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Data Structures & Algorithms in Python
 Data Structures & Algorithms in
Python

John Canning
Alan Broder
Robert Lafore

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ISBN-13: 978-0-13-485568-4
ISBN-10: 0-13-485568-X
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Pearson’s Commitment to
Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion
Pearson is dedicated to creating bias-free content that reflects the diversity
of all learners. We embrace the many dimensions of diversity, including but
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 To my mother, who gave me a thirst for knowledge, to my father, who
taught me the joys of engineering, and to June, who made it possible to
pursue both.

John Canning

For my father Sol Broder, a computer science pioneer, who inspired me to

follow in his footsteps.

To my mother Marilyn Broder, for showing me the satisfaction of teaching

others.

To Fran, for making my life complete.

Alan Broder
 Contents
1. Overview

2. Arrays

3. Simple Sorting

4. Stacks and Queues

5. Linked Lists

6. Recursion

7. Advanced Sorting

8. Binary Trees

9. 2-3-4 Trees and External Storage

10. AVL and Red-Black Trees

11. Hash Tables

12. Spatial Data Structures

13. Heaps

14. Graphs

15. Weighted Graphs

16. What to Use and Why

Appendix A. Running the Visualizations

Appendix B. Further Reading

Appendix C. Answers to Questions

 Table of Contents
1. Overview
What Are Data Structures and Algorithms?
Overview of Data Structures
Overview of Algorithms
Some Definitions
Programming in Python
Object-Oriented Programming
Summary
Questions
Experiments

2. Arrays
The Array Visualization Tool
Using Python Lists to Implement the Array Class
The Ordered Array Visualization Tool
Python Code for an Ordered Array Class
Logarithms
Storing Objects
Big O Notation
Why Not Use Arrays for Everything?
Summary
Questions
Experiments
Programming Projects

3. Simple Sorting
How Would You Do It?
Bubble Sort
Selection Sort
nsertion Sort
Comparing the Simple Sorts
Summary
Questions
Experiments
Programming Projects

4. Stacks and Queues

Different Structures for Different Use Cases
Stacks
Queues
Priority Queues
Parsing Arithmetic Expressions
Summary
Questions
Experiments
Programming Projects

5. Linked Lists
Links
The Linked List Visualization Tool
A Simple Linked List
Linked List Efficiency
Abstract Data Types and Objects
Ordered Lists
Doubly Linked Lists
Circular Lists
terators
Summary
Questions
Experiments
Programming Projects
6. Recursion
Triangular Numbers
Factorials
Anagrams
A Recursive Binary Search
The Tower of Hanoi
Sorting with mergesort
Eliminating Recursion
Some Interesting Recursive Applications
Summary
Questions
Experiments
Programming Projects

7. Advanced Sorting
Shellsort
Partitioning
Quicksort
Degenerates to O(N2) Performance
Radix Sort
Timsort
Summary
Questions
Experiments
Programming Projects

8. Binary Trees
Why Use Binary Trees?
Tree Terminology
An Analogy
How Do Binary Search Trees Work?
Finding a Node
nserting a Node
Traversing the Tree
Finding Minimum and Maximum Key Values
Deleting a Node
The Efficiency of Binary Search Trees
Trees Represented as Arrays
Printing Trees
Duplicate Keys
The BinarySearchTreeTester.py Program
The Huffman Code
Summary
Questions
Experiments
Programming Projects

9. 2-3-4 Trees and External Storage

ntroduction to 2-3-4 Trees
The Tree234 Visualization Tool
Python Code for a 2-3-4 Tree
Efficiency of 2-3-4 Trees
-3 Trees
External Storage
Summary
Questions
Experiments
Programming Projects

10. AVL and Red-Black Trees

Our Approach to the Discussion
Balanced and Unbalanced Trees
AVL Trees
The Efficiency of AVL Trees
Red-Black Trees
Using the Red-Black Tree Visualization Tool
Experimenting with the Visualization Tool
Rotations in Red-Black Trees
 nserting a New Node
Deletion
The Efficiency of Red-Black Trees
-3-4 Trees and Red-Black Trees
Red-Black Tree Implementation
Summary
Questions
Experiments
Programming Projects

