Adding Interest and Focus with Styles HTML 110 Table Tag Attributes HTML 167
Adding Interest and Focus with HTML Tags HTML 110 Creating a Home Page with Banner Logo
Style Sheet Precedence Review HTML 112 and Borderless Navigation Table HTML 169
Using Embedded Style Sheets HTML 112 To Insert, Center, and Style an Image
To Add Embedded Style Sheet Statements HTML 115 with a Box-Shadow HTML 172
To Add an Inline Style for Color HTML 117 Using a Table to Create a Horizontal
To Save an HTML File HTML 117 Navigation Bar HTML 174

To Create a Horizontal Menu Bar with CHAPTER FIVE

Image Links HTML 175 Creating an Image Map
Viewing the Web Page and Testing Links HTML 178 Objectives HTML 233
External Style Sheets HTML 179 Introduction HTML 234
Adding an External Style Sheet HTML 181 Project — Lake Tahanna Tourism HTML 234
To Create an External Style Sheet HTML 182 Overview HTML 236
Examining the External Style Sheet HTML 184 Introduction to Image Maps HTML 237
Linking to the External Style Sheet HTML 187 Using Image Maps HTML 237
To Link to an External Style Sheet HTML 187 Server-Side vs. Client-Side Image Maps HTML 242
Validating and Printing the HTML, Creating an Image Map HTML 243
Viewing the Web Page, Selecting Images HTML 243
and Testing Links HTML 188 Sketching the Borders of Hotspots HTML 244
Creating a Second Web Page HTML 190 Mapping Image Coordinates HTML 246
Adding a Table with Borders HTML 193 Coding the Map HTML 248
To Create a Table with Borders and Using Paint to Locate X- and Y-Coordinates HTML 249
Insert Text HTML 194 To Start Paint HTML 249
Adding a Link, Border Spacing, The Paint Window HTML 250
Padding, and Row Color HTML 198 To Open an Image File in Paint HTML 251
To Add Border Spacing, Padding, and Locating X- and Y-Coordinates of an Image HTML 251
Row Color to a Table HTML 200 To Locate X- and Y-Coordinates of an Image HTML 252
Adding a Caption and Spanning Rows HTML 201 Other Software Tools HTML 254
To Add a Table Caption HTML 204 Creating the Home Page HTML 255
To Create the Headings That Span Rows HTML 204 Inserting an Image to Use as an Image Map HTML 257
To Add the Bolder Class to Data Cells HTML 206 To Insert an Image to Use as an Image Map HTML 258
Chapter Summary HTML 208 Inserting Special Characters HTML 260
Learn It Online HTML 208 To Insert a Special Character HTML 261
Apply Your Knowledge HTML 209 Coding the Image Map Using HTML Tags
Extend Your Knowledge HTML 210 and Attributes HTML 263
Make It Right HTML 211 To Create an Image Map HTML 264
In the Lab HTML 212 Viewing the Web Page and Testing Links HTML 265
Cases and Places HTML 217 Creating an External Style Sheet HTML 268
To Create an External Style Sheet HTML 268
SPECIAL FEATURE 1 Chapter Summary HTML 271
Attracting Visitors to Learn It Online HTML 272
Your Web Site Apply Your Knowledge HTML 272
Objectives HTML 219 Extend Your Knowledge HTML 274
Introduction HTML 220 Make It Right HTML 275
Project — Attracting Visitors HTML 220 In the Lab HTML 276
Overview HTML 220 Cases and Places HTML 280
Adding Keywords HTML 222
To Open the File HTML 223 CHAPTER SIX
Meta Names HTML 223 Creating a Form on a Web Page
To Add Keywords HTML 224 Objectives HTML 283
To Add a Description HTML 225 Introduction HTML 284
Determining a Domain Name HTML 226 Project — Creating Forms on a Web Page HTML 284
Check Domain Name Availability HTML 226 Overview HTML 286
Finding a Web Hosting Site HTML 227 Web Page Forms HTML 287
Publishing Your Web Site HTML 227 Input Controls HTML 287
Marketing Your Web Site HTML 228 HTML Tags Used to Create Forms HTML 291
Registering with Search Engines HTML 228 Attributes of HTML Tags Used to
To Register Your Web Site with Create Forms HTML 291
Search Engines HTML 229 Creating a Form on a Web Page HTML 292
Feature Summary HTML 230 Creating a Form and Identifying
In the Lab HTML 230 the Form Process HTML 293

To Create a Form and Identify Learn It Online HTML 351

the Form Process HTML 294 Apply Your Knowledge HTML 352
To Change the Text Message HTML 295 Extend Your Knowledge HTML 353
Adding Text Boxes HTML 296 Make It Right HTML 354
To Add Text Boxes HTML 296 In the Lab HTML 355
Adding Check Boxes HTML 297 Cases and Places HTML 358
To Add Check Boxes HTML 298
Adding Radio Buttons HTML 298 CHAPTER EIGHT
To Add Radio Buttons HTML 299 Adding Multimedia Content to Web Pages
Adding a Selection Menu HTML 299 Objectives HTML 361
To Add a Selection Menu HTML 300 Introduction HTML 362
Adding a Textarea Box HTML 303 Project — Adding Multimedia to an
To Add a Textarea Box HTML 303 English Literature Class Web Site HTML 362
Adding Submit and Reset Buttons HTML 304 Overview HTML 362
To Add Submit and Reset Buttons HTML 305 Using Multimedia HTML 364
Organizing a Form Using Form Groupings HTML 306 Creating or Finding Multimedia Files HTML 366
To Add Fieldset Controls to Create Embedded vs. External Multimedia HTML 366
Form Groupings HTML 307 Media Players and Plug-Ins HTML 367
Adding an Embedded Style Sheet HTML 308 HTML5 and Multimedia HTML 368
Chapter Summary HTML 314 Audio and Video File Formats HTML 368
Learn It Online HTML 314 Adding an Audio File to a Web Page HTML 369
Apply Your Knowledge HTML 315 New HTML5 Multimedia Tags HTML 370
Extend Your Knowledge HTML 316 The Object Tag HTML 370
Make It Right HTML 317 Object Tag Parameters HTML 372
In the Lab HTML 318 The HMTL5 <audio> Tag HTML 373
Cases and Places HTML 321 To Add an Audio Clip to a Web Page HTML 376
To Validate and View a Web Page
CHAPTER SEVEN Using ActiveX Controls HTML 377
Using Advanced Cascading Style Sheets Adding a Video Clip to a Web Page HTML 380
Objectives HTML 323 The HTML5 <video> Tag HTML 381
Introduction HTML 324 Using the <video> Tag HTML 381
Project — Using Advanced Cascading To Add a Video Clip to a Web Page HTML 383
Style Sheets HTML 324 Chapter Summary HTML 385
Overview HTML 326 Learn It Online HTML 386
Using Style Sheets HTML 327 Apply Your Knowledge HTML 386
Style Sheet Precedence Review HTML 330 Extend Your Knowledge HTML 387
Adding Style Sheets to the Jared Adam’s Make It Right HTML 388
Adventure Travel Site HTML 330 In the Lab HTML 389
Adding a Navigation Bar with an Cases and Places HTML 392
Embedded Style Sheet HTML 332
Setting the Body Style and Link Style, SPECIAL FEATURE 2
and Adding a Drop-down Menu HTML 333 Converting Frames on Your Web Site
To Add an Embedded Style Sheet HTML 340 Objectives HTML 393
Adding Pop-up Images with an Introduction HTML 394
External Style Sheet HTML 342 Project — Converting Frames HTML 394
Structuring the Web Page HTML 343 Overview HTML 394
Creating a Pop-up Image Using The Frame Definition File HTML 396
Cascading Style Sheets HTML 343 To View a Web Site with Frames HTML 398
To Create an External Style Sheet HTML 345 Frame Layouts HTML 399
Linking to an External Style Sheet HTML 346 Determining a Conversion Strategy HTML 401
To Link to an External Style Sheet HTML 346 To Copy HTML Code for a Navigation Bar HTML 402
Creating an External Style Sheet To Paste Code into the Home Page and Edit
for Printing HTML 348 the Code HTML 403
Understanding the Page Box Model HTML 348 To Copy and Paste Code into the Schedule
To Create an External Style Sheet and Contact Web Pages HTML 404
for Printing HTML 348 Feature Summary HTML 405
Chapter Summary HTML 351 In the Lab HTML 406

Font Properties APP 33

Appendices Generated Content Properties APP 34
Grid Properties APP 35
APPENDIX A Hyperlink Properties APP 35
HTML Quick Reference Linebox Properties APP 35
HTML Coding Standards APP 1 List Properties APP 36
HTML Tags and Attributes APP 2 Margin and Padding Properties APP 37
Marquee Properties APP 37
APPENDIX B Multicolumn Properties APP 37
Paged Media Properties APP 38
Browser-Safe Color Palette
Positioning Properties APP 38
Browser-Safe Colors APP 15
Print Properties APP 40
Ruby Properties APP 41
APPENDIX C Speech Properties APP 41
Accessibility Standards and Table Properties APP 42
the Web Text Properties APP 42
Making the Web Accessible APP 17 2D/3D Transform Properties APP 44
Section 508 Guidelines Examples APP 17 Transition Properties APP 44
WAI Guidelines APP 20 User-Interface Properties APP 45

APPENDIX D APPENDIX E
CSS Properties and Values Publishing Web Pages
CSS Concepts and Terminology APP 25 to a Web Server
CSS Properties APP 27 Choosing a Web Host APP 47
Acceptable Units of Measure APP 27 Uploading Files to the Host APP 47
Animation Properties APP 28
Background and Color Properties APP 28 APPENDIX F
Border Properties APP 29
Symbols and Characters
Box Properties APP 30
Classification Properties APP 31
Quick Reference
Using Symbols and Special Characters APP 49
Color Properties APP 31
Content for Paged Media Properties APP 32
Index IND 1
Dimension Properties APP 32
Flexible Box Properties APP 33

The Shelly Cashman Series® offers the finest textbooks in computer education. We are
proud that our previous HTML books have been so well received. With each new edition of
our HTML books, we have made significant improvements based on the comments made
by instructors and students. The HTML5 and CSS, Seventh Edition books continue with the
innovation, quality, and reliability you have come to expect from the Shelly Cashman Series.
For this text, the Shelly Cashman Series development team carefully reviewed its
pedagogy and analyzed its effectiveness in teaching today’s student. Students today read
less, but need to retain more. They need not only to be able to perform skills, but to retain
those skills and know how to apply them to different settings. Today’s students need to be
continually engaged and challenged to retain what they’re learning.
With this HTML book, we continue our commitment to focusing on the user and
how they learn best.

Objectives of HTML5 and CSS: Complete, Seventh Edition is intended for use in combination with other books in
an introductory course on creating Web pages, or as a stand-alone in a two-credit hour course or a
This Textbook continuing education course. No experience with Web page development or computer programming is
required. Specific objectives of this book are as follows:
• To teach the fundamentals of developing Web pages using a comprehensive Web development life cycle
• To acquaint students with the HTML5 and CSS (through level 3) languages and creating Web
pages suitable for course work, professional purposes, and personal use
• To expose students to common Web page formats and functions
• To promote curiosity and independent exploration of World Wide Web resources
• To develop an exercise-oriented approach that allows students to learn by example
• To encourage independent study and help those who are learning how to create Web pages in a
distance education environment

The Shelly Cashman Approach

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Each chapter presents a practical problem to be solved, within a project planning framework.
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by the Q&A, Experimental Step, and BTW features.
A Visually Engaging Book that Maintains Student Interest
The step-by-step tasks, with supporting figures, provide a rich visual experience for the
student. Call-outs on the screens that present both explanatory and navigational information
provide students with information they need when they need to know it.
Supporting Reference Materials (Appendices)
The appendices provide a dditional information about HTML5 and CSS topics,
with appendices such as the HTML Quick Reference, Browser-Safe Color Palette,
Accessibility Standards and the Web, CSS Properties and Values, and Publishing Web
Pages to a Web Server.
Integration of the World Wide Web
The World Wide Web is integrated into the HTML5 and CSS learning experience by (1)
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HTML 36 HTML Chapter 2 Creating and Editing a Web Page Using Inline Styles

Plan Ahead boxes prepare

students to create successful Plan
Ahead
General Project Guidelines
When creating a Web page, the actions you perform and decisions you make will affect the
projects by encouraging appearance and characteristics of the finished page. As you create a Web page, such as the
project shown in Figure 2–1 on the previous page, you should follow these general guidelines:

them to think strategically 1. Complete Web page planning. Before developing a Web page, you must know
the purpose of the Web site, identify the users of the site and their computing
about what they are trying environments, and decide who owns the information on the Web page.
2. Analyze the need for the Web page. In the analysis phase of the Web development life
to accomplish before they cycle, you should analyze what content to include on the Web page. In this phase, you
determine the tasks and the information that the users need. Refer to Table 1–4 on page
begin working. HTML 15 in Chapter 1 for information on the phases of the Web development life cycle.
3. Choose the content for the Web page. Once you have completed the analysis, you
need to determine what content to include on the Web page. Follow the less is more
principle. The less text, the more likely the Web page will be read. Use as few words as
possible to make a point.
4. Determine the file naming convention that you will use for this Web page. Before you
start creating and saving files, you should decide on a standard way of naming your
files. Should you use the .htm or .html extension? As explained later in the chapter,
you use the .htm extension when the host Web server only allows short file names.
Step-by-step instructions now provide You use .html when the host Web server allows long file names. What name should
you give your file to indicate the file’s content or purpose? For instance, naming a Web
a context beyond the point-and-click. page page1.html does not describe what that Web page is; a more descriptive name is
helpful in development of the Web site.
Each step provides information on why 5. Determine where to save the Web page. You can store a Web page permanently, or
save it, on a variety of storage media, including a hard disk, USB flash drive, CD, or
students are performing each task, or DVD. Your instructor or the company for whom you are developing the Web page may
have specific storage media requirements.
what will occur as a result. 6. Determine what folder structure to use on your storage device. Once you have
determined the storage media to use, you should also determine folder location,
structure, and names on which to save the Web page. This should be done before you
start to save any of your files.
7. Identify how to format various elements of the Web page. The overall appearance of a
Web page significantly affects its ability to communicate clearly. Examples of how you
can55modify the appearance, or format, of the Web page include adding an image, color
Saving and Organizing HTML Files HTML
to headings, and horizontal rules.

HTML Chapter 2
8. Find appropriate graphical images. Eye-catching graphical images help convey the Web
To Save an HTML File page’s overall message and add visual interest. Graphics can be used to show a product,
service, result, or benefit, or visually convey a message that is not expressed easily
You have entered a lot of text while creating this project and do not want to risk losing the work you have done
with words.
so far. Also, to view HTML in a browser, you must save the file. The following steps show how to save an HTML file.
9. Establish where to position and how to format the graphical images. The position and
format of the graphical images should grab the attention of viewers and draw them
1 File menu
into reading the Web page.
tWith a USB flash drive 10. Test the Web page for W3C compliance. An important part of Web development
connected to one of is testing to assure that your Web page follows standards. The World Wide Web
the computer’s USB Consortium (W3C) has an online validator that allows you to test your Web page and
ports, click File on the clearly explains any errors.
Save As
Notepad++ menu bar command
When necessary, more specific details concerning the above guidelines are presented
(Figure 2–17).
at appropriate points in the chapter. The chapter will also identify the actions performed
File menu and decisions made regarding these guidelines during the creation of the Web page shown
options
in Figure 2–1a.

recently opened files

display in this section

9781133526131_CH02_FINAL2.indd 36 11/29/11 6:20:00 PM

'JHVSFo
tClick Save As on the
File menu to display
the Save As dialog
Save As
box (Figure 2–18). original save location –
dialog box
your dialog box may
show something
Do I have to save to
Q&A

different
a USB flash drive?
No. You can save to
any device or folder.
A folder is a specific
location on a stor-
age medium. Use the
same process, but Navigation
select your device or pane

folder.