11. Hash Tables

ntroduction to Hashing
Open Addressing
Separate Chaining
Hash Functions
Hashing Efficiency
Hashing and External Storage
Summary
Questions
Experiments
Programming Projects

12. Spatial Data Structures

Spatial Data
Computing Distances Between Points
Circles and Bounding Boxes
Searching Spatial Data
Lists of Points
Grids
Quadtrees
Theoretical Performance and Optimizations
Practical Considerations
Further Extensions
Summary
 Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
better informed and more industrious, did for themselves a larger
portion of the transcribing required and were, therefore, freed from
the necessity of hiring their hefts.
The statutes of the universities of Prague and of Vienna permitted
the masters and the baccalaureates to secure from the university
archives, under certain pledges, the loan of the books authorised as
text-books or of works of reference, for the purpose of making
trustworthy copies of the same. The copyists were enjoined as
follows:
Fideliter et correcte, tractim et distincte, assignando paragraphos,
capitales literas, virgulas et puncta, prout sententia requirit.[305] The
practice also obtained in these universities of having texts dictated to
the students by the magisters or the Bachelors of Arts. This was
described as librum pronuntiare, and also as ad pennam dare.
In this phrase, Karoch sent word to Erfurt that ad pennam dabit his
treatise Arenga.[306]
The text-books utilised in the German universities in the thirteenth
and fourteenth centuries were as limited in range and in number as
those of Bologna and of Padua. The instruction in the medical
departments of Prague and Vienna was based in the main on the
works of Hippocrates and Galen, with some of the later
commentaries, principally from Arabian writers. In philosophy the
chief authority was Aristotle, in mathematics Euclid, and in
astronomy Ptolemy. A few works of later date were utilised, such as
the Summula of Petrus Hispanus and the De Sphæra Mundi of
Johannes de Sacro Bosco. Bosco is otherwise known as John
Holywood or Halifax. He held the chair of mathematics in the
University of Paris about the middle of the thirteenth century. The
use of his treatise for classes in Prague is evidence of a certain
interchange between the universities of books in manuscript.
An important reason for the very large membership of the
universities of the Middle Ages as compared with their successors of
to-day, is to be found in the fact that they undertook to supply not
only the higher education which belongs to the present university
curriculum, but also the training now furnished by the gymnasia or
High Schools, which were at that time not in existence. We find,
therefore, in their membership, thousands of students who were little
more than boys either in their years or in their mental development.
The universities also, on the other hand, attracted to their
membership very many students of mature age, who came
sometimes for special purposes, but more frequently because it was
only in the university towns that circles of scholars could be found,
that books were available, and that any large measure of intellectual
activity was to be experienced. As Savigny puts it: “The universities
were, during the Middle Ages, practically the only places where men
could study or could exercise their minds with any degree of
freedom.” It was inevitable therefore, that, with the generations
succeeding the discovery of printing, there should be a decrease in
the influence and in the relative importance for the community of the
universities. With the establishment of secondary schools, the
training of the boys was cared for to better purpose elsewhere; and
with the increasing circulation of printed books, it became possible
for men to come into relations with literature in other places than in
the lecture room. The universities were no longer the sole
depositories of learning or the sole sources of intellectual activity.
This lessening of the influence of the universities represented, or
was at least coincident with, a wider development of intellectual
activity and of interest in literature on the part of the masses of the
people. The universities alone would never have been in a position
so to direct the thought of the community as to render the masses of
citizens competent to arrive at conclusions for themselves and
sufficiently assured in such conclusions to be prepared to make
them the basis of action. This was, of course, partly because,
notwithstanding the large membership and the fact that this
membership represented nearly all the classes in the community, the
universities could at best come into direct relations but with a small
proportion of the people. A more important cause for such lack of
intellectual leadership is to be found in the fact that the standard of
thought and of instruction in the universities concerned itself very
little with the intellectual life or issues of the immediate time. As Biot
puts it (speaking, to be sure, of a later century): “The universities
were several centuries in arrears with all that concerned the
sciences and the arts. Peripatetics, when all the world had
renounced with Descartes the philosophy of Aristotle, they became
Cartesians when the rest were Newtonians. That is the way with
learned bodies which do not make discoveries.”
It was the dissemination of literature through the new art of printing
rather than the diffusion of education through the university lecture
rooms, which brought to the masses of the people the
consciousness of mental existence and of individual responsibility for
arriving at sound conclusions. Prior to the printing-press, this
responsibility had been left by the people with their “spiritual
advisers,” who were charged with the duty of doing the thinking for
their flocks. It was this change in the mental status of the people
which was the precursor (although at a considerable space of years)
of the Reformation.
With the beginning in Germany of the movement known as
Humanism, the representatives of the new thought of the time were
not to be found in the university circles, and had not received their
inspiration from the lecture rooms. Says Paulsen: “The entire
traditional conduct of the universities, and in particular of the
instruction in arts and theology, was rejected with the utmost scorn
by the new culture through its representatives, the poets and orators,
to whom form and substance alike of this teaching seemed the most
outrageous barbarism, which they never wearied of denouncing.” In
the Epistolæ Obscurorum Virorum, which were issued about 1516
from the band of youthful poets gathered about Mutianus at Erfurt,
the hatred and detestation felt by the Humanists for the ancient
university system raised to itself a lasting monument.
Within a few years from the publication of the Epistolæ, the
influence of the Humanists had so far extended itself as to have
effected a large modification in the systems of study in all the larger
universities. “The old ecclesiastical Latin was replaced by classical
Latin; Roman authors, particularly the poets, were made the subject
of lectures, and the old translations of Aristotelian texts were driven
out by new translations on principles advocated by the Humanists.
Greek was taken up in the Faculty of arts and courses in the
language and literature were established in all universities.”[307]
 An immediate result of these changes and extensions was an
active demand for printed texts. The Humanistic movement, itself in
a measure the result of the printing-press, was a most important fact
in providing business for the German printers during the earlier years
of the sixteenth century. The strifes and contentions of the
Reformation checked the development in the universities of the
studies connected with the intellectual movement of the
Renaissance and lessened the demand for the literature of these
studies. The active-minded were absorbed in theological
controversies, and those who could not understand the questions at
issue could still shout the shibboleths of the leaders. As Erasmus put
it, rather bitterly, ubi regnat Lutheranismus, ibi interitus litterarum.
The literature of the Reformation, however, itself did much to make
good for the printing-presses the lessened demand for the classics,
while a few years later, the organisation of the Protestant schools
and universities aroused intellectual activities in new regions, and
created fresh requirements for printed books. Within half a century,
in fact, of the Diet of Worms, the centre of the book-absorbing
population of Germany had been transferred from the Catholic states
of the south to the Protestant territories of the north, and the literary
preponderance of the latter has continued to increase during the
succeeding generations.
 CHAPTER IV.
THE BOOK-TRADE IN THE MANUSCRIPT PERIOD.