'JHVSFo

Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights

9781133526131_CH02_FINAL2.indd 55 Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third
11/29/11 party
6:20:14 PM content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has
deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Textbook Walk-Through
HTML 74 HTML Chapter 2 Creating and Editing a Web Page Using Inline Styles

URL for W3 Markup

Validation Service
after clicking “Validate
1 by File Upload” tab

tClick the Address bar

on the browser to
highlight the current
Validate by File
URL. Upload tab

tType validator.
w3.org to replace
the current entry, and
can use to type in Navigational callouts in red
your HTML and

show students where to click.

validate as typed
then press the ENTER
key.

© 1994–2010 W3C® (MIT, ERCIM, Keio), All Rights Reserved.

tIf necessary, click
OK if the browser
asks to open a new
window. Explanatory callouts summarize
tClick the Validate what is happening on screen.
by File Upload tab
(Figure 2–37).

Figure 2–37

2
tClick the Browse
button.

tLocate the
rockclimbing.html
file on your storage
device and then click
the file name.
© 1994–2010 W3C® (MIT, ERCIM, Keio), All Rights Reserved.

file name
tClick the Open but- in File box
Browse button
HTML 76 HTML Chapter 2 Creating and Editing a Web Page Using Inline Styles
ton on the Choose
File to Upload dialog
box and the file path more options To View HTML Source Code for a Web Page
and name will be available

inserted into the Check Source

button code is the code or instructions used to create a Web page or program. For a Web page, the source
File box, as shown code is the HTML code, which then is translated by a browser into a graphical Web page. You can view the HTML
in Figure 2–38. source code for any Web page from within your browser. This feature allows you to check your own HTML source
code, as well as to see the HTML code other developers used to create their Web pages. If a feature on a Web page
is appropriate or appealing for your Web page, you can view the source to understand the HTML required to add
that feature and then copy sections of the HTML code to put on your own Web pages. You can use your browser to
look at the source code for most Web pages. The following steps show how to view the HTML source Page command
code for your Web page using a browser. on Command
bar; your
Command bar
Figure 2–38 1 may differ

tUse the Back button

on the browser to
return to the Web
page. HTML source code
opened in new
tClick Page on the Notepad++ window

Command bar. If
9781133526131_CH02_FINAL2.indd 74 your Command bar 11/29/11 6:20:45 PM

is not displayed,
right-click the title
bar, click Command
bar, and then click
Page.

tClick View source to

view the HTML code
in the default text
editor (Figure 2–40).
Do all browsers
Q&A

allow me to view the

HTML source code in
the same way?
Browsers such as
Q&A boxes offer questions Chrome, Firefox and
Safari all allow you
students may have when to view the source
code of Web pages. Figure 2–40
working through the steps and However, they might
use different buttons or menu options to access source
provide additional information code. For instance, in Mozilla Firefox, select View and then Page Source.

about what they are doing

right where they need it.

To Refresh the View in a Browser

As you continue developing the HTML file in Notepad++, it is a good idea to view the file in your browser as
you make modifications. Clicking the Refresh button when viewing the modified Web page in the browser, ensures
that the latest version of the Web page is displayed. The following step shows how to refresh the view of a Web page
in a browser in order to view the modified Web page.
Refresh
1 button

tClick the Internet

Explorer button
on the taskbar
to display the
rockclimbing.html
Web page.

tClick the Refresh

button on the inserted
image
Address bar
to display the
modified Web page
(Figure 2–35).
Other Ways boxes that follow many

Art courtesy of Openclipart.org/Darren Beck

of the step sequences explain the
heading
with color
other ways to complete the task
square bullets
inserted horizontal rule
with color, 50% width,
presented.
and increased height

footer centered
and in italics

Other Ways
Figure 2–35
1. In Internet Explorer,
press F5 to refresh

Validating and Viewing HTML Code Extend Your Knowledge HTML 81

HTML Chapter 2
HTML and HTML5 Tags In Chapter 1, you read about validating your HTML code. Many validation services are
BTW

The Web has excellent available on the Web that can be used to assure that your HTML
6. Savecode followsHTML
the revised standards.
file in the Chapter02\Apply folder using the file name apply2-1solution.html.
sources that list HTML5 This should always be a part of your Web page testing. The validation service used in
tags. For more information 7. Validate
this book is the W3C Markup Validation Service (validator.w3.org). your
This HTML
validator code at validator.w3.org.
checks
about HTML and HTML5,
search for “HTML tags” or the markup validity of Web documents in HTML and XHTML, 8. Enter g:\Chapter02\Apply\apply2-1solution.html
along with some other (or the path where your data file is stored) as
“HTML5 tags” in a search markup languages. The validator looks at the DOCTYPE statement the URL to view
to see whichtheversion
revised Web page in your browser.
engine. of HTML or XHTML you are using, and then checks to see 9. ifPrint
the code is valid
the Web for that
page.
version. In this chapter, the project uses the HTML5 DOCTYPE.
10. Submit the revised HTML file and Web page in the format specified by your instructor.
If validation detects an error in your HTML code, you will see the warning “Errors
found while checking this document as HTML5!” in the header bar, which is in red (Figure

STUDENT ASSIGNMENTS
2–36a on the next page). The Result line shows the number of errors that you have. You can
scroll down the page or click the Jump To: Validation OutputExtend Your
link to see detailed Knowledge
comments on
each error.
It is important to note that one error can result in more errors. As an example, the
Extend the skills you learned in this chapter and experiment with new skills.
</h2> tag on line 19 in the rockclimbing.html file was removed to show code with an error.
Figure 2–36b shows that in this case, one initial error (that Creating
the <ul> tag a on line 21 cannot
Definition List
be used within the <h2> tag on line 19) resulted in a total ofInstructions:
three errors and
Startone warning. Open the file, extend2-1.html from the Chapter02\Extend folder of
Notepad++.
the Data Files for Students. See the inside back cover of this book for instructions on downloading the
Data Files for Students, or contact your instructor for information about accessing the required files.
This sample Web page contains all of the text for the Web page. You will add the necessary tags to
9781133526131_CH02_FINAL2.indd 72 make this a definition list with11/29/11
terms6:20:31
that PM
are bold, as shown in Figure 2–45.

Extend Your Knowledge projects

at the end of each chapter allow
students to extend and expand on
horizontal
the skills learned within the chapter. rule in color

Students use critical thinking to

experiment with new skills to
complete each project. definition
Courtesy of Sabath Mullet

definitions
terms

Figure 2–45

Perform the following tasks:

1. Using the text given in the file extend2-1.html, make changes to the HTML code to change the
Web page from a single line of text to a definition list by following the definition list code shown in
Table 2–6 on page HTML 52.

Continued >

9781133526131_CH02_FINAL2.indd 81 11/29/11 6:21:31 PM

Extend Your Knowledge continued

2. Add the additional HTML code necessary to make the terms bold. (Hint: Review the font-weight
property with a value of bold.)
3. Add the image skier.jpg. Find the dimensions of the image by reviewing the image properties.
4. Add a horizontal rule that is 5 pixels high and color #414565. The <h1> heading is also color
#414565.
5. Save the revised document in the Chapter02\Extend folder with the file name extend2-1solution.

STUDENT ASSIGNMENTS
html, validate the Web page, and then submit it in the format specified by your instructor.

Make It Right
Analyze a document and correct all errors and/or improve the design.

Make It Right projects call on Correcting the Star of India Web Page
Instructions: Start Notepad++. Open the file makeitright2-1.html from the Chapter02\MakeItRight
students to analyze a file, discover folder of the Data Files for Students. See the inside back cover of this book for instructions on
downloading the Data Files for Students, or contact your instructor for information about accessing
errors in it, and fix them using the the required files.
The data file is a modified version of what you see in Figure 2–46. Make the necessary
skills they learned in the chapter. corrections to the Web page to make it look like Figure 2–46. Add a background color to the Web
page using color #515c7a. (Hint: Use an inline style in the <body> tag.) Format the heading to use
the Heading 1 style with the color black. Add a paragraph of text in white and four circle bullets also
in white. (Hint: Use the color property in the heading, paragraph, and bullet tags.) Save the file in
the Chapter02\MakeItRight folder as makeitright2-1solution.html, validate the Web page, and then
submit it in the format specified by your instructor. Be prepared to discuss the four questions posed in
the bullet list.

HTML 86 HTML Chapter 2 Creating and Editing a Web Page Using Inline Styles
dark background
color

In the Lab continued

3. Insert the image file piggybank.png, stored in the Chapter02\IntheLab folder. You can find the
dimensions of an image by clicking on the image using Windows Explorer. You can also right-click
the image, click Properties, and then click the Details tab to find out the image’s dimensions, or changed <h1>
heading color
open it in a graphics program. Note that the bullets used for the list are square in shape.
4. Save the HTML file in the Chapter02\IntheLab folder using the file name lab2-3solution.html.

Courtesy of Daniel Torres Jr./Wikimedia

5. Enter g:\Chapter02\IntheLab\lab2-3solution.html (or the path where your data file is stored) as text in white
STUDENT ASSIGNMENTS

the URL to view the Web page in your browser.

6. Print the Web page from your browser.
7. Submit the revised HTML file and Web page in the format specified by your instructor.

Cases and Places

Figure 2–46
Apply your creative thinking and problem-solving skills to design and implement a solution.

1: Research HTML5 Structural Tags

9781133526131_CH02_FINAL2.indd 82 11/29/11 6:21:38 PM
Academic
There are many Web sites dedicated to HTML5. Search the Web to find sites that have training
modules for HTML5. Discover training specifically targeting the new structural elements discussed in
the chapter. How do these new tags differ from the <div> tag? Are there situations in which the <div>
tag is a better option? Write a brief report. Identify the URLs for the training Web sites and share Found within the Cases & Places exercises,
them with your fellow students in class.
the Personal exercises call on students to
2: Create a Personal Web Page
Personal create an open-ended project that relates
Your class instructor wants to post all of the students’ Web pages on the school server to show what his
or her students are interested in. Create a Web page of personal information, listing items such as your to their personal lives.
school major, jobs that you have had in the past, and your hobbies and interests. To make your personal
Web page more visually interesting, search the Web for images that reflect your interests. (Remember
that if the image is copyrighted, you cannot use it on a personal Web page unless you follow the
guidelines provided with the image.) Insert an image or two onto the Web page to help explain who
you are.

3: Investigate Methods for Working with Images

Professional
You are creating a new Web site for a local photographer. The photographer has asked that you
determine methods to help his Web site load quickly despite having so many large images. To this end,
find information on using thumbnail images. Review other photography Web sites and create a list of
suggestions for loading large images. Additionally, search the Web for information on adding useful,
descriptive alt attributes for images. Write a brief synopsis explaining the information that you found in
your research.

9781133526131_CH02_FINAL2.indd 86 11/29/11 6:21:47 PM

1 Introduction to HTML,
XHTML, and CSS
Courtesy of the Library
of Congress

© 2010 Cengage Learning, Inc. All rights

reserved.
Courtesy of OnGuard Online

Objectives
You will have mastered the material in this chapter when you can:
• Describe the Internet and its • Define Extensible Hypertext Markup
associated key terms Language (XHTML) and describe its
relationship to HTML
• Describe the World Wide Web and
its associated key terms • Identify tools used to create HTML
documents
• Describe the types and purposes
of Web sites • Describe the five phases of the Web
development life cycle
• Discuss Web browsers and identify
their purpose • Describe the different methods of
Web site design and the purpose
• Define the Hypertext Markup
of each Web site structure
Language (HTML) and HTML5
standards used for Web development • Discuss the importance of testing
throughout the Web development
• Discuss the use of Cascading Style
life cycle
Sheets (CSS) in Web development
• Explain the importance of being an
• Define the Document Object Model
observant Web user
(DOM) and describe its relationship
to HTML
Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has
deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
HTML

1 Introduction to HTML,
XHTML, and CSS
Introduction
Before diving into the details of creating Web pages with HTML5 and CSS, it is u seful
to look at how these technologies relate to the development of the Internet and the
World Wide Web. The Internet began with the connection of computers and computer
networks. This connectivity has had a huge impact on our daily lives. Today, millions of
people worldwide have access to the Internet, the world’s largest network. Billions of Web
pages, providing information on any subject you can imagine, are currently available on
the World Wide Web. People use the Internet to search for information, to communicate
with others around the world, and to seek entertainment. Students register for classes, pay
tuition, and find out final grades via this computer network. Stores and individuals sell
their products using computer connectivity, and most industries rely on the Internet and
the World Wide Web for business transactions.
Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) and more recently HTML5 and Cascading
Style Sheets (CSS) allow the World Wide Web to exist. In order to utilize these tech-
nologies effectively, you need to understand the main concepts behind the Internet and
HTML. In this chapter, you learn some basics about the Internet, the World Wide Web,
intranets, and extranets. You are introduced to Web browsers, definitions of HTML and
associated key terms, the five phases of the Web development life cycle, and the tasks that
are involved in each phase.

What Is the Internet?

Most people today have had exposure to the Internet at school, in their homes, at their jobs,
or at their local library. The Internet is a worldwide collection of computers and computer
networks that links billions of computers used by businesses, government, educational insti-
tutions, organizations, and individuals using modems, phone lines, television cables, satellite
links, fiber-optic connections, and other communications devices and media (Figure 1–1).

fiber-optic
cable

satellite
connection

phone
lines

Figure 1–1 The Internet is a worldwide collection of computer networks.

HTML 2

The Internet was developed in the 1960s by the Department of Defense Advanced Research
Projects Agency (ARPA). ARPANET (as the Internet was originally called) had only
four nodes on it and sent its first message in 1969. Today’s Internet has millions of nodes
on thousands of networks. A network is a collection of two or more computers that are
connected to share resources and information. Today, high-, medium-, and low-speed data
lines connect networks. These data lines allow data (including text, graphical images, and
audio and video data) to move from one computer to another. The Internet backbone is
a collection of high-speed data lines that connect major computer systems located around
the world. An Internet service provider (ISP) is a company that has a permanent con-
nection to the Internet backbone. ISPs utilize high- or medium-speed data lines to allow
individuals and companies to connect to the backbone for access to the Internet. An Internet
connection at home generally is a DSL or cable data line that connects to an ISP.
Millions of people in most countries around the world connect to the Internet
using computers in their homes, offices, schools, and public locations such as libraries.
In fact, the Internet was designed to be a place in which people could share information
or collaborate. Users with computers connected to the Internet can access a variety of
services, including e-mail, social networking, and the World Wide Web where they can
find a variety of information at many different types of Web sites (Figure 1–2).
ed.
11. reserv
s
997 l right
–20
l
ht © c. A
yrig d In
1

Cop kboar

ss
gre
c

Con
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the
y of
rtes
Cou
Colleg ciences
e of
y of G ironmenta d.
lS
rve
The U ltural and ights Rese
eorgia
Env
R
Agricu –2009. All
ersit
niv

2 005
©

Figure 1–2 The Internet makes available a variety of services such as the World Wide Web.

What Is the World Wide Web?

Many people use the terms “Internet” and “World Wide Web” interchangeably, but that
is not accurate. The Internet is the infrastructure, the physical networks of computers.
The World Wide Web, also called the Web, is the part of the Internet that supports
HTML 3

Internet and WWW ultimedia and consists of a collection of linked documents. To support multimedia, the
m
BTW

History
Web relies on the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), which is a set of rules for
The World Wide Web
Consortium (W3C or exchanging text, graphic, sound, video, and other multimedia files. The linked d ocuments,
w3.org), the de facto or pages of information, on the Web are known as Web pages. Because the Web s upports
organization that text, graphics, sound, and video, a Web page can include any of these multimedia
governs HTML, provides elements. The Web is ever-changing and consists of billions of Web pages. Because of the
a particularly rich history
of the Internet and the
ease of creating Web pages, more are being added all the time.
World Wide Web. Search A Web site is a related collection of Web pages that is created and maintained by
on “Internet history” an individual, company, educational institution, or other organization. For example, as
or “WWW history” in shown in Figure 1–3, many organizations, such as the U.S. Department of Labor, publish
your browser for many
additional sources.
and maintain Web sites. Each Web site contains a home page, which is the first document
users see when they access the Web site. The home page often serves as an index or table
of contents to other documents and files displayed on the site.