Italy.—It seems probable that the book-trade which had been

introduced into Gaul from Rome still existed during the sixth century.
F. J. Mone finds references to such trade in the chronicles of
Cæsarius of Arles.[308] In the code of laws of the Visigoths, it is
provided that copies of the volume containing the laws shall be sold
at not more than six sols.[309]
Wattenbach is of opinion that not only in Rome but in other Italian
centres some fragments of the classic book-trade survived the fall of
the Empire and the later invasions and changes of rulers, and he
finds references to book-dealers in Italy as late as the sixth
century.[310] He takes the ground that, notwithstanding the
destruction of buildings, library collections, and in fact of whole cities,
during the various contests, first with the Barbarian invaders and
later between these invaders themselves, there still remained
scholarly people who retained their interest in Latin literature; and he
points out that, notwithstanding the many changes in the rulers of
Italy between the year 476 and the beginning of the eleventh
century, Latin never ceased to remain the official language and, as
he maintains, the language of literature.
In the Tetralogus of Wipo are the following lines which have a
bearing upon this belief in the continuation of some literary interests
in Italy:

Hoc servant Itali post prima crepundia cuncti,

Et sudare scholis mandatur tota juventus.
Solis Teutonicis vacuum vel turpe videtur,
Ut doceant aliquem, nisi clericus accipiatur. [311]
 (From their cradle up all Italians pay heed to learning, and their
children are kept at work in the schools. It is only among the
Germans that it is held to be futile and wrong to give instruction to
one who is not to become a cleric.)
Giesebrecht, in his treatise De Litterarum Studiis apud Italos,
confirms this view. He refers to a manuscript of Orosius which was
written in the seventh century and which contains an inscription
stating that this copy of the manuscript was prepared by the scribe in
the Statione Magistri Viliaric Antiquarii.
This is one of the earlier examples of the use of the term statio,
from which is derived the term stationarii, indicating scribes whose
work was done in a specific workshop or headquarters, as
contrasted with writers who were called upon to do work at the
homes of their clients. As is specified in the chapter on the
universities, this term came to be used to designate booksellers (that
is to say, producers of books) who had fixed work-shops. In the Acts
of the Council of Constantinople, the scribe who wrote out the record
of the fifth Synod is described as Theodorus librarius qui habuit
stationem ad S. Johannem Phocam.[312]
In such work-shops, while the chief undertaking was the
production of books, the scribes were ready to prepare
announcements and to write letters, as is even to-day the practice of
similar scribes in not a few Italian cities and villages.
From the beginning of the seventh century, Rome was for a
considerable period practically the only book market in the world,
that is to say, the only place in which books could be obtained on
order and in which the machinery for their production continued to
exist. In 658, S. Gertrude ordered for the newly founded monastery
at Nivelle certain sacred volumes to be prepared in the city of
Rome.[313] Beda reports that the Abbot Benedict of Wearmouth, in
671, secured from Rome a number of learned and sacred works,
non paucos vel placito pretio emtos vel amicorum dono largitos
retulit. (He brought back a number of books, some of which he had
purchased at the prices demanded, while others he had received as
gifts from his friends.) Later, the Abbot repeated his journeys, and in
678, and again in 685, brought back fresh collections. The
collections secured on his last journey included even certain
examples of the profane writers.[314]
A similar instance is noted in the chronicles of the monastery of St.
Wandrille. The Abbot Wandregisil sent his nephew Godo to Rome in
657, and Godo brought back with him as a present from the Pope
Vitalian, not only valuable relics, but many volumes of the sacred
Scriptures containing both the New and the Old Testament.[315]
During the time of the Abbot Austrulf (747-753) a chest was thrown
up by the sea on the shore. It contained relics and also a codicem
pulcherrimum, or beautiful manuscript, containing the four gospels,
Romana Littera Optime Scriptum.
This term Romana Littera has been previously referred to as
indicating a special script which had been adopted in Rome by the
earlier instructors for sacred writings.
Alcuin relates of the Archbishop Ælbert of York (766-780):

Non semel externas peregrino tramite terras,

Jam peragravit ovans, Sophiæ deductus amore,
Si quid forte novi librorum seu studiorum,
Quod secum ferret, terris reperiret in illis.
Hic quoque Romuleam venit devotus ad urbem.[316]