Courtesy of the U.S. Bureau of Labor

Statistics
Statistics

Figure 1–3 A Web site is a related collection of Web pages that is created and maintained by
an individual, company, educational institution, or other organization.

Web Servers
Web pages are stored on a Web server, or host, which is a computer that stores
and sends (serves) requested Web pages and other files. Any computer that has Web server
software installed and is connected to the Internet can act as a Web server. Every Web
site is stored on, and runs from, one or more Web servers. A large Web site may be spread
over several servers in different geographic locations.
In order to make the Web pages that you have developed available to your audience,
you have to publish those pages. Publishing is copying the Web pages and associated
files such as graphics and audio to a Web server. Once a Web page is published, anyone
who has access to the Internet can view it, regardless of where the Web server is located.
For example, although the U.S. Department of Labor Web site is stored on a Web server
somewhere in the United States, it is available for viewing by anyone in the world. Once
a Web page is published, it can be read by almost any computer: whether you use the
Mac, Windows, or Linux operating system, with a variety of computer hardware, you have
access to billions of published Web pages.
Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has
deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
What Is the World Wide Web? HTML 5

HTML Chapter 1
Web Site Types and Purposes Intranets and Extranets

BTW
There are many Web
The three general types of Web sites are Internet, intranet, and extranet. Table 1–1 sites that discuss ideas for
intranets and extranets.
lists characteristics of each of these three types of Web sites.
Many companies are
An Internet site, also known as a Web site, is a site generally available to the p
ublic. already using these
Individuals, groups, companies, and educational institutions use Web sites for a variety technologies and share
of purposes. Intranets and extranets also use Internet technology, but access is limited to their “best practice”
techniques. Many Web
specified groups. An intranet is a private network that uses Internet technologies to share
sites provide valuable
company information among employees. An intranet is contained within a company or information on building
organization’s network, which makes it private and only available to those who need access. and maintaining an
Policy and procedure manuals usually are found on an intranet. Other documents such as intranet or extranet, along
employee directories, company newsletters, product catalogs, and training manuals often are with additional resources.

distributed through an intranet.

An extranet is a private network that uses Internet technologies to share
business information with select corporate partners or key customers. Companies and E-Commerce

BTW
Today, e-commerce is a
organizations can use an extranet to share product manuals, training modules, inventory
standard part of doing
status, and order information. An extranet also might allow retailers to purchase inventory business. E-commerce
directly from their suppliers or to pay bills online. technologies, however,
Companies use Web sites to advertise or sell their products and services worldwide, continue to change,
offering new applications
as well as to provide technical and product support for their customers. Many company
and potential uses.
Web sites also support electronic commerce (e-commerce), which is the buying and
selling of goods and services on the Internet. Using e-commerce technologies, these Web
sites allow customers to browse product catalogs, comparison shop, and order products
online. Figure 1–4 shows Cengage.com, which is a company that sells and distributes

Table 1–1 Types of Web Sites

Type Users Access Applications

Internet Anyone Public Used to share information such as personal information,

product catalogs, course information with the public
intranet Employees or Private Used to share information such as forms, manuals,
members organization schedules with employees or members
extranet Select business Private Used to share information such as inventory updates, product
partners specifications, financial information with business partners
and customers

Web site used for

distribution of textbook-
related material
© 2010 Cengage Learning, Inc. All rights reserved.

Figure 1–4 Cengage.com is a Web site that provides online educational material.
Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has
deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
HTML 6 HTML Chapter 1 Introduction to HTML, XHTML, and CSS

textbook-related materials online. Many company Web sites also provide job p ostings
and announcements, a frequently asked questions (FAQs) section, customer f eedback
links to solicit comments from their customers, and searchable technical s upport
databases.
Colleges, universities, and other schools use Web sites to distribute information
about areas of study, provide course information, or register students for classes online.
Instructors use their Web sites to issue announcements, post questions on r eading
material, list contact information, and provide easy access to lecture notes and slides.
Many instructors today use the course management software adopted by their r espective
schools to upload course content. Using a standard course management p roduct across
a university makes it easier for students to find information related to their various
courses. Many course management tools allow instructors to write their own Web
content for courses. With many systems, instructors can use Web pages to provide
further information for their students within the structure of the course management
tool provided by the school. In addition to keeping in contact with current students
via the Web, universities also p rovide a variety of Web site functionality to a variety
of visitors as shown in Figure 1–5.

Web site used

by students,
faculty, staff,
alumni, and
visitors

links for
research-related
news

links to

©2011 NMSU Board of Regents

university
news

Figure 1–5 University Web sites are varied.

In addition to the use of the Internet by companies and educational institutions,

individuals might create personal Web sites that include their résumés to make them
easily accessible to any interested employers. Families can share photographs, video and
audio clips, stories, schedules, or other information through Web sites (Figure 1–6).
Many individual Web sites allow password protection, which makes a safer environment
for sharing information.

HTML Chapter 1
personal
Web page

Courtesy of Denise M. Woods

Figure 1–6 Personal Web page used to communicate with family and friends.

Web Browsers
To display a Web page on any type of Web site, a computer needs to have a Web
browser installed. A Web browser, also called a browser, is a program that interprets
and displays Web pages and enables you to view and interact with a Web page. Microsoft
Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox, Google Chrome, and Apple Safari are p opular
browsers today. Browsers provide a variety of features, including the capability to
locate Web pages, to link forward and backward among Web pages, to add a favorite or
bookmark a Web page, and to choose security settings.
To locate a Web page using a browser, you type the Web page’s Uniform Resource
Locator (URL) in the browser’s Address or Location bar. A Uniform Resource Locator
(URL) is the address of a document or other file accessible on the Internet. An example of
a URL on the Web is:
http://www.cengagebrain.com/shop/index.html
The URL indicates to the browser to use the HTTP communications protocol
to locate the index.html Web page in the shop folder on the cengagebrain.com Web
server. Web page URLs can be found in a wide range of places, including school catalogs,
business cards, product packaging, and advertisements.
Hyperlinks are an essential part of the World Wide Web. A hyperlink, also called
a link, is an element used to connect one Web page to another Web page on the same
server or to Web pages on different Web servers located a nywhere in the world. Clicking
a hyperlink allows you to move quickly from one Web page to another, and the user does
not have to be concerned about where the Web pages reside. You can also click hyperlinks
to move to a different section of the same Web page.
With hyperlinks, a Web site user does not necessarily have to view information in
a linear way. Instead, he or she can click the available hyperlinks to view the information

in a variety of ways, as described later in this chapter. Many different Web page elements,
including text, graphics, and animations, can serve as hyperlinks. Figure 1–7 shows examples
of several different Web page elements used as hyperlinks.

URL in
Address bar

menu bar
of links

list of
text links

graphic
links

Courtesy of USA.gov
Figure 1–7 A Web page can use several different Web page elements as hyperlinks.

What Is Hypertext Markup Language?

Web pages are created using Hypertext Markup Language (HTML), which is an
authoring language used to create documents for the World Wide Web. HTML uses a set
of special instructions called tags or markup to define the structure and layout of a Web
document and specify how the page is displayed in a browser.
A Web page is a file that contains both text and HTML tags. HTML tags mark the
text to define how it should appear when viewed in a browser. HTML includes hundreds
of tags used to format Web pages and create hyperlinks to other documents or Web pages.
For instance, the HTML tags <p> and </p> are used to indicate a new paragraph with a
blank line above it, <table> and </table> are used to indicate the start and end of a table,
and <hr /> is used to display a horizontal rule across the page. Figure 1–8a shows the
HTML tags needed to create the Web page shown in Figure 1–8b. You can also enhance
HTML tags by using attributes, as shown in Figure 1–8a. Attributes define additional
characteristics such as font weight or style for the HTML tag.
HTML is platform independent, meaning you can create, or code, an HTML file
on one type of computer and then use a browser on another type of computer to view that
file as a Web page. The page looks the same regardless of what platform you are using.
One of the greatest benefits of Web technology is that the same Web page can be viewed
on many different types of digital hardware, including mobile devices like smartphones.

HTML Chapter 1
DOCTYPE
tag

three
paragraphs
text displayed in
on Web
browser title bar
page
start <body>
tag

HTML tags to
insert horizontal
rules

start paragraph
of text

end
end body and paragraph
HTML tags of text

paragraph of
normal text

paragraph three
of bold text paragraphs
on Web
page

(a) HTML
tags

two horizontal paragraph of

rules extra-large text

(b) Resulting Web page

Figure 1–8 A Web page is a file that contains both text and HTML tags.

HTML Elements
HTML combines tags and descriptive attributes that define how a document should
appear in a Web browser. HTML elements include headings, paragraphs, hyperlinks, lists,
images, and more. HTML element syntax is as follows:
• HTML elements begin with a start tag / opening tag
• HTML elements finish with an end tag / closing tag
• The element content is everything inserted between the start and end tags
• Some HTML elements have empty content (e.g., <br /> or <hr />)
• Empty elements are closed in the start tag (use space-/ to close as in <br />)
• Most HTML elements can have attributes
For example, to specify a paragraph of text on a Web page, you would enter the following
HTML code:

<p>This is a paragraph of text.</p>

where <p> is the start or opening tag, </p> is the end or closing tag, and the content
is situated between those tags. Table 1– 2 shows examples of some HTML elements.

Table 1–2 HTML Elements

Element Purpose Code and Content

Title Indicates title to appear on the title bar in the browser <title>This is the title text.</title>
Anchor Creates a link to a Web page named default.html <a href=”default.html”>This is text
for a link.</a>
Line break Inserts a line break before the next element (without a <br />
blank line); there is no content or closing tag; use space-/
as closing tag

HTML Elements
BTW

Numerous sources of
information about HTML Useful HTML Practices
elements are available.
The World Wide Web When creating an HTML file, it is good coding practice to separate sections of the
Consortium (w3.org) HTML code with spaces and by using the Tab key. Adding space between sections, either
provides the most
with blank lines or by tabbing, gives you an immediate view of the sections of code that
comprehensive list of tags
and attributes together relate to one another and helps you view the HTML elements in your document more
with examples of their clearly. HTML browsers ignore spaces that exist between the tags in your HTML docu-
use. One of the main goals ment, so the spaces and indentations inserted within the code will not appear on the Web
of the W3C is to help page. Figure 1–9 shows an example of an HTML file with code sections separated by
those building Web sites
understand and utilize
blank lines and code section indentations. Another developer looking at this code can see
standards that make the immediately where the specific sections are located in the code.
Web accessible to all.

blank lines will

not be displayed
in browser

code to insert table

with two rows

bullet list of
information

Figure 1–9 Adding spaces to HTML code separates sections to make reading easier.

HTML Chapter 1
HTML Versions
HTML has gone through several versions, each of which expands the c apabilities
of the authoring language. To ensure that browsers can interpret each new version of
HTML, the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) maintains HTML standards, or speci-
fications, which are publicly available on its Web site. HTML5 is the newest version of
HTML. HTML5 p rovides a more flexible approach to Web development. For instance,
with HTML5, you can combine lowercase, uppercase, or mixed-case lettering in your
tags and attributes. Despite the HTML5 flexibility, this book will adhere to good coding
practices that would make it easy to convert to XHTML standards if they should one day
override HTML5. The coding practices to which the book adheres are: using all lower-
case tags and attributes, enclosing all attribute values in quotation marks, closing all tags,
and nesting tags properly (see Table 1–3 on page HTML 13). Although HTML5 has
become very popular with Web developers, it is still being developed by the World Wide
Web Consortium. The challenge for Web developers, therefore, is to know which new
tags and attributes are supported by which browser. This book utilizes HTML5 tags and
attributes that are currently supported by Internet Explorer. Additionally, we combine
HTML 4.01 tags and attributes with HTML5 to create all of the Web pages in the book.
Despite the popularity of HTML5 and HTML 4.01, most browsers continue to support
HTML versions 3.2 and 2.0. As described later in this chapter, it is important to verify
that Web pages are displayed as intended in a variety of browsers during the testing phase
of development.

Cascading Style Sheets CSS, DOM, and XHTML

BTW
The w3.org Web site has
This book has taken a new direction by eliminating deprecated tags and a ttributes. an extensive amount of
Deprecated tags and attributes are tags and attributes that are being phased out and information and tutorials
about Cascading Style
therefore no longer recommended in the latest W3C standard. Deprecated tags are Sheets (CSS), Document
still used in many Web pages, however, so it is good to know their purpose from a Object Model (DOM), and
maintenance standpoint. In Appendix A, deprecated tags and attributes are highlighted Extensible HTML (XHTML).
with an asterisk. In an effort to eliminate deprecated HTML tags, the projects utilize The standards suggested
in the W3C Web site are
Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) to alter the style (or look) of a Web page. Although HTML the ones that most Web
allows Web developers to make changes to the structure, design, and content of a Web developers follow.
page, it is limited in its ability to define the appearance, or style, across one or more Web
pages. Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) allow you to specify styles for various Web page
elements. A style is a rule that defines the appearance of a Web page element. A style
sheet is a series of rules that defines the style for a Web page or an entire Web site. With
a style sheet, you can alter the appearance of a Web page or pages by changing characteristics
such as font family, font size, margins, and link specifications, as well as visual elements
such as colors and borders. CSS is not used to add any content to your Web site; it just
makes your content look more stylish.
With CSS you can specify the style for an element within a single Web page or
throughout an entire Web site. For example, if you want all text paragraphs on a Web page
to be indented by five spaces, you can use a style sheet to handle the indenting, rather than
coding each paragraph with an indentation. And, if you decided you wanted to change the
indent to three spaces, you would change just one style sheet line rather than changing the
coding for each paragraph. So you can see that using CSS saves a lot of time and makes it
much easier to make style changes.
CSS is not HTML; it is a separate language used to enhance the display capabilities
of HTML. The World Wide Web Consortium, the same organization that defines HTML
standards, defines the specifications for CSS. This book will provide information about CSS3,
the newest version of CSS that is currently being developed. We address the new features that
CSS3 brings to the world of Web development. Be forewarned that this is a m oving target and

not all browsers support the latest selector syntax provided by CSS3. Appendix A at the back
of this book and available online provides a list of HTML tags and corresponding a ttributes
that will allow you to alter the Web page elements as needed, and Appendix D has complete
information on the properties and values associated with different CSS elements.

Document Object Model (DOM)

HTML can be used with other Web technologies to provide additional Web page
functionality. For example, the term Document Object Model (DOM) describes a
combination of HTML tags, CSS, and a scripting language such as JavaScript. DOM
allows JavaScript and other languages to manipulate the structure of the underlying
document to create interactive, animated Web pages. This is a model in which the Web
page (or document) contains objects (elements, links, etc.) that can be manipulated. DOM
allows a Web developer to add, delete, or change an element or attribute. Web pages
enhanced with DOM can be more responsive to visitor interaction than basic HTML
Web pages. Not all interactive Web pages require DOM, but if you have a need for
extensive interactivity, then this might be a model to consider. CSS, JavaScript, and DOM
are covered in later chapters in the Comprehensive (12-chapter) version of this book.

Extensible Hypertext Markup Language (XHTML)

As you have learned, HTML uses tags to describe how a document should appear
in a Web browser, or the Web page format. HTML is used to display data, whereas
Extensible Markup Language (XML) is designed to transport and store data. XML
provides a set of rules that are used to encode documents in machine-readable form. XML
is not a replacement for HTML, but it is a software- and hardware-independent tool that
is used to carry information. Chapter 12 discusses XML in depth and is used to teach
XML specifics to students. Extensible Hypertext Markup Language (XHTML) is a
reformulation of HTML formatting so it conforms to XML structure and content rules.
By combining HTML and XML, XHTML combines the display features of HTML and
the stricter coding standards required by XML.
As mentioned previously, the projects in this book utilize some of the new tags and
attributes introduced with HTML5. The XHTML standards do not apply to HTML5,
but we will adhere to the XHTML coding practices as per Table 1–3 because these
practices create a uniformity of coding styles. Applying the XHTML coding practices
together with any new HTML5 tags or attributes will not cause a problem when you
validate your code as long as you use the HTML5 <!DOCTYPE> statement:

<!DOCTYPE HTML>
<html>

at the start of your Web page.