(More than once he has travelled joyfully through remote regions

and by strange roads, led on by his zeal for knowledge, and seeking
to discover in foreign lands novelties in books or in studies which he
could take back with him. And this zealous student journeyed to the
city of Romulus.)
During the Italian expeditions of the German Emperors, books
were from time to time brought back to Germany. Certain volumes
referred to by Pez as having been in the Library at Passau, in 1395,
contain the inscription isti sunt libri quos Roma detulimus.
Wattenbach finds record of an organised manuscript business in
Verona as early as 1338,[317] and of a more important trade in
manuscripts being carried on in Milan at the same time. In the
fourteenth century, Richard de Bury speaks of buying books for his
library from Rome. The references to this early manuscript business
in Italy are, however, so fragmentary that it is difficult to determine
how far the works secured were the remnants of old libraries or
collections, or how far they were the productions of scribe work-
shops engaged in manifolding copies for sale.
It seems evident, however, that while a scattered trade in
manuscripts was carried on both by the scribes in the towns and
between the monastery scriptoria, the facilities for the production and
manifolding of manuscript copies were hardly adequate to meet the
demand or requirements of readers and students. As early as 250,
Origen, writing in Cappadocia, was complaining that he found
difficulty in getting his teachings distributed. A zealous disciple,
named Ambrosius, secured for the purpose a group of scribes
whose transcripts were afterwards submitted to Origen for revision
before being sent out through the churches. It is further related that
Origen became so absorbed in the work of correcting these
manuscripts that he could not be called from his desk either for
exercise or for meals.[318] S. Jerome, a century later, when he was
sojourning in Bethlehem, found similar difficulty. He had among his
monks some zealous scribes, but he complained that their work was
untrustworthy.[319]
Abbot Lupus of Ferrières was obliged (in the ninth century) to
apply to monks in York in order to secure the transcribing work that
he required.
In connection with this difficulty in securing books, it became
customary, when copies were loaned from libraries, to secure from
the borrower a pledge or security of equal or greater value. The
correspondence of the time gives frequent instances of the difficulty
in getting back books that had been loaned, notwithstanding the risk
of the forfeiture of the pledges. In 1020, Notker writes from St. Gall to
the Bishop of Sitten that certain books belonging to the Bishop, for
which the Bishop was making demand, had been borrowed by the
Abbot Aregia, and that, notwithstanding many applications, he had
not succeeded in getting even a promise of their return.[320] In
Vercelli, a beautiful mass book which had been loaned by the Abbot
Erkenbald of Fulda (997-1011) to the Bishop Henry of Wurzburg,
was to have been retained for the term of the Bishop’s life. After the
death of the Bishop, reclamation was made from Fulda for the return
of the volume, but without success. During the years 1461-1463, the
Legate Marinus de Fregeno travelled through Sweden and Norway
and collected there certain manuscripts which he claimed were those
that had been taken away from Rome at the time of its plunder by
the Goths. He evidently took the ground that where books were
concerned, a term of one thousand years was not sufficient to
constitute a “statute of limitations.”
Louis IX. of France is quoted as having taken the ground that
books should be transcribed rather than borrowed, because in that
way the number would be increased and the community would be
benefited. In many cases, however, there could, of course, be no
choice. The King, for instance, desired to possess the great
encyclopedia of Vincenzo of Beauvais. He sent gold to Vincenzo, in
consideration of which a transcript of the encyclopedia was
prepared. The exact cost is not stated.[321]
In 1375, a sum equivalent to 825 francs of to-day was paid for
transcribing the commentary of Heinrich Bohic on the Decretals of
1375. In the cost of such work was usually included a price for the
loan or use of the manuscript. A fee or rental was, in fact, always
charged by the manuscript-dealers. Up to the close of the fourteenth
century, the larger proportion of transcripts were prepared for
individual buyers and under special orders, one of the evidences of
this being the fact that upon the titles of the manuscripts were
designed or illuminated the arms or crests of the purchasers. After
the beginning of the fifteenth century, there is to be found a large
number of manuscripts in which a place has been left blank on the
title-pages for the subsequent insertion of the crest or coat-of-arms,
indicating that in these instances the manuscript had been prepared
for general use instead of under special order.[322]
 As already mentioned, Charlemagne interested himself, not only in
the training of scribes, but in the collection of books, but he does not
appear to have considered it important that the works secured by