An important step in Web development is to check that your Web pages are
compliant with HTML5 standards as defined by W3C. You will validate your Web pages
starting in Chapter 2, using the new HTML5 <!DOCTYPE> statement noted above,
and continue that process throughout the book. Most Web pages already developed do
not validate. However, it is best that you begin your Web development training using the
standards recommended by W3C.
Table 1–3 lists some of the coding rules that Web developers should follow to
ensure that their HTML code conforms to XHTML standards when using a c ombination
of HTML 4.01 and HTML5 tags and attributes. All of the projects in this book f ollow
XHTML standards (except for the <!DOCTYPE>) and adhere to the rules outlined in
Table 1–3. The specifics of each rule are explained in detail when used in a project.

HTML Chapter 1
Table 1–3 XHTML Coding Practices

Practice Invalid Example Valid Example

All tags and attributes must be written <TABLE WIDTH=”100%”> <table width=”100%”>
in lowercase
All attribute values must be enclosed <table width=100%> <table width=”100%”>
by single or double quotation marks
All tags must be closed, including tags <br> <br />
such as img, hr, and br, which do not <hr> <hr />
have end tags, but which must be <p>This is another paragraph <p>This is another paragraph</p>
closed as a matter of practice
All elements must be nested properly <p><strong>This is a bold <p><strong>This is a bold
paragraph</p></strong> paragraph</strong></p>

Tools for Creating HTML Documents

You can create Web pages using HTML with a simple text editor, such as Notepad++,
Notepad, TextPad, or TextEdit. A text editor is a program that allows a user to enter,
change, save, and print text, such as HTML. Text editors do not have many advanced
features, but they do allow you to develop HTML documents easily. For instance, if you
want to insert the DOCTYPE tags into the Web page file, type the necessary text into any
of the text editors, as shown in Figure 1–10a and Figure 1–10b on the next page. Although
Notepad (Figure 1–10b) is an adequate text editor for Web development, note its differ-
ences from Notepad++. Notepad++ is a more robust text editor that uses color schemes
for HTML code as it is entered.
You can also create Web pages using an HTML text editor, such as EditPlus or
BBEdit (Mac OS). An HTML text editor is a program that provides basic text-editing
functions, as well as more advanced features such as color-coding for various HTML
tags, menus to insert HTML tags, and spell checkers. An HTML object editor, such as
EiffelStudio object editor, provides the additional functionality of an outline editor that
allows you to expand and collapse HTML objects and properties, edit parameters, and
view graphics attached to the expanded objects.
Many popular software applications also provide features that enable you to develop
Web pages easily. Microsoft Word, Excel, and PowerPoint, for example, have a Save as
Web Page option that converts a document into an HTML file by automatically a dding
HTML tags to the document. Using Microsoft Access, you can create a Web page that
allows you to view data in a database. Adobe Acrobat also has an export feature that cre-
ates HTML files. Each of these applications also allows you to add hyperlinks, d rop-down
boxes, option buttons, or scrolling text to the Web page.
These advanced Web features make it simple to save any document, spreadsheet, Free HTML WYSIWYG
BTW

database, or presentation to display as a Web page. Corporate policy and procedures Editors
manuals and PowerPoint presentations, for example, can be easily saved as Web pages and There are a number
of popular WYSIWYG
published to the company’s intranet. Extranet users can be given access to Web pages that editors that are being
allow them to view or update information stored in a database. used by many novice Web
You can also create Web pages using a WYSIWYG editor such as Adobe developers to create well-
Dreamweaver, Amaya, or CoffeeCup HTML Editor. A WYSIWYG editor is a program designed, interactive Web
sites. You can find these by
that provides a graphical user interface that allows a developer to preview the Web page searching for “WYSIWYG
during its development. WYSIWYG (pronounced wizzy-wig) is an acronym for What HTML editor” in most
You See Is What You Get. A WYSIWYG editor creates the HTML code for you as you search engines.

Notepad++
text editor

full-feature
menu bar
choices

highlight
DOCTYPE
statement

color coding
in editor

use Tab key

to indent
sections of
code

Notepad
text editor

Notepad has no
color coding,
line numbers, or
special features (a) Notepad++

(b) Notepad
Figure 1–10 With text editors such as Notepad++ or Notepad, you can type HTML tags directly in
the files.

add elements to the Web page, which means that you do not have to enter HTML
tags directly. The main problem with WYSIWYG editors is that they often create
“puffed-up” HTML code (HTML tags with many lines of unnecessary additional
code surrounding them).
Regardless of which type of program you use to create Web pages, it is important
to understand the specifics of HTML so you can make changes outside of the editor. For
instance, you may be able to create a Web page with Dreamweaver, but if you want to
make some minor changes, it is very helpful to know the HTML tags themselves. It is also
important to understand the Web development life cycle so the Web pages in your Web
site are consistent and complete.

HTML Chapter 1
Web Development Life Cycle
For years, university and college information technology courses have stressed the
importance of following the Systems Development Life Cycle when designing and
implementing new software to ensure consistency and completeness. The Web
development process should follow a similar cycle. Comprehensive planning and analysis
ensure that developers will provide what the users want. If you start to code your Web
pages without thorough planning and analysis, you run the risk of missing pertinent
information. It is much less expensive to make corrections to a Web site in the early
phases of project development than it is to alter Web pages that are completed.
The Web development life cycle outlined in this section is one that can be utilized
for any type or size of Web development project. The Web development life cycle
is a process that can be used for developing Web pages at any level of complexity. The
Web development life cycle includes the following phases: planning, analysis, design
and development, testing, and implementation and maintenance. Table 1–4 lists several
questions that should be asked during each phase in the Web development life cycle.
Throughout this book, you will follow this systematic cycle as you develop your Web
pages.

Table 1–4 Web Development Phases and Questions

Web Development Phase Questions to Ask

Planning • What is the purpose of this Web site?

• Who will use this Web site?
• What are the users’ computing environments?
• Who owns and authors the information on the Web site?
• Who decides if/where the information goes on the Web site?
Analysis • What tasks do the users need to perform?
• What information is useful to the users?
• What process considerations must be made?
Design and Development • How many Web pages will be included in the Web site?
• How will the Web pages be organized?
• What type of Web site structure is appropriate for the content?
• How can I best present the content for ease of use?
• What file naming convention will be employed for this Web site?
• What folder structure will be used for the Web page files?
• How do I apply standards throughout the development process?
• What forms of multimedia contribute positively to the Web site?
• How can accessibility issues be addressed without limiting usability?
• Will there be an international audience?
Testing •D o the Web pages pass the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C)
validation process as HTML5 compliant?
• Is the Web site content correct?
• Does the Web site function correctly?
• Are users able to find the information they need to complete desired tasks?
• Is navigation clear and easy to use?
Implementation and Maintenance • How is the Web site published?
• How can users be attracted to visit and revisit the Web site?
• How is the Web site updated?
• Who is responsible for content updates?
• Who is responsible for structure updates?
• How will users be notified about updates to the Web site?
• Will the Web site be monitored?

Web Site Planning

Web site planning, which is the first phase of the Web development life cycle,
involves identifying the goals or purpose of the Web site. The first step in the Web
site planning phase is to answer the question “What is the purpose of this Web site?”
As you have learned, individuals and groups design and publish Web sites for a v ariety
of purposes. Individuals develop Web sites to share their hobbies, to post résumés,
or just to share ideas on personal interests. Organizations create Web sites to keep
members informed of upcoming events or to recruit new members. Businesses c reate
Web sites to advertise and sell products or to give their customers 24-hour online
support. Instructors publish Web sites, or add information to their courses using the
school’s online course management software, to inform students of course policies,
assignments, and due dates, as well as course requirements. Until you can adequately
identify the intended purpose of the Web site, you should not proceed with the Web
development project.
In addition to understanding the Web site’s purpose, you should also understand
who will use the Web site and the computing environments of most of the users.
Knowing the makeup of your target audience — including age, gender, general
demographic b ackground, and level of computer literacy — will help you design a Web
site appropriate for the target users. Understanding users’ computing environments
will determine what types of Web technologies to use. For example, if most users have
low-speed Internet connections, you would not want to create pages with large graphics
or multimedia elements.
A final aspect to the Web site planning phase is to identify the content owners and
authors. To determine this, you need to ask the questions:
• Who owns and authors the information on the Web site?
• Who decides if/where the information goes on the Web site?
Once you have identified who will provide and authorize the Web site content, you
can include those individuals in all aspects of the Web development project.

Web Site Analysis

During the analysis phase, you make decisions about the Web site content and
functionality. To help define the appropriate Web site content and functionality, you
should first identify the tasks that users need to perform. Answering that question allows
you to define necessary content to facilitate those tasks and determine useful information
for the users. Extraneous content that does not serve any purpose should be eliminated
from the Web site.
In the analysis phase, it is also important to consider the processes required to
support Web site features. For example, if you determine that users should be able to
order products through the Web site, then you also need to define the processes or actions
to be taken each time an order is submitted. For instance, after an order is submitted,
how will that order be processed throughout the back-office business applications such
as inventory control and accounts payable? Will users receive e-mail confirmations with
details about their orders? The analysis phase is one of the more important phases in the
Web development life cycle. Clearly understanding and defining the desired content and
functionality of the Web site will direct the type of Web site that you design and reduce
changes during Web site development.

HTML Chapter 1
Web Site Design and Development Accessibility Standards

BTW
Creating a Web site that
After determining the purpose of the Web site and defining the content and is accessible to all users
f unctionality, you need to consider the Web site’s design. Some key considerations in allows your Web site to
reach the widest audience.
Web site design are defining how to organize Web page content, selecting the a ppropriate Further, under Section
Web site structure, determining how to use multimedia, addressing accessibility issues, and 508 law, any Web site or
designing pages for an international audience. One of the most important aspects of Web technology used by a U.S.
site design is determining the best way to provide navigation on the Web site. If users cannot federal agency must be
usable by people with
easily find the information that they are seeking, they will not return to your Web site.
disabilities. See Appendix C
Many ways to organize a Web page exist, just as many ways to organize a report or for Section 508 guidelines.
paper exist. Table 1–5 lists some organizational standards for creating a Web page that is
easy to read and navigate.

Table 1–5 Web Page Organizational Standards

Element Organizational Standard Reason

Titles Use simple titles that clearly explain the Titles help users understand the purpose of
purpose of the page the page; a good title explains the page in the
search engine results lists
Headings Use headings to separate main topics Headings make a Web page easier to read;
simple headlines clearly explain the purpose of
the page
Horizontal Rules Insert horizontal rules to separate main Horizontal rules provide graphical elements to
topics break up Web page content
Paragraphs Use paragraphs to help divide large Paragraphs provide shorter, more readable
amounts of text sections of text
Lists Utilize bulleted or numbered lists when Lists provide organized, easy-to-read text that
appropriate readers can scan
Page Length Maintain suitable Web page lengths Web users do not always scroll to view
information on longer pages; appropriate page
lengths increase the likelihood that users will
view key information
Information Emphasize the most important information Web users are quick to peruse a page; placing
by placing it at the top of a Web page critical information at the top of the page
increases the likelihood that users will view key
information
Other Incorporate a contact e-mail address; E-mail addresses and dates give users a way to
include the date of the last modification contact a Web site developer with questions;
the date last modified helps users determine
the timeliness of the site information

Web sites can use several different types of structures, including linear, hierarchical,
and webbed. Each structure links, or connects, the Web pages in a different way to define
how users navigate the site and view the Web pages. You should select a structure for the
Web site based on how users will navigate the site and view the Web site content.
A linear Web site structure connects Web pages in a straight line, as shown in
Figure 1–11 on the next page. A linear Web site structure is appropriate if the information
on the Web pages should be read in a specific order. For example, if the information on
the first Web page, Module 1, is necessary for understanding information on the second
Web page, Module 2, you should use a linear structure. Each page would have links from
one Web page to the next, as well as a link back to the previous Web page. There are many
cases in which Web pages need to be read one after the other, such as in the case of train-
ing material in which Module 1 needs to be completed before Module 2 can be attempted.

Home Page

Module 1 Module 2 Module 3 Module 4

Figure 1–11 Linear Web site structure.

A variation of a linear Web site structure includes the addition of a link to the home
page of the Web site, as shown in Figure 1–12. For some Web sites, moving from one

Home Page

Module 1 Module 2 Module 3

Figure 1–12 Linear Web site structure with links to home page.

User Interface Design module to the next module is still important, but you also want to provide users with easy
BTW

The user interface design access to the home page at any time. In this case, you would still provide links from the
is an important aspect
of a Web site. If a site is
module Web pages to the previous and next module, but each Web page would also have
designed poorly, users a link back to the home page. In this way, the user does not have to click the previous link
may not be able to find multiple times in order to get back to the home page.
the desired information A hierarchical Web site structure connects Web pages in a treelike structure, as
or complete a task, which
makes the Web site
shown in Figure 1–13. A hierarchical Web site structure works well on a site with a main
ineffective.
Home Page

Module 1 Module 2 Module 3

Page 1

Module 3 Module 3
Module 1 Summary Quiz
Page 2

Figure 1–13 Hierarchical Web site structure.

HTML Chapter 1
index or table of contents page that links to all other Web pages. With this structure,
the main index page would display general information, and secondary pages would
include more detailed information. Notice how logically the information in Figure 1–13
is organized. A Web page visitor can easily go from the home page to any of the three
modules. In addition, the visitor can easily get to the Module 3 Quiz by way of the
Module 3 link. One of the inherent problems with this structure, though, is the inability
to move easily from one section of pages to another. As an example, to move from Module
1 Page 2 to the Module 3 Summary, the visitor would have to use the Back button to get
to the Home Page and then click the Module 3 link. This is moderately annoying for a
site with two Web pages, but think what it would be like if Module 1 had 100 Web pages!
To circumvent the problems with the hierarchical model, you can use a webbed
model. A webbed Web site structure has no set organization, as shown in Figure 1–14. A
webbed Web site structure works best on sites with information that does not need to be
read in a specific order and with many navigation options. The World Wide Web uses a
webbed structure, so users can navigate among Web pages in any order they choose. Notice
how the Web site visitor can more easily move between modules or module summaries with
this structure. With this model, you most often provide a link to the Home Page from each
page, resulting in an additional arrow going from each individual Web page back to the
home page (which is difficult to depict in these small figures). Many Web sites today utilize
a graphical image (usually the company or institutional logo) in the top-left corner of each
Web page as a link to the home page. You will use that technique later in the book.
Most Web sites are a combination of the linear, hierarchical, and webbed structures.
Some information on the Web site might be organized hierarchically from an index page,
other information might be accessible from all areas of the site, and still other information
might be organized linearly to be read in a specific order. Using a combination of the
three structures is appropriate if it helps users navigate the site easily. The key is to get
the right information to the users in the most efficient way possible.
Regardless of the structure or structures that you use, you should balance the
narrowness and depth of the Web site. A broad Web site is one in which the home page

Home Page

Module 1 Module 2 Module 3

Module 1 Module 2 Module 3 Module 3

Summary Summary Summary Quiz

Figure 1–14 Webbed Web site structure.

is the main index page, and all other Web pages are linked individually to the home page
(Figure 1–15). By making the other Web pages accessible only through the home page, a
broad Web site forces the user to return to the home page to move from one Web page to
another. The structure makes navigation time-consuming and limiting for users. A better
structure would present a user with navigation alternatives that allow for direct movement
between Web pages.

Home Page

Module 1 Module 1 Module 2 Module 2 Module 3 Module 3 Module 3

Summary Summary Summary Quiz

Figure 1–15 Broad Web site.

A deep Web site is one that has many levels of pages, requiring the user to click
many times to reach a particular Web page (Figure 1–16). By requiring a visitor to move
through several Web pages before reaching the desired page, a deep Web site forces a user to
spend time viewing interim pages that may not have useful content. As an example, note
the difference between finding the Module 3 Summary in Figure 1–13 on page HTML 18
as c ompared to fi
nding the same Web page (Module 3 Summary) in Figure 1–16. Assume
that the user went through the Figure 1–13 Web site once to study the Module 3 m aterial.
When the user returns to the Web site using the Figure 1–16 structure, however, to
review the Module 3 Summary Web page and then take the Module 3 Quiz, the user
would have to go completely through the Module 3 material, Web page by Web page, in
order to get to the Module 3 Summary page. You probably want to give users easier access
to that Web page.
As a Web developer, you must select an appropriate structure for the Web site and
work to balance breadth and depth. Users go to a Web site looking for information to
complete a task. Good design provides ease of navigation, allowing users to find content
quickly and easily. In addition to planning the design of the Web site itself, a Web devel-
oper should always plan the specifics of the file naming and storage conventions early on
in the design phase. Once you determine the structure of the Web site and the approxi-
mate number of pages necessary to fulfill the site purpose, then you need to identify what
standards to use with file naming and the folder structure. For instance, saving your Web
pages with names such as page1.html and page2.html does not tell you the purpose of
those Web pages. A better option would be to name the Oceanside Hotel Web site’s home
page oceansidehome.html or oceanside.html, and the Web page with the reservation form
could be named reservation.html. Those file names tell the developer, as well as future
developers maintaining the Web site, the purpose of those Web pages.

HTML Chapter 1
Home Page

Module 3
Page 1

Module 3
Page 2

Module 3
Page 3

Module 3 Module 3
Summary Quiz

Figure 1–16 Deep Web site. Web Page Structure

BTW

There are many resources

available on the Web
The same principle applies to the folder structure that you use in your Web that further discuss
evelopment. The projects in this book have so few Web page files and graphic files that
d Web site structures. In
all content (Web pages and graphics) is stored together in one folder. With a large Web addition to general design
information, there are a
site, however, you may want to put the Web page files in a separate folder from the graph- number of tools available
ics files. Larger, more complex Web sites might also require a folder just to store video or for sale or free download
audio clips. Where you store the files will affect how you access those files in your HTML that can help you design
code. Determining a good folder structure in the planning phase of the Web development your Web sites. Enter
the phrase “Web site
life cycle is important. You’ll learn more about effective folder structures in Chapter 3. structure” into a search
During the design and development phase, you should also consider what, if any, engine to find many
types of multimedia could contribute positively to the Web site experience. For instance, valuable design sources.

adding a video message from the company CEO might be useful, but if the computing
environment of your users cannot accommodate video playback, then the video serves no
purpose. In general, do not use advanced multimedia technologies in a Web site unless
they make a positive contribution to the Web site experience. Today, more Web sites
are using audio and video content. The addition of multimedia can enhance the overall
purpose of the Web site, but it sometimes detracts from the message.
Finally, consider accessibility issues and internationalization. A Web developer
should always design for viewing by a diverse audience, including physically impaired and
global users. A key consideration is that the software used by physically impaired individu-
als does not work with some Web features. For instance, if you use graphics on the Web
site, always include alternative text for each graphic. To support an international audience,
use generic icons that can be understood globally, avoid slang expressions in the content,
and build simple pages that load quickly over lower-speed connections.
The design issues just discussed are only a few of the basic Web page design issues that
you need to consider. Throughout this book, design issues will be addressed as they relate to
each project. Many excellent Web page design resources are also available on the Internet.
Once the design of the Web site is determined, Web development can begin. The
rest of the chapters in this book discuss good Web page standards, in addition to the actual
development of Web pages. You will learn many development techniques, including links,
tables, graphics, image maps, and Web forms. The umbrella that covers all of the develop-
ment techniques taught in this book is the use of Cascading Style Sheets (CSS).

Web Site Testing

Web Site Testing
BTW

Testing should be done

on all pages in a Web site. A Web site should be tested at various stages of the Web design and development
You should also test the
processes. The testing process should be comprehensive and include a review of Web page
links within the Web page,
to other Web pages in the content, functionality, and usability. Web sites with broken links, missing graphics, and
Web site, and to external incorrect content create a poor impression. You want to attract users to your Web site and
Web sites. Testing is an maintain their interest. If visitors find that your Web site is poorly tested and maintained,
important part of Web they will be less likely to return. You cannot get your message out if users don’t frequently
development and assures
that your Web pages work
visit the Web site. Some basic steps to test content and functionality include:
as intended. • Validating each Web page by running it through the W3C markup validation service
• Proofreading page content and titles to review for accurate spelling and grammar
• Checking links to ensure they are not broken and are linked correctly
• Checking graphics to confirm they appear properly and are linked correctly
• Ensuring that accessibility and internationalization issues are addressed
• Testing forms and other interactive page elements
• Testing pages to make sure they load quickly, even over lower-speed connections
• Printing each page to check how printed pages look
Usability is the measure of how well a product, such as a Web site, allows a user to
accomplish his or her goals. Usability testing is a method by which users of a Web site
or other product are asked to perform certain tasks in an effort to measure the product’s
ease-of-use and the user’s perception of the experience. Usability testing for a Web site
should focus on three key aspects: content, navigation, and presentation.
Usability testing can be conducted in several ways; one effective way is to directly
observe users interfacing with (or using) the Web site. As you observe users, you can track
the links they click and record their actions and comments. You can even ask the users to
explain what tasks they were trying to accomplish while navigating the site. The informa-
tion gained by observing users can be invaluable in helping identify potential problem
areas in the Web site. For example, if you observe that users have difficulty finding the

HTML Chapter 1
Web page that lists store locations and hours of operation, you may want to clarify the link
descriptions or make the links more prominent on the home page.
Another way to conduct usability testing is to give users a specific task to c omplete
(such as finding a product price list) and then observe how they navigate the site to
complete the task. If possible, ask them to explain why they selected certain links. Both of
these observation methods are extremely valuable, but require access to users.
Usability testing can also be completed using a questionnaire or survey. When
writing a questionnaire or survey, be sure to write open-ended questions that can give you
valuable information. For instance, asking the yes/no question “Is the Web site v isually
appealing?” will not gather useful information. If you change that question to use a scaled
response, such as, “Rate the visual appeal of this Web site, using a scale of 1 for low and
5 for high,” you can get more valuable input from the users. Make sure, however, that
the scale itself is clear and understandable to the users. If you intend that a selection of
1 equates to a “low” rating, but the users think a 1 means “high,” then your survey results
are questionable. A usability testing questionnaire should always include space for users to
write additional explanatory comments.
Figure 1–17 shows some examples of types of questions and organization that you
might include in a Web site usability testing questionnaire.

do not require
name unless
necessary

ask for user’s

relationship to
organization

sample
question
structure

range of
choices for
another answers
sample
question
structure

area for
additional
comments

Figure 1–17 Web site usability testing questionnaire.

In addition to content, functionality, and usability testing, there are other types of
testing. For a newly implemented or maintained Web site, two other types of tests should
be conducted: compatibility testing and stress testing. Compatibility testing is done to
verify that the Web site works with a variety of browsers and browser versions. Initially,
test using the browsers that your audience is most likely to use. Different b rowsers display
some aspects of Web pages differently, so it is important to test Web pages in s everal
different browsers to verify they appear correctly in each browser. If you have used
technologies that are not supported by older browsers or that require plug-ins, consider
changing the content or providing alternative Web pages for viewing in older browsers.
If your audience uses both PC and Macintosh computers, you need to test the Web pages
using browsers on both platforms. You may also want to test the Web pages in several
versions of the same browser (usually the two most recent versions), in the event users
have not yet upgraded.
Stress testing determines what happens on your Web site when greater numbers
of users access the site. A Web site with 100 users accessing it simultaneously may be fine.
When thousands of users use the Web site at once, it may operate at an unacceptably slow
speed. Stress testing verifies that a Web site runs at an acceptable speed with many users.
There are many cases in which companies did not effectively stress test their Web sites. The
results of this lack of testing have been disastrous, with Web sites locking up when too many
users tried to access the same Web site function. Especially in the case of Web sites used for
e-commerce, it is imperative for the Web site to stay online. A crashed or locked-up Web
site will not sell products or services, and the company stands to lose a lot of money.

Web Site Implementation and Maintenance

Once Web site testing is complete and any required changes have been made,
the Web site can be implemented. Implementation of a Web site involves the actual
publishing of the Web pages to a Web server. Many HTML editors and WYSIWYG
editors provide publishing capabilities. You can also use FTP software, such as WS_FTP
or CuteFTP, to publish your Web pages to a Web server. After you publish a Web site, you
should test the Web pages again to confirm no obvious errors exist such as broken links
or missing graphics.
After a site is tested and implemented, you need to develop a process to maintain
the Web site; users will undoubtedly request changes and timely content will require
updates. You need to ensure, however, that updates to the Web site do not compromise the
site’s integrity and consistency. For example, if you have several different people updating
various Web pages on a large Web site, you might find it difficult to maintain a consistent
look on pages across the Web site. You should plan to update your Web site on a r egular
basis to keep content up-to-date. This could mean hourly, daily, weekly, or less often,
depending on the site’s purpose. Do not allow your content to become stale, outdated, or
include broken links to Web pages that no longer exist. As a user looking for information
related to a specific topic, how likely are you to believe the information found on a Web
site that says “Last update on December 10, 1998” comes from a reliable source?
To help manage the task of Web site maintenance, first determine who is
responsible for updates to content, structure, functionality, and so on. Then, limit update
responsibilities to specific users. Be sure the implementation is controlled by one or more
Web developers who can verify that the Web pages are tested thoroughly before they are
published.
As updates and changes are made to a Web site, consider notifying users with a
graphic banner or a “What’s New” announcement, explaining any new features and how
the features will benefit them. This technique not only keeps users informed, but also
encourages them to come back to the Web site to see what is new.

HTML Chapter 1
Finally, Web site monitoring is another key aspect of maintaining a Web site.
Usually, the Web servers that host Web sites keep logs of information about Web site
usage. A log is the file that lists all of the Web pages that have been requested from the
Web site. Web site logs are an invaluable source of information for a Web developer.
Obtaining and analyzing the logs allow you to determine such things as the n umber
of visitors, browser types and versions, connection speeds, pages most commonly
requested, and usage patterns. With this information, you can design a Web site that
is effective for your targeted audience, providing visitors with a rich and rewarding
experience.

Be an Observant Web User Quick Reference

BTW
For a list of HTML tags and
As you embark on this course, and perhaps start your Web development career, one their associated attributes,
see the HTML Quick
useful practice is to be an observant Web user. Most of us use the Web several times a day
Reference (Appendix A)
(or more often) to complete our daily tasks. As a Web developer, you should review the at the back of this book,
Web pages that you access with an eye on functionality and design. As described in the or visit the HTML Quick
first In the Lab exercise at the end of the chapter, you can bookmark Web sites you think Reference on the Book
are effective and ineffective, good and bad, and use them as references for your own Web Companion Site Web page
for this book at www.
development efforts. Watch for trends on the Web as you search for information or make cengagebrain.com.
online purchases. For example, blinking text and patterned backgrounds used to be very
popular on the Web, but now other design techniques have taken over. Being an observant
Web user can help you become a more effective Web developer.

Chapter Summary
In this chapter, you have learned about the Internet, the World Wide Web, and associated technologies, including
Web servers and Web browsers. You learned the essential role of HTML in creating Web pages and reviewed tools
used to create HTML documents. You also learned that most Web development projects follow a five-phase life
cycle. The items listed below include all the new concepts you have learned in this chapter.
1. Describe the Internet (HTML 2) 14. Discuss the Web development life cycle
2. Describe the World Wide Web (HTML 3) (HTML 15)
3. Define Web servers (HTML 4) 15. Describe steps in the Web development planning
4. Describe the Internet, intranets, and extranets phase (HTML 16)
(HTML 5) 16. Explain the Web development analysis phase
5. Discuss Web browsers (HTML 7) (HTML 16)
6. Define Hypertext Markup Language (HTML 8) 17. Discuss Web design and development
7. Describe HTML elements (HTML 9) (HTML 17)
8. List useful HTML practices (HTML 10) 18. Describe various Web site structures (HTML 17)
9. Explain HTML versions (HTML 11) 19. Discuss the importance of Web site testing,
10. Describe Cascading Style Sheets (HTML 11) including usability testing, compatibility testing, and
11. Define the Document Object Model (HTML 12) stress testing (HTML 22)
12. Define Extensible Hypertext Markup Language 20. Discuss Web site implementation and maintenance
(XHTML) (HTML 12) (HTML 24)
13. Describe tools for creating HTML documents 21. Explain the importance of being an observant Web
(HTML 13) user (HTML 25)

Learn It Online
Test your knowledge of chapter content and key terms.

Instructions: To complete the following exercises, please visit www.cengagebrain.com. At the

CengageBrain.com home page, search for HTML5 and CSS 7th Edition using the search box at the top
of the page. This will take you to the product page for this book. On the product page, click the Access
STUDENT ASSIGNMENTS

Now button below the Study Tools heading. On the Book Companion Site Web page, select chapter 1,
and then click the link for the desired exercise.

Chapter Reinforcement TF, MC, and SA Who Wants to Be a Computer Genius?

A series of true/false, multiple choice, and short An interactive game that challenges your
answer questions that test your knowledge of the knowledge of chapter content in the style of
chapter content. a television quiz show.

Flash Cards Wheel of Terms

An interactive learning environment where An interactive game that challenges your
you identify chapter key terms associated with knowledge of chapter key terms in the style of
displayed definitions. the television show Wheel of Fortune.

Practice Test Crossword Puzzle Challenge

A series of multiple choice questions that test your A crossword puzzle that challenges your
knowledge of chapter content and key terms. knowledge of key terms presented in the chapter.

Apply Your Knowledge

Reinforce the skills and apply the concepts you learned in this chapter.

Understanding Web Page Structures

Instructions: Figure 1–18 shows the Web site of OnGuardOnline.gov. As you learned in this chapter,
three common Web site structures include linear, hierarchical, and webbed. Based on that information,
determine the structure used in the OnGuardOnline.gov Web site. Review other similar Web sites
and determine which Web site design features are beneficial to a user. Incorporate those ideas into a
new Web site design for OnGuardOnline.gov. Use paper to sketch the new Web site design for the
OnGuardOnline.gov Web site.
Perform the following tasks:
1. Start your browser. Open the OnGuardOnline.gov Web site in your browser. Print the home page
by clicking Print on the File menu or by clicking the Print icon.
2. Explore the OnGuardOnline.gov Web site, determine the structure that the Web site utilizes
(linear, hierarchical, or webbed), and then write that on the printout.
3. Find two other government Web sites. Print the home pages for each of those sites.
Navigate these Web sites to identify any design features that are beneficial to a user.
4. Using ideas from the government Web sites that you found in Step 3, sketch a new Web site
structure and design for the OnGuardOnline.gov site on paper.
5. Submit your answers in the format specified by your instructor.

HTML Chapter 1
STUDENT ASSIGNMENTS
Courtesy of OnGuard Online
Figure 1–18

Extend Your Knowledge

Extend the skills you learned in this chapter and experiment with new skills.