him should be retained for the use of his descendants, as he gave
instructions in his will that after his death the books should be sold.
One of the oldest illuminated Irish manuscripts is that of S.
Ceaddæ. This was purchased, at what date is not specified, by some
holy man in exchange for his best steed, and was then presented by
him to the church at Llandaff. The manuscript finally made its way to
Madrid and thence to Stockholm; according to the record, it had,
before the purchase above mentioned, been saved out of the hands
of Norman pirates.[323] It is certain that very many of the monasteries
which were within reach of the incursions of the Normans were
bereft by them of such books as had been collected, although it is
not probable that, as a rule, the pirates had any personal interest in,
or commercial appreciation for, the manuscripts that fell into their
hands.
Gerbert, whose literary interests have been previously referred to,
and who is described as the most zealous book collector of his time,
tells us that he made purchases for his library in Italy, in South
Germany, and in the Low Countries, but he does not mention
whether he was purchasing from dealers or individuals. He was a
native of Auvergne, and in 999 became Pope (under the name of
Gregory V.). Abbot Albert of Gembloux, who died in 1048, states that
he brought together, at great cost, as many as one hundred and fifty
manuscripts.[324]
A certain Deopert records that he purchased for the monastery of
St. Emmeran, from Vichelm, the chaplain of Count Regimpert, for a
large sum of money (the price is not specified), the writings of
Alcuin.[325]
Notwithstanding the very strict regulations to the contrary, it not
unfrequently happened that monasteries and churches, when in
special stress for money, pledged or sold their books to Jews. As the
greater proportion at least of the sacred writings of the monasteries
would have had no personal interest for their Hebrew purchasers, it
is fair to assume that these were taken for re-sale, and that, in fact,
there came to be a certain trade in books on the part of financiers
acting in the capacity of pawn-brokers. In 1320, the monastery of S.
Ulrich was in need of funds, and the Abbot Marquard, of Hagel,
pawned to the mendicant monks a great collection of valuable
books, among which were certain volumes that had been prepared
as early as 1175 under the directions of the Abbot Heinrich. The
successor of Marquard, Conrad Winkler, in 1344, succeeded in
getting back a portion of the books, by the payment of 27 pounds
heller, and 15 pfennigs.[326] Instances like these give evidence that a
certain trade in manuscript books, in Northern Europe at least,
preceded by a number of years the organisation of any systematised
book-trade.
Kirchhoff speaks of usurers, dealers in old clothes, and pedlars,
carrying on the trade in the buying and selling of books during the
first half of the fifteenth century. In Milan, a dealer in perfumery,
Paolino Suordo, included in his stock (in 1470) manuscripts for sale,
and later announced himself as a dealer in printed books. Both in
England and France at this time manuscripts were dealt in by
grocers and by the mercers. The monastery of Neuzelle, in 1409,
pawned several hundred manuscripts for 130 gulden, and the
monastery at Dobrilugk, in 1420, sold to the Prebendary of
Brandenburg 1441 volumes.
In 1455, the Faculty of Arts of the University of Heidelberg bought
valuable books from the estate of the Prior of Worms. In 1402, the
cathedral at Breslau rented a number of books from Burgermeister
Johann Kyner, for which the Chapter was to pay during the lifetime of
said Kyner a yearly rental of eight marks, ten groschens.[327]
The Bishop of Speier rented to the precentor of the cathedral in
1447 some separately written divisions of the Bible, which were to be
held by the precentor during his lifetime only, and were then to be
returned to the Bishop’s heirs. The rental is not mentioned. The
Chapter of the Cathedral of Basel arranged to take over certain
books from the owner or donor, whose name is not given, and to pay
as consideration for the use of the same, each year on the
anniversary of the gift, 16 sols.[328]
Richard de Bury makes a reference to the book-trade of Europe,
as it existed in the fourteenth century, as follows:
Stationariorum ac librariorum notitiam non solum intra natalis soli
provinciam, sed per regnum Franciæ, Teutoniæ et Italiæ
comparavimus dispersorum faciliter pecunia prævolante, nec eos
ullatenus impedivit distantia neque furor maris absterruit, nec eis æs
pro expensa defecit, quin ad nos optatos libros transmitterent vel
afferrent.[329]
(By means of advance payments, we have easily come into
relations with the stationarii and librarii who are scattered through
our native province, and also with those who are to be found in the
kingdoms of France, Germany, and Italy; and neither the great
distances, nor the fury of the sea, nor lack of money for their
expenses has been permitted to prevent them from bringing or
sending to us the books that we desired.)
In the same work, De Bury uses the term bibliator, which he