Evaluating a User Survey

Instructions: Start your word-processing program. Open the document extend1-1.docx from the
Chapter01\Extend folder of the Data Files for Students. See the inside back cover of this book for
instructions on downloading the Data Files for Students, or contact your instructor for information
about accessing the required files. This sample Web site survey shows various questions that could
be asked in gathering feedback on Web site usability. It is important to assess the usability of your
Web site, as mentioned in the chapter.
You will evaluate the user survey and modify the questions or add new questions that apply to
the Web site that you have chosen. Then you will ask five people to take your survey.
Perform the following tasks:
1. Determine if the survey questions would provide you with valuable information about a Web site.
Why or why not?
2. Identify what you can do to improve the Web site survey. Using a word processor, type your
analysis into a new file, and save the file as extend1-1solution.docx.
3. Once you have analyzed the questions in the original survey, make changes to the user survey by
following some of the guidelines provided in Figure 1–17 on page HTML 23. Type your new
Continued >

Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has
deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Another Random Document on
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Brachionus capsularis testa ovata apice sexdentata basi incisa,
cauda longa bicuspi. Müller Animal. Infus. p. 356.
To the naked eye it appears as a white moveable point; but when
examined by the microscope, a tail projecting from the lower part is
discovered, and a double rotatory instrument is seen, which it can
conceal or expose at pleasure. It has been seen and described by
most microscopical writers; but as Baker’s seems to be the most
perfect description, I shall principally follow his account of it.
He discovered three species of them, two of which are included
under the vorticella urceolaris. Fig. 33, 34, 35, are of the first
species; Fig. 36, 37, 38, are of the second kind. The first sort, when
extended, is about twice as long as it is broad. It is contained in a
shell; the fore part of this is armed with four sharp teeth or points;
the opposite side has no teeth, but is waved or bent in two places,
like the form of a Turkish bow. At the bottom there is a hole,
through which it pushes the tail. It fastens itself by this tail to any
convenient substance when it intends to use its rotatory organs; but
when it is floating in the water, and at all other times when not
adhering to any body, it wags the tail backwards and forwards
something like a dog.
We may consider it as divided into a head, thorax, and abdomen;
each of which may be extended and contracted considerably: it can,
by dilating all three, protrude the head beyond the shell, or by
contracting them, draw the whole body within the same.
The head, when extended, divides itself into two branches,
between which, another part, a kind of proboscis, is pushed out; at
the end of this are two fibrils, that appear when they are at rest like
a broad point, but which can be moved to and from each other very
briskly with a vibratory motion, see Fig. 33.
The form and situation of the two branches are sometimes
changed, the ends thereof becoming more round, and the vibratory
motion is altered to a rotatory one: this alteration is represented at
Fig. 34: the head also appears in this figure. The thorax is annexed
to the lower part of the head; it is muscular: within it there is a
moving intestine, which has been supposed to be either the lungs or
the heart of the little creature, see b, Fig. 33 and 34.
A communication is formed between the thorax and the abdomen
by means of a short vessel c, whose alternate contractions and
dilatations occasion the abdomen to rise and fall alternately, having
at the same time a sort of peristaltic motion. The food is conveyed
through this vessel into the abdomen, where it is digested; it is then
discharged by the anus, which is placed near the tail.
The tail has three joints, and is cleft or divided at the extremity, by
which means it can better fasten itself to suitable objects. It is in
general projected from the lower end of the shell, moving nimbly to
and fro, serving the animal as a rudder when it is swimming, to
direct its course.
When the water in which the little animal is placed is nearly dried
away, or when it has a mind to compose itself to rest, it contracts
the head and fore-part of the body, brings them down into the shell,
and pulls the tail upwards, so that the whole of this minute creature
is contained within the shell, see Fig. 35. The shell is so transparent
that the terminations cannot be easily distinguished when the animal
is extended; but whatever is transacted within the shell, is as plain
as if there was no substance between the eye and the interior parts.
Fig. 36, 37, 38, exhibit the appearance of another species of these
animals, which differs from the foregoing kind. This has also a head,
a thorax, and abdomen, but then they are not separated by a gut or
intermediate vessel, as in the former, but are joined immediately
together, and at the place where in the first kind a moveable
intestine was seen; in this a muscle, most probably the heart, may
be discovered; it has a regular systole and diastole: this part is
intended to be shewn at a, Fig. 36, 37, 38. Like the other, it draws
the head and tail within the shell, which then appears to have six
teeth or spikes on one side, and two on the other. It very seldom
protrudes its head so far out as the other; sometimes the fibrillæ
may be seen within the margin of the shell.
Both species carry their young in an oval integument or bag,
fastened externally to the lower part of the shell, somewhere about
the tail; these bags are sometimes opake at one end, and seemingly
empty at the other, see d, Fig. 34: sometimes the middle is opake,
with a transparent margin, see b, Fig. 36.
It is highly entertaining to see a young one burst its integument,
and gradually force its way out; in performing this operation, it is
much assisted by the motion of the tail of the parent. The head part
comes out first, it then sets its rotatory organ in motion, by which it
is completely disengaged, leaving the integument behind, which the
vorticella freed itself from by repeated strokes with its tail. A young
one almost disengaged is seen at b, Fig. 38; another embryo, c, was
left adhering to the shell.
There are four more species of the vorticellæ mentioned by
Linnæus, which are, the vorticella encrinus, the vorticella polypina,
the vorticella stellata, and the vorticella ovifera; which, being marine
animals, do not come properly within our plan. The vorticella
polypina will be described hereafter.

TUBULARIA CAMPANULATA.

Plate XXII. Fig. 32.

Tubularia reptans, tubis campanulatis. Creeping, with

campanulated tubes.
It is called by Baker the bell-flowered, or plumed animal.
These little creatures dwell in colonies together, from ten to fifteen
in number, living in a kind of slimy mucilaginous case, which, when
expanded in the water, has some resemblance to a bell with its
mouth upwards. These bells or colonies are to be found adhering to
the large leaves of duck-weed and other aquatic plants.
The bell or case which these animals inhabit, being very
transparent, all the motions of its inhabitants may be discerned
distinctly through it. There are several ramifications or smaller bells
proceeding from the larger one; in each of these there is an
inhabitant. The opening at the top of these bells is just large enough
for the creature’s head, and a small part of its body to be thrust out
from it, the rest remaining in the case, into which it also draws the
head on the least alarm.
Besides the particular and separate motions which each of these
creatures is able to exert within its case, and independent of the
rest, the whole colony has a power of altering the position of the
bell, and removing it from one place to another. These animalcula
seem not to like to dwell in societies, whose number exceeds fifteen;
when the colony happens to increase in number, the bell may be
observed to split gradually, beginning from about the middle of the
upper extremity, and proceeding downwards towards the bottom, till
they at last separate and become two colonies, independent of each
other.
The arms are very near each other; sixty may often be counted in
one plume, having each the figure of an Italic ʃ, one of whose
hooked ends is fastened to the head; and altogether, when
expanded, compose a figure somewhat like a horseshoe, convex on
the side next the body, but gradually opening and turning outwards,
so as to leave a considerable distance within the outer extremities of
the arms.
The plumed polype is of a very voracious disposition, devouring a
great number of small animals. If the arms, when extended, be
observed attentively with the microscope, they will be found to have
a constant vibratory motion; alternately bending withinside of the
plume, and then rising up again. When one arm ceases its motion,
the same is performed by another; thus by the perpetual agitation of
the several arms, such a strong current is produced in the water, as
brings the animalcula, and other minute bodies, that are floating
near the polype, into its mouth, which is situated between the arms.
The food, if agreeable to the creature, is swallowed; if otherwise, it
is rejected by a contrary motion.
The animal may be seen very plain when it has retired within the
tube. The body is about one-eighth of an inch long, without
reckoning the plume, which is about the same length. It is
cylindrical, and the skin is very transparent. The plume is only a
continuation of this transparent skin, it is very broad in proportion to
the body, and of a remarkable figure; the base is of the shape of a
horseshoe; from this base the arms project, they bend rather
outwards. The plume which they form, gives them a resemblance to
some flowers. The arms may be compared, from their fineness and
transparency, to very fine threads of glass. The base of the plume is
grooved, and is fixed to the animal by the middle of the horseshoe
which it forms, and it is here that there is an opening which serves
as a mouth to the animal. The intestines are easily distinguished
through its transparent skin; when it has just been eating, they are
of a deep brown colour. Three principal parts are very visible, the
oesophagus, the stomach, and the rectum.
In the inside of these animals a small oblong whitish body is
formed, which is carried to the outside, and remains fixed in a
perpendicular direction to the body; many of these are formed daily,
and of these oval bodies new animals are produced, exactly similar
to the parent.
If these minute bodies be eggs, they are of a singular kind, being
destitute of any covering, and are neither membranaceous nor
crustaceous; we cannot with propriety say the young ones are
hatched from them; we can, however, perceive these oviform bodies
to unfold themselves gradually. The developement is accomplished in
a few minutes, and an animalculum appears like the parent.
Trembley amassed a great number of these eggs, and carried
them from England with him, keeping them quite dry; on putting
them into water, they gradually developed, and became as perfect as
the tubularia from which they proceeded.
There is a very great similarity in the construction of this little
creature and many of the marine polypes, who, like it, exist in tubes
of the same growth with themselves.
Fig. 32 represents three tubulariæ campanulatæ or plumed
polypes very much magnified, namely, one, b f a c d d e h g i, which
is out of its cell; e h, the oesophagus; f g, the stomach; a f, the
rectum; a c d d e, the plume, consisting of the base a e, which is but
little seen, and the arms c d d, which proceed from the edges of this
base; a second polype, A B I, which is within its cell, and in which
the skin containing the plume is reversed. The third polype, s t u u,
is a young one exhibited out of its cell; g o o, threads which are
fixed at one end to the intestines of the animal, by the other to the
bottom of the cell, l k.
CHAP. VIII.
OF THE ANIMALCULA INFUSORIA.

Our knowledge of the microscopic world is at present very

contracted, but we know enough to give us high conceptions of its
concealed wonders, and to fill us with profound astonishment at the
infinite variety of forms that are made recipient of life. A few of the
inhabitants of this minute world have been discovered. The figure
and apparent habits of life of these, resemble so little those with
which we are more acquainted, that it is often difficult to find terms
to express what is represented to the eye.
Animalculum signifies a little animal, and therefore the term might
be applied to every animal which is considerably inferior in size to
ourselves. It has been customary, however, to distinguish by the
name of animalcula only such animals as are of a size so diminutive,
that their true figure cannot be discerned without the assistance of
glasses; and more especially it is applied to such as are altogether
invisible to the naked eye, and cannot even be perceived to exist,
but by the aid of microscopes.
By the help of magnifying glasses we are brought into a kind of
new world; and numberless animals are discovered, which, from
their minuteness, must otherwise for ever have escaped our
observation: and how many kinds of these invisibles there may be, is
yet unknown; as they are observed of all sizes, from those which are
barely invisible to the naked eye, to such as resist the action of the
microscope, as the fixed stars do that of the telescope, and with the
best magnifiers hitherto invented, appear only as so many moving
points.
The smallest living creatures our instruments can shew, are those
that inhabit the waters; for, though possibly animalcula equally
minute, or perhaps more so, may fly in the air, or creep upon the
earth, it is scarce possible to obtain a view of them; whereas, water
being transparent, and confining the creatures within it, we are
enabled, by applying a drop of it to our glasses, to discover with
ease a great part of its contents, and in a space barely visible to the
naked eye, often perceive a thousand little creatures, all full of life
and vigour.
By the animalcula infusoria are meant, not the larvæ of those
insects which in their first state are inhabitants of water, and
afterwards become winged insects, as the gnat, &c. Baker, and many
other writers on the subject, have often confounded these, and
hence entered into a train of reasoning contrary to fact and
experience. The animalcula infusoria take their name from their
being found in all kinds either of vegetable or animal infusions; if
seeds, herbs, or other vegetable substances, be infused in water, it
will soon be filled with an indefinite number of these minute beings.
There is a prodigious variety in their forms; some perfectly resemble
the bell-polype; others are round or oblong, without any, at least
apparent, members; some resemble a bulb with a long taper tail;
some are nearly spherical; the greater part are vesicular and
transparent. Those most generally found in every drop of ditch water
are mere inflated bladders, with a small trace of intestines in the
center; the next are a flat kind, with a number of legs under the
belly.
Motion seems to be their great delight; they pervade with equal
ease and rapidity, and in all forms and directions, the whole
dimensions of the drop, in which they find ample space for their
various progressions, sometimes darting straight forward, at other
times moving obliquely, then again circularly: they know how to
avoid with dexterity any obstacles that might obstruct their progress.
Hundreds may be seen in a drop of water in constant action, yet
never striking against each other. If at any time the clusters prove so
thick as to impede any of their motions, they roll and tumble
themselves over head, creep under the whole range, force their way
through the midst, or wheel round the cluster, with surprizing
swiftness; sometimes they will suddenly change the direction in
which they are moving, and take one diametrically opposite thereto.
By inclining the glass on which the drop of water is laid, it may be
made to move in any direction; the animalcula in the drop will swim
as easily against the stream as with it.
If the water begin to evaporate, and the drop to grow smaller,
they flock impetuously towards the remaining part of the fluid; an
anxious desire of attaining this momentary respite of life is very
visible, as well as an uncommon agitation of the organs by which
they imbibe the water. These motions grow more languid as the
water fails, till at last they entirely cease.
Animalcula and insects will support a great degree of cold, but
both one and the other perish when it is carried beyond a certain
point. The same degree of heat that destroys the existence of
insects, is fatal to animalcula; as there are animalcula produced in
water at the freezing point, so there are insects which live in snow.
If the smallest drop of urine be put into a drop of water where
these animalcula are roving about, apparently happy and easy, they
instantly fly to the other side, but the acid soon communicating itself
to this part, their struggles to escape are increased, but the evil also
increasing, they are thrown into convulsions, and soon expire.
Among animalcula, as in every other part of nature, there is
constantly a certain proportion preserved between the size of the
individuals and their number. There are always fewest amongst the
larger kinds, but they increase in number as they diminish in size, till
of the last, or lowest to which our powers of magnifying will reach,
there are myriads to one of the larger. Like other animals, they
increase in size from their birth till they have attained their full
growth. When deprived of food, they grow thin and perish; and
different degrees of organization are to be discovered in their
structure.
The birth and propagation of these microscopic beings is as
regular as that of the largest animals of our globe; for though their
extreme minuteness prevents us, in most cases, from seeing the
germ from which they spring, yet we are well assured, from
numerous observations, that the manner in which they multiply is
regulated by constant and invariable laws.
It has been shewn that different species of the hydræ and
vorticellæ multiply and increase by natural divisions and subdivisions
of the parent’s body; this manner of propagation is very common
among the animalcula in infusions, though with many remarkable
varieties. Some multiply by a transverse division, a contraction takes
place in the middle, forming a kind of neck that becomes smaller
every instant, till they are enabled by a slight degree of motion to
separate from each other. These animalcula in general studiously
avoid each other; but when they are in the labour of multiplication,
and the division is in great forwardness, it is not uncommon to see
one of them precipitate itself on the neck of the dividing
animalculum, and thus accelerate the separation.
Another species, when it is on the point of multiplying, fixes itself
to the bottom of the infusion; it then forms an oblong figure,
afterwards becomes round, and begins to turn rapidly, as if upon an
internal center, continually changing the direction of its rotatory
motion; after some time, we may perceive two lines on the spherule,
forming a kind of cross; soon after which the animalculum divides
into four distinct beings, which grow, and are again subdivided.
Some multiply by a longitudinal division, which in one kind begins
in the fore-part, and others in the hind-part; from another kind a
small fragment is seen to detach itself, which very soon acquires the
form of the parent animalculum. Lastly, some propagate in the same
manner as those we deem more perfect animals.
From what has been said, it appears clearly that their motions are
not purely mechanical, but are produced by an internal spontaneous
principle, and that they must therefore be placed among the class of
living animals, for they possess the strongest marks, and the most
decided characters of animation; and consequently, that there is no
foundation for the supposition of a chaotic and neutral kingdom,
which can only have derived its origin from a very transient and
superficial view of these animalcula.
It may also be further observed, that as we see the motions of the
limbs, &c. of the more noble animals, viz. the human species, are
produced by the mechanical construction of the body and the action
of the soul thereon, and are forced by the ocular demonstration
arising from anatomical dissection, to acknowledge this mechanism
which is adapted to produce the various motions necessary to the
animal; and as when we have recourse to the microscope, we find
those pieces which had appeared to the naked eye as the primary
mechanical causes of the particular motions, to consist themselves
of lesser parts, which are the causes of motion, extension, &c. in the
larger; when the structure can therefore be traced no further by the
eye or glasses, we have no right to conclude, that the parts which
are invisible, are not equally the subject of mechanism: for this
would be only to assert in other words, that a thing may exist
because we see and feel it, and has no existence when it is not the
object of our senses.
The same train of reasoning may be applied to microscopic insects
and animalcula; we see them move, but because the muscles and
members which occasion these motions are invisible, shall we infer
that they have not muscles, with organs appropriated to the motion
of the whole and its parts? To say that they exist not, because we
cannot perceive them, would surely not be a rational conclusion. Our
senses are indeed given us, that we may comprehend some effects;
but then we have also a mind with reason bestowed upon us, that
from the things which we do perceive with our senses, we may
deduce the nature of those causes and effects which are
imperceptible to the corporeal eye.
Messrs. Buffon, Needham, and Baron Münchhausen, have
considered this part of animated nature in so different a light from
other writers, that we cannot with propriety entirely pass them over.
Needham imagined that there was a vegetative force in every
microscopical point of water, and every visible filament of which the
whole vegetable contexture consists; that the several species of
microscopic animals may subside, resolve again into gelatinous
filaments, and again give lesser animals, and so on, till they can be
no further pursued by glasses. That agreeable to this idea, every
animal or vegetable substance advances as fast as it can in its
revolution, to return by a slow descent to one common principle,
whence its atoms may return again, and ascend to a new life. That
notwithstanding this, the specific seed of one animal can never give
another of a different species, on account of the preparation it must
receive to constitute it this specific seed.
Buffon asserts, that what have been called spermatic animals, are
not creatures really possessing life, but something proper to
compose a living creature, distinguishing them by the name of
organic particles, and that the moving bodies which are to be found
in the infusions either of animal or vegetable substances, are of the
same nature.
Baron Münchhausen supposed that the seeds of mushrooms were
first animals, and then vegetables; and this, because he had
observed some of the globules in the infusions of mushrooms, after
moving some time, to begin to vegetate.
It might be sufficient in the first instance to observe, that Messrs.
Needham, and Buffon, by having recourse to a vegetative force and
organic particles, to account for the existence and explain the nature
of animalcula, and the difficulties of generation, have substituted
words in the place of things; and that we are no gainers by the
substitution, unless they explain the nature of these powers. But to
this we may add, that all those who have examined the subject with
accuracy and attention, as Bonnet, De Saussure, Baker, Wrisberg,
Spalanzani, Haller, Ellis, Müller, Ledermüller, Corti, Rofredi, &c.
disagree with the foregoing gentlemen, proving that they had
deceived themselves by inaccurate experiments, and that one of
them, Buffon, had not seen the spermatic animals he supposed
himself to be describing, insomuch that Needham was at last
induced to give up his favourite hypothesis.
Though we can by no means pretend to account for the
appearance of most animalcula, yet we cannot help observing, that
our ignorance of the cause of any phænomenon is no argument
against its existence. Though we are not, for instance, able to
account in a satisfactory manner for the origin of the native
Americans, yet we suppose Buffon himself would reckon it absurd to
maintain, that the Spaniards on their arrival there found only ORGANIC
PARTICLES moving about in disorder. The case is the very same with
the eels in paste, to whose animation he objects. They are
exceedingly small in comparison with us; but, with the solar
microscope, Baker has made them assume a more respectable
appearance, so as to have a diameter of an inch and an half, and a
proportionable length. They swam up and down very briskly; the
motion of their intestines was very visible; when the water dried up
they died with apparent agonies, and their mouths opened very
wide. Now, were we to find a creature of the size of this magnified
eel gasping in a place where water had lately been, we certainly
should never conclude it to be merely an ORGANIC PARTICLE, or
fortuitous assemblage of them, but a fish. Why then should we
conclude otherwise with regard to the eel in its natural state, than
that it is a little fish? In reasoning on this subject, we ought ever to
remember, that however essential the distinction of bodies into great
and small may appear to us, they are not so to the Deity, with
whom, as Baker well expresses himself, “an atom is a world, and a
world but as an atom.” Were the Deity to exert his power a little, and
give a natural philosopher a view of a quantity of paste filled with
eels, from each of whose bodies the light was reflected as in the
solar microscope; our philosopher, instead of imagining them to be
mere organic particles, as the paste would appear like a little
mountain, he would probably look upon the whole as an assemblage
of serpents, and be afraid to come near them. Whenever, therefore,
we discover beings to appearance endued with a principle of self-
preservation, or whatever we make the characteristic of animals,
neither the smallness of their size, nor the impossibility of our
knowing how they came there, ought to cause us to doubt of their
being animated.
I shall here insert some extracts of the experiments made by Ellis
at the desire of Linnæus, and which are a full refutation of those
made by Needham and Münchhausen. By those he made on the
infusions of mushrooms in water, it appeared evidently that the
seeds were put in motion by minute animals, which arose on the
decomposition of the mushroom; these, by pecking at the seeds,
which are little round reddish bodies, moved them about with great
agility in a variety of directions, while the little animals themselves
were scarce visible till the food they had eaten discovered them.
The ramified filaments, and jointed or coralloid bodies, which the
microscope discovers to us on the surface of most vegetable and
animal infusions, when they become putrid, and which were
supposed by Needham to be zoophytes, were found by Ellis to be of
that genus of fungi called mucor, many of which have been figured
by Michelius, and described by Linnæus. Their vegetation is so
quick, that they may be seen to grow and seed under the eye of the
observer. Other instances of similar mistakes in Needham’s
experiments may be seen in Ellis’s paper, Philos. Trans. vol. lix. p.
138.
A species of mucor arises also from the bodies of insects
putrefying in water; this species sends forth a mass of transparent
filamentous roots, from whence arise hollow seed vessels; on the
top there is a hole, from which minute globules often issue in
abundance, and with considerable elastic force, which move about in
the water. It will however be found, with a little attention, that the
water is full of very minute animalcula, which attack these seeds,
and thus prolong their motion; but after a small space of time they
rise to the surface, and remain there without any motion; a fresh
quantity rises up, and floating to the edge of the water, remains
there inactive; but no appearance can be observed of detached and
separated parts becoming what are called microscopic animalcula.
Indeed, it is surprizing that Needham should ever take the filaments
of the moistened grains for any thing else than a vegetable
production, a true species of mouldiness.
On the 25th of May, Fahrenheit’s thermometer 70°, Ellis boiled a
potatoe in the New River water, till it was reduced to a mealy
consistence. He put part of it, with an equal proportion of the boiling
liquor, into a cylindrical glass vessel, that held something less than
half a wine pint, and covered it close immediately with a glass cover.
At the same time he sliced an unboiled potatoe, and, as near as he
could judge, put the same quantity into a glass vessel of the same
kind, with the same proportion of New River water not boiled, and
covering it with a glass cover, placed both vessels close to each
other. On the 26th of May, twenty-four hours afterwards, he
examined a small drop of each by the first magnifier of Wilson’s
microscope, whose focal distance is reckoned at 1⁄50 part of an inch;
and, to his amazement, they were both full of animalcula of a linear
shape, very distinguishable, moving to and fro with great celerity; so
that there appeared to be more particles of animal than vegetable
life in each drop. This experiment he repeatedly tried, and always
found it to succeed in proportion to the heat of the circumambient
air; so that even in winter, if the liquors be kept properly warm, at
least in two or three days the experiment will succeed.
The animalcula are infinitely smaller than spermatic animals, and
of a very different shape; the truth of which every accurate observer
will soon be convinced of, whose curiosity may lead him to compare
them, and he is persuaded they will find they are no way akin.
Having learnt from M. De Saussure, of Geneva, that he found one
kind of these animalcula infusoria that increases by dividing across
into nearly two equal parts, and that the infusion was made from
hemp-seed, he procured a quantity of this seed, some of it he put
into New River water, some into distilled water, and some into very
hard pump water; the result was, that in proportion to the heat of
the weather, or the warmth in which they were kept, there was an
appearance of millions of minute animalcula in all the infusions; and
some time after some oval ones made their appearance; these were
much larger than the first, which still continued. These wriggled to
and fro in an undulatory motion, turning themselves round very
quick all the time that they moved forwards.
Ellis found out by mere accident a method to make their fins
appear very distinctly, especially in the larger kind of animalcula,
which are common to most vegetable infusions, such as the
terebella. This has a longish body, with a cavity or groove at one
end, like a gimblet. By applying a small stalk of the horseshoe
geranium, the geranium zonale of Linnæus, fresh broken, to a drop
of water in which these animalcula are swimming, we shall find that
they will become instantly torpid, contracting themselves into an
oblong oval shape, with their fins extended like so many bristles all
round their bodies. The fins are in length about half the diameter of
the middle of their bodies. After lying in this state of torpitude for
two or three minutes, if a drop of clean water be applied to them,
they will recover their shape, and swim about immediately, rendering
their fins again invisible. Before he discovered this expedient, he
tried to kill them by different kinds of salts and spirits; but though
they were destroyed by these means, their fins were so contracted,
that he could not distinguish them in the least.[118]
[118] The preceding recital of the hypothesis of Messrs. Buffon, Needham, and
Baron Münchhausen, may appear superfluous, having been so ably
refuted by Mr. Ellis; the consideration, however, that it may afford
entertainment to some of my readers, and prove beneficial to others, by
cautioning them against too precipitately adopting plausible
suppositions, induced me to retain the account. Edit.
It is one of the wonders of the modern philosophy to have
invented means for bringing creatures so imperceptible as the
various animalcula under our cognizance and inspection. One might
well have deemed an object that was a thousand times too little to
be able to affect our sense, as perfectly removed from human
discovery; yet we have extended our sight over animals to whom
these would be mountains. The naked eye takes in animal beings
from the elephant to the mite; but below this, commences a new
order, reserved only for the microscope, which comprehends all
those from the mite, to those many millions of times smaller; and
this order cannot be said to be exhausted, if the microscope be not
arrived at its ultimate state of perfection. In reality, the greater
number of microscopic animalcula are of so small a magnitude, that
through a lens, whose focal distance is the tenth part of an inch,
they only appear as so many points; that is, their parts cannot be
distinguished, so that they appear from the vertex of that lens under
an angle not exceeding the minute of a degree. If we investigate the
magnitude of such an object, it will be found nearly equal to 3⁄100000
of an inch long. Supposing, therefore, these animalcula to be of a
cubic figure, that is, of the same length, breadth, and thickness,
their magnitude would be expressed by the cube of the fraction
3
⁄100000, that is, by the number 27⁄1000000000000000, that is, each
animalculum is equal to so many parts of a square inch. This
contemplation of animalcula has rendered the idea of indefinitely
small bodies very familiar to us; a mite was formerly thought the
limit of littleness, but we are not now surprized to be told of animals
many millions of times smaller than a mite; for, “there are in some
liquors animalcules so small, as, upon calculation, the whole
magnitude of the earth is not found large enough to be a third
proportional to these minute floating animals and the whales in the
ocean.”[119] These considerations are still further heightened, by
reflecting on the internal structure of animalcula, for each must have
all the proportion, symmetry and adjustment of that organized
texture, which is indispensably necessary for the several functions of
life, and each must be furnished with proper organs, tubes, &c. for
secreting the fluids, digesting its food, and propagating its species.
[120]

[119] Chambers’s Cyclopedia by Rees, Art. Animalcule.

[120] Minute animals proportionably exceed the larger kinds in strength, activity,
and vivacity. It has been already observed, p. 212, that the spring of a
flea vastly outstrips any thing animals of a greater magnitude are
capable of; the motion of a mite is much quicker than that of the
swiftest race-horse. M. De L’Isle, Hist. Acad. Scienc. 1711. p. 23, has
given the computation of the velocity of a little creature, so small as to
be scarcely visible, which he found to run three inches in a second;
supposing now its feet to be the fifteenth part of a line, it must make
five-hundred steps in the space of three inches, that is, it must shift its
legs five-hundred times in a second, or in the time of the ordinary
pulsation of an artery. The rapidity with which many of the water
insects skim the surface of the fluid, and others swim in it, is
astonishing, nor is the celerity of the various species of animalcula
infusoria less deserving of admiration. Edit.
Having thus given a general idea of the properties of animalcula, I
now proceed to describe the various individuals, following the
arrangements of O. F. Müller,[121] and giving the discriminating
characters by which he has distinguished them; abridging, enlarging,
or altering the descriptions, to render them in some instances more
exact, in others less tedious, and upon the whole, I hope, more
interesting to the reader.
[121] Müller Animalcula Infusoria, Fluviatilia, et Marina.

METHODICAL DIVISION
OF THE

ANIMALCULA INFUSORIA.

I. THOSE THAT HAVE NO EXTERNAL ORGANS.

1. Monas: punctiforme. A mere point.

2. Proteus: mutabile. Mutable, or changeable.
3. Volvox: sphæricum. Spherical.
4. Enchelis: cylindraceum. Cylindrical.
5. Vibrio: elongatum. Long.
Membranaceous.
6. Cyclidium: ovale. Oval.
7. Paramæcium: oblongum. Oblong.
8. Kolpoda: sinuatum. Crooked, or bent.
9. Gonium: angulatum. With angles.
10. Bursaria. Hollow like a purse.
II. THOSE THAT HAVE EXTERNAL ORGANS.

Naked, or not inclosed in a shell.

11. Cercaria: caudatum. With a tail.
12. Leucophra: ciliatum undique. Every part ciliated.
13. Trichoda: crinitum. Hairy.
14. Kerona: corniculatum. With horns.
15. Himantopus: cirratum. Cirrated, or curled.
16. Vorticella: ciliatum apice. The apex ciliated.
Covered with a shell.
17. Brachionus: ciliatum apice. The apex ciliated.