afterwards explained as being identical with bibliopole,—a seller of
books.
The record of the production of books that was carried on in the
earlier universities, such as Bologna and Padua, is presented in the
chapter on the universities.
In connection with the very special requirements of the earlier
Italian universities, and with the close control exercised by them over
the scribes, it is evident that a book-trade in the larger sense of the
term could not easily come into existence. The first records of
producers and dealers of books of a general character were to be
found, not in the university towns, but in Milan, Florence, and
particularly in Venice. In 1444, a copy of Macrobius was stolen from
the scholar Filelfi, or Philelphus, which copy he recovered, as he tells
us, in the shop of a public scribe in Vincenza.
Blume mentions that in Venice the Camaldulensers of S. Michael
in Murano carried on during the earlier part of the fifteenth century an
important trade in manuscripts, including with the older texts verified
copies which had been prepared under their own direction.[330] The
headquarters, not only for Italy but for Europe, of the trade of Greek
manuscripts, was for a number of years in Venice, the close relations
of Venice with Constantinople and with the East having given it an
early interest in this particular class of Eastern productions.
Joh. Arretinus was busied in Florence between the years 1375
and 1417 in the sale of manuscripts, but he appears to have secured
these mainly not by production in Florence, but by sending scribes to
the libraries in the monasteries and elsewhere to produce the copies
required.
A reference in a letter of Leonardo Bruni, written in 1416, gives
indication of an organised book-trade in Florence at that time:
Priscianum quem postulas omnes tabernas librarias perscrutatus
reperire nondum potui.[331] (I have hunted through all the book-
shops, but have not been able to find the Priscian for which you
asked.)
Bruni writes again concerning a certain Italian translation of the
Bible that he had been trying to get hold of:
Jam Bibliothecas omnes et bibliopolas requisivi ut si qua veniant
ad manus eligam quæque optima mihi significent. (I have already
searched all the libraries and book-shops in order to select from the
material at hand the manuscripts which are for me the most
important.)
Ambrogio Traversari wrote in 1418 in Florence:
Oro ut convenias bibliopolas civitatis et inquiri facias diligenter, an
inveniamus decretales in parvo volumine.[332] (I beg you to make
search among the booksellers of the city and ascertain whether it is
possible to secure in a small volume a copy of the Decretals.)
The use for book-dealers of the old classic term bibliopola in place
of the more usual stationarius is to be noted.
From these references, we have a right to conclude that there
were during the first quarter of the fifteenth century in Florence a
number of dealers in books who handled various classes of
literature.
The great publisher of the fifteenth century, Philippi Vespasianus,
or Vespasiano, who was not only a producer and dealer in
manuscripts, but a man possessed of a wide range of scholarship,
called himself librarius florentinus. He held the post for a time of
bidellus of the University of Florence. His work will be referred to
more fully in a later division of this chapter.
Kirchhoff points out that the dealers of this time, among others
Vespasiano himself, were sometimes termed chartularii, a term
indicating that dealers in books were interested also in the sale of
paper and probably of other writing materials. The Italian word
cartolajo specifies a paper-dealer or perhaps more nearly a stationer
in the modern signification of the term.
The influx of Greek scholars into Italy began some years before
the fall of Constantinople. Some of these scholars came from towns
in Asia Minor, which had fallen under the rule of the Turks before the
capture of Constantinople. When the Turkish armies crossed the
Bosphorus, a number of the Greeks seem to have lost hope at a
comparatively early date of being able to defend the Byzantine
territory, and had betaken themselves with such property as they
could save to various places of refuge in the south of Europe, and
particularly in Italy. As described in other chapters, many of these
exiles brought with them Greek manuscripts, and in some cases
these codices were not only important as being the first copies of the
texts brought to the knowledge of European scholars, but were of
distinctive interest and value as being the oldest examples of such
texts in existence.
The larger number of the exiles who selected Italy as their place of
refuge found homes and in many cases scholarly occupation, not in
the university towns so much as in the great commercial centres,
such as Venice and Florence. Many of these Greeks were accepted
as instructors in the families of nobles or of wealthy merchants, while
others made use of their manuscripts either through direct sale,
through making transcripts for sale, or through the loan of the
originals to the manuscript-dealers.
A little later these manuscripts served as material and as “copy”
for the editions of the Greek classics issued by Aldus and his