I. MONAS.
Vermis inconspicuus, simplissimus, pellucidus, punctiformis. An
invisible,[122] pellucid, simple, punctiform worm.
[122] By invisible, we only mean that they are too small to be discerned by the
naked eye.
1. Monas Termo. M. gelatinosa. Gelatinous mona.
Animalcules semblable a des points. Spallanzani Opusc. Phys. I.
Bullæ continuo motu. Bonanni Obs. p. 174.
Among the various animalcula which are discovered by the
microscope, this is the most minute, and the most simple; a small
jelly-like point, eluding the powers of the compound microscope, and
being but imperfectly seen by the single; these, and some others of
the mona kind, are so delicate and slender, that it is no wonder they
often escape the sight of many who have examined infusions with
attention; in a full light they totally disappear, their thin and
transparent forms blending as it were with the water in which they
swim.
Small drops of infused water are often so full of these, that it is
not easy to discover the least empty space, so that the water itself
appears changed into another substance less transparent, but
consisting of innumerable globular points, thick sown together;
which, though full of life, seem only a kind of inflated bladders. In
this a motion may be perceived, something similar to that which is
observed when the sun’s rays shine on the water, the animalcula
being violently agitated, or in a commotion like unto a hive of bees.
They are very common in ditch water, and in almost all infusions,
both of animal and vegetable substances.
2. Monas Atomus. M. albida puncto, variabili instructa, Plate XXV.
Fig. 1. White mona, with a variable point.
This animalculum appears as a white point, which, when it is
highly magnified, is somewhat of an egg-shape; the smaller end is
generally marked with a black point; the situation of this is
sometimes varied, and found at the other end of the animalculum:
sometimes two black points are to be seen crossing the middle of
the body. It was found in sea water that had been kept the whole
winter; it was not, however, very fetid; there were no other
animalcula in the same water.
3. Monas Punctum. M. nigra. A black mona.
A very minute point, solid, opake and black, round and long. They
are dispersed in the infusion, and move with a slow wavering
motion; were found in a fetid infusion of pears.
4. Monas Ocellus. M. hyalina puncto centrali notata. Transparent
like talc, with a point in the middle.
The margin black, and a black point in the middle; it moves
irregularly, is found in ditches covered with conferva, and frequently
with the cyclidium milium, see No. 84.
5. Monas Lens. M. hyalina. Transparent mona of the appearance of
talc.
This is among the number of the smaller animalcula, nearly of a
round figure, and so pellucid, that it is not possible to discover the
least vestige of intestines. Though they may often be seen separate,
yet they are more generally collected together, forming a kind of
vesicular or membranaceous mass. Contrary to the custom of other
animalcula, they seek the edges of the evaporating water, the
consequence of which is almost immediate death. When the water is
nearly evaporated, a few dark shades are perceived, probably
occasioned by the wrinkling of the body. A slow tremulous motion,
confined to one spot, may be perceived at intervals; this in a little
time becomes more lively, and soon pervades the whole drop. Its
motions are in general very quick: two united together may
sometimes be seen swimming among the rest; while in this
situation, they have been mistaken by some writers for a different
species, whereas it is the same generating another by division. It is
to be found in all water, though but seldom in that which is pure;
they are in great plenty in the summer in ditch water, also in
infusions of animal or vegetable substances, made either of fresh or
salt water, myriads being contained in a drop; numbers of various
sizes are to be found in the filth of the teeth.[123]
[123] The circumstance of animalcula being found in the teeth is mentioned
with confidence by various authors; some doubts may, however, still
remain of the fact. Mr. Willughby detected a woman, who pretended to
take worms out of the teeth with a quill, having forced the quill, from
her just as she was putting it into his mouth, and found small worms in
it; see Birch’s History of the Royal Society, vol. iv. p. 387. I am inclined
to think that the accounts usually met with in authors have no better
foundation. It has also repeatedly happened, that ingenious men, from
their anxiety for discovery, have imagined that objects have appeared to
their view, which, having related as facts, themselves or others have
afterwards found to be nothing more than a deceptio visus; and thus
they have been, at least for a time, the unintentional promulgators of
error; considerable caution is therefore necessary on these occasions,
see p. 132, 133.
Some authors, in support of a favourite system, have made bold
assertions on the subject of animalcula; the small-pox, the measles, the
epilepsy, &c. have been attributed to them: Langius reduces all diseases
in general to the same principle. A writer at Paris, who assumed the title
of an English physician, has proceeded still farther; he not only
accounts for all diseases, but for the operation of all medicines, from
the hypothesis of animalcula. He has peculiar animals for every
disorder; scorbutic animalcula, podagrical animalcula, variolous
animalcula, &c. all at his service. Journ. des Scav. tom. lxxxvii. p. 535,
&c.
It is not at all surprising that the wonderful discoveries relating to
animalcula should have been applied, however improperly, to support
the most whimsical and chymerical systems. Most of the discoveries in
natural philosophy have been subjected to similar abuses, and laid the
foundation for the warm imaginations of some men to fabricate
visionary theories; these have been of great prejudice to real science,
the primary object and ultimate reward of which is the acquisition of
truth. Edit.
The animalcula of this, and the first species are so numerous as to
exceed all calculation, though they are contained in a very confined
space.
6. Monas Mica. M. circulo notata. Mona, marked with a circle.
This lucid little point may be discovered with the third lens of the
common single microscope; when the magnifying power is
increased, it appears either of an oval or spherical figure, for it
assumes each of these at pleasure. It is transparent, and has a small
ellipse inscribed as it were within its circumference; this ellipse is
moveable, being sometimes in the middle, sometimes a little
towards the fore-part, at others, nearer the hind-part. There is a
considerable variety in its motions; it often turns round for a long
time in the same place; an appearance like two kidneys may
sometimes be perceived in the middle of the body, and the
animalculum is beautifully encompassed with a kind of halo, arising
most probably from invisible and vibrating fibrillæ. They are to be
found in the purest waters.
7. Monas Tranquilla. M. ovata, hyalina, margine nigro. Egg-shaped,
transparent mona, with a black margin.
These animated points seem to be nearly fixed to one spot, where
they have a fluctuating or reeling motion. They are frequently
surrounded with a halo, and differ in their figure, being sometimes
rather spherical, at others quadrangular. The black margin is not
always to be found, and sometimes one would almost be tempted to
think it had a tail. They are found in urine which has been kept for a
time. The urine is covered, after it has remained in the vessel, with a
dark-coloured pellicle or film, in which these animals live: although
the urine was preserved for several months, no new animalcula were
observed therein. It has been already shewn, that a drop of urine is
in general fatal to other animalcula, yet we find in this instance, that
there are animated beings of a peculiar kind, appropriated to, and
living in it.
8. Monas Lamellula. M. hyalina compressa. Flat transparent mona.
This is mostly found in salt water. It is of a whitish colour, more
than twice as long as it is broad, transparent, with a dark margin,
the motion vacillatory; it often appears as if double.
9. Monas Pulvisculus. M. hyalina, margini virente. Transparent
mona, with a green margin.
Little spherical pellucid grains of different sizes, the circumference
green, a green bent line passes through the middle of some,
probably indicating that they are near separating or dividing into two
distinct animalcula; sometimes three or four, at others, six, seven, or
even more, are collected together. They rove about with a wavering
motion; and are mostly found in the month of March in marshy
grounds.
10. Monas Uva. M. hyalina gregaria. Transparent gregarious mona.
It is not easy to decide on the nature of these little assemblages
of corpuscles, which sometimes consist of four, at others of five, and
frequently of many more: the corpuscles are of different sizes,
according to the number assembled in one group. When collected in
a heap, the only motion they have is a kind of revolution or rotatory
one. The smaller particles separate from the larger, often dividing
into as many portions as there are constituent particles in the group;
when separated, they revolve with incredible swiftness. To try
whether this was a group of animalcula collected together by
chance, or whether this was their natural state, the following
experiment was made. A single corpuscle was taken the moment it
was separated from the heap, and placed in a glass by itself; it soon
increased in size, and when it had attained nearly the same bulk as
the group from which it was separated, the surface began to assume
a wrinkled appearance, which gradually changed till it became
exactly similar to the parent group. This new-formed group was
again decomposed, like the preceding one, and in a little time the
separated particles became as large as that from which they
proceeded. It is found in a variety of infusions.
II. PROTEUS.
Vermis inconspicuus, simplicissimus, pellucidus, mutabilis. An
invisible, very simple, pellucid worm, of a variable form.
11. Proteus Diffluens. P. in ramulos diffluens, Plate XXV. Fig. 2 and
3. Proteus, branching itself out in a variety of directions.
A very singular animalculum, appearing only as a grey mucous
mass; it is filled with a number of black globules of different sizes,
and is continually changing its figure. Being formed of a gelatinous
pellucid substance, the shape is easily altered, and it pushes out
branches of different lengths and breadths. The globules which are
within divide and pass immediately into the new formed parts,
always following the various changes of form in the animalcula. The
changes that are observed in the form of this little creature, do not
arise from any extraneous cause, but are entirely dependent on its
internal powers. It is to be met with but very seldom; the
indefatigable Müller only saw it twice, although he examined such an
immense variety of infusions. It is to be found in fenny situations.
12. Proteus Tenax. P. in spiculum diffluens, Plate XXV. Fig. 4 and 5.
Proteus, running out into a fine point.
A gelatinous pellucid body, stored with black molecules; it changes
its form like the preceding, but always in a regular order, first
extending itself out in a straight line, Fig. 5, the lower part
terminating in an acute bright point, a, without any intestines; and
the globules being all collected in the upper part, c, it next draws the
pointed end up towards the middle of the body, swelling it into a
round form. The contraction goes on for some time, after which the
lower part is swelled out as it is represented in Fig. 4, d; the point a,
is afterwards projected from this ventricose part. It passes through
five different forms before it arrives at that which is seen, at Fig. 4.
It scarcely moves from one spot, only bending about sideways. It is
to be found in river water.
III. VOLVOX.
Volvox inconspicuus, simplicissimus, pellucidus, sphæricus. An
invisible, very simple, pellucid, spherical worm.
13. Volvox Punctum. V. sphæricus, nigricans, puncto lucido.
Spherical, of a black colour, with a lucid point.
A small globule; one hemisphere is opake and black, the other has
a pellucid crystalline appearance; a vehement motion is observable
in the dark part. It moves in a tremulous manner, and often passes
through the drop, turning round as if upon an axis. Many may be
often seen joined together in their passage through, the water; they
sometimes move as in a little whirlpool, and then separate. They are
found in great numbers on the surface of fetid sea water.
14. Volvox Granulum. V. sphæricus, viridis, peripheria hyalina.
Spherical and green, the circumference of a bright colour.
There seems to be a kind of green opake nucleus in this
animalculum; the circumference is transparent. It is to be found
generally in the month of June, in marshy places; it moves but
slowly.
15. Volvox Globulus. V. globosus; postice subobscurus. Globular
volvox, the hind-part somewhat obscure.
This globular animalculum is ten times larger than the monas lens;
it verges sometimes a little towards the oval in its form. The
intestines are just visible, and make the hinder part of the body
appear opake; it has commonly a slow fluttering kind of motion, but
if it be disturbed, the motion is more rapid. It is found in most
infusions of vegetables.
16. Volvox Pilula. V. sphæricus, interaneis immobilibus
virescentibus. Small round volvox, with immoveable green intestines.
This is a small transparent animalculum; its intestines are
immoveable, of a green colour, and are placed near the middle of
the body, the edges often yellow; a small obtuse incision may be
discovered on the edge, which is, perhaps the mouth of the
animalculum. This little creature appears to be encompassed with a
kind of halo or circle. If this be occasioned by the vibratory motion of
any fringe of hairs, they are invisible to the eye, even when assisted
by the microscope. It seems to have a kind of rotatory motion, at
one time slow, at another quick; and is to be found in water where
the lemna minor, or least ducks-meat, grows, sometimes as late as
the month of December.
17. Volvox Grandinella. V. sphæricus, opacus, interaneis
immobilibus. Spherical and opake, with immoveable intestines.
This is much smaller than the preceding, and is marked with
several circular lines; no motion is to be perceived among the
interior molecules. It sometimes moves about in a straight line,
sometimes its course is irregular, at others it keeps in the same spot
with a tremulous motion.
18. Volvox Socialis. V. sphæricus, moleculis crystallinis, æqualibus
distantibus. Spherical volvox, with crystalline molecules, placed at
equal distances from one another.
When very much magnified this animalculum seems to have some
relation to the vorticella socialis, as seen with the naked eye. It
consists of crystalline molecules, disposed in a sphere, and filling up
the whole circumference; they are all of an equal size. Whether they
are included in a common membrane, or whether they are united by
one common stalk, as in the vorticella socialis, has not been
discovered. We are also ignorant of the exact figure of the little
particles of which it is composed; when a very large magnifying
power is used, some black points may be discerned in the center of
the crystalline molecules. The motion is sometimes rotatory,
sometimes from right to left, and the contrary. It is found where the
chara vulgaris has been kept.
19. Volvox Sphæricula. V. sphæricus, moleculis similaribus rotundis.
Pl. XXV. Fig. 6. Spherical volvox, with round molecules.
This spherule is formed of pellucid homogeneous points of
different sizes. It moves slowly about a quarter of a circle from right
to left, and then back again from left to right.
20. Volvox Lunula. V. hemisphæricus, moleculis similaribus lunatis.
Plate XXV. Fig. 7. An hemispherical volvox, with lunular molecules.
Is a small roundish transparent body, composed of innumerable
molecules, homogeneous, pellucid, and of the shape of the moon in
its first quarter, without any common margin. It is in a continual two-
fold motion; the one, of the whole mass turning slowly round; the
other, of the molecules one among the other. They are found in
marshy places in the beginning of spring.
21. Volvox Globator. V. sphæricus membranaceus. Spherical
membranaceous volvox.
This is a transparent globule, of a greenish colour; the fœtus is
composed of smaller greenish globules. It becomes whiter and
brighter with age, moves slowly round its axis, and may be
perceived by the naked eye. But to the microscope the superficies of
this pellucid membrane appears covered with molecules, as if it were
granulated, which has occasioned some observers to imagine it to be
hairy; the round pellucid molecules that are fixed in the center are
generally largest in those that are young. The exterior molecules
may be wiped off, leaving the membrane naked. When the young
ones are of a proper size, the membrane opens, and they pass
through the fissure; after this the mother melts away. They
sometimes change their spherical figure, the superficies being
flattened in different places. Most authors speak of finding eight
lesser globules within the larger; but Müller says, that he has
counted thirty or forty of different sizes. This wonderful capsulate
situation of its progeny is well known; indeed it often exhibits itself
big with children and grand-children.
Leeuwenhoeck was the first who noticed this curious animalculum,
and depicted it; a circumstance which has not been mentioned by
Baker and other microscopic writers, who have described it. It may
be found in great plenty in stagnant waters in spring and summer,
and in infusions of hemp-seed and tremella. Baker describes it as
follows: This singular minute water animal, seen before the
microscope, appears to be exactly globular, without either head, tail,
or fins. It moves in all directions, forwards or backwards, up or
down, rolling over and over like a bowl, spinning horizontally like a
top, or gliding along smoothly without turning itself at all.
Sometimes its motions are very slow, at other times very swift; and
when it pleases, it can turn round as upon an axis very nimbly,
without moving out of its place. The body is transparent, except
where the circular spots are placed, which are probably its young.
The surface of the body in some is as it were dotted all over with
little points, and in others, as if granulated like shagreen. Baker
thought also that in general it appeared as if it was set round with
short moveable hairs. By another writer they are thus described:
These animalcula are at first very small, but grow so large as to be
discerned with the naked eye; they are of a yellowish green colour,
globular figure, and in substance membranaceous and transparent.
In the midst of this substance several small globes may be
perceived; each of these are smaller animalcula, which have also
their diaphanous membrane, and contain within themselves still
smaller generations, which may be distinguished by the assistance of
very powerful glasses. The larger globules may be seen to escape
from the parent, and then increase in size, as has been already
observed.
22. Volvox Morum. V. membranaceus orbicularis, centro moleculis
sphæricis viridibus. Membranaceous orbicular, with spherical green
molecules in the center.
This animalculum has some resemblance to the volvox uva, but is
sufficiently distinguished by the surrounding bright orbicular
membrane: the middle part is full of clear green globules. The
globules seldom move, though a quivering motion may sometimes
be perceived at the center. It has a slow rotatory motion, and is
found amongst the lemna, in the months of October and December.
23. Volvox Uva. V. globosus, moleculis sphæricis virescentibus
nudis. Globular volvox, composed of green spherical globules, which
are not inclosed in a common membrane.
This animalculum seems to be a kind of medium between the
volvox pilula, No. 16, and the gonium pectorale, No. 114, being, like
the one, composed of green spherules, and in form, resembling the
other. It consists of a congeries of equal globules of a greenish
colour, with a bright spot in the middle; the whole mass is
sometimes of a spherical form, sometimes oval, without any
common membrane; a kind of halo may be perceived round it, but
whether this is occasioned by the motion of any invisible hairs has
not been discovered. The mass generally moves from right to left,
and from left to right; scarce any motion can be discovered in the
globules themselves. It was found in the month of August, in water
where the lemna polyrrhiza was growing. Two masses of these
globules have been seen joined together. They contain from four to
fifty of the globules, of which a solitary one may now and then be
found.
24. Volvox Vegetans. V. ramulis simplicibus et dichitomis, rosula
globulari terminatis. A volvox with simple dichitomous branches,
terminating in a little bunch of globules.
It consists of a number of floccose opake branches, which are
invisible to the naked eye; at the apex of these there is a little
congeries of very minute oval pellucid corpuscles. Müller at first
thought it to be a species of microscopic and river sertularia; but
afterwards he found the bunches quitting the branches, and
swimming about in the water with a proper spontaneous motion.
Many old branches were found deserted of their globules, while the
younger branches were furnished with them. It was found in river
water in November 1779 and 1780.

IV. ENCHELIS.
Vermis inconspicuus, simplicissimus, cylindraceus. An invisible,
simple, cylindric worm.
25. Enchelis Viridis. E. subcylindrica, antice oblique truncata. Green
enchelis, of a subcylindric figure, the fore-part truncated.
This is an opake green, subcylindric animalculum, with an obtuse
tail, the fore-part terminating in an acute truncated angle; the
intestines obscure and indistinct. It is continually varying in its
motion, turning from right to left.
26. Enchelis Punctifera. E. viridis, subcylindracea, antice obtusa,
postice acuminata, Plate XXV. Fig. 8. Green enchelis, subcylindric,
the fore-part obtuse, the hinder part pointed.
It is an opake animalculum, of a green colour; there is a small
pellucid spot in the fore-part a, in which two black points may be
seen; a kind of double band, c c, crosses the middle of the body.
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