associates, the first thoroughly edited and carefully printed Greek
books that the world had known. It was partly as a cause and partly
as an effect of the presence of so many scholarly Greeks, that the
study of Greek language, literature, and philosophy became
fashionable among the so-called higher circles of Italian society
during the last half of the fifteenth century.
The interest in Greek literature had, however, as pointed out,
begun nearly twenty-five years earlier. As there came to be some
knowledge of the extent of the literary treasures of classic Greece
which had been preserved in the Byzantine cities, not a few of the
more enterprising dealers in manuscripts, and many also of the
wealthier and more enterprising of the scholarly noblemen and
merchants, themselves sent emissaries to search the monasteries
and cities of the East for further manuscripts which could be
purchased.
One reason, apparently, for the preference given by the Greeks to
Venice and Florence over Bologna and Padua was the fact that the
two great universities were devoted, as we have seen, more
particularly to the subjects of law, theology, and medicine, subjects in
which the learning of the Greeks could be of little direct service.[333]
The philosophy and the poetry which formed the texts of the lectures
given by the Greek scholars attracted many zealous and earnest
students, but these students came, as stated, largely outside of the
university circles. The doctors of law and the doctors of theology
were among the last of the Italian scholars to be interested in
Homeric poetry or in the theories of the Greek metaphysicians.
Towards the middle of the fifteenth century and a few years before
the introduction of printing, a new term came to be used for dealers
in manuscripts. The scribes had in many cases naturally associated
their business interests with those of the makers of paper,—cartolaji,
and the latter name came to be applied not only to the paper
manufacturers, but to the purchasers of the paper upon which books
were inscribed. In some cases the paper-makers, or cartolaji, appear
themselves to have organised staffs of scribes through whose labour
their own raw material could be utilised, while the name of paper-
maker,—cartolajo, came to be used to describe the entire concern.
After the introduction into Italy of printing, the association of the
paper-makers with books became still more important, and not a few
of the original printer-publishers were formerly paper manufacturers,
and continued this branch of trade while adding to it the work of
manufacturing books. Among such paper-making publishers is to be
noted Francesco Cartolajo, who was in business in Florence in 1507,
and whose surname was, of course, derived from the trade in which
his family had for some generations been engaged. Bonaccorsi
turned his paper-making establishment in Florence into a printing-
office and book manufactory as early as 1472, and Montali, in
Parma, took the same course in 1482; Di Sasso who, in 1481, came
into association with the Brothers Brushi, united his printing-office
with their paper factory.
Fillippo Giunta, one of the earlier publishers in Florence, calls
himself librarius et cartolajus. It is possible that he reversed the
business routine above referred to, and united a paper factory with
his printing-office.
One result of the influx of Greek scholars, many of whom were
themselves skilled scribes while others brought with them scribes,
was the multiplying of the number of writers available for work and a
corresponding reduction in the cost of such work.
The effect of this change in the business conditions was to lessen
the practice of hiring manuscripts for a term of days or weeks, or of
dividing manuscripts into pecias, and to increase the actual sale of
works in manuscripts.
The university regulations, however, controlling the loaning of
manuscripts and of the pecias appear to have been continued and
renewed through the latter half of the fifteenth century, that is to say,
not only after the trade in manuscripts, at popular prices, had largely
developed in cities like Florence, Venice, and Milan, but even after
the introduction of printing. It would almost seem as if in regard to
books in manuscript, the system which had been put into shape by
the university authorities had had the effect of delaying for a quarter
of a century or so the introduction into Bologna and Padua of the
methods of book production and book distribution which were
already in vogue in other cities of Italy. I do not overlook the fact that
there was in Florence also a university, but it is evident that the
book-trade in that city had never been under the control of the
university authorities, and that the methods of the dealers took
shape rather from the general, common-sense commercial routine of
the great centre of Italian trade than from the narrow scholastic
theories of the professors of law or of theology.
During the twenty-five years before the art of printing, introduced
into Italy in 1464, had become generally diffused, the years in which
the trade in manuscripts was at its highest development, Florence
succeeded Venice as the centre of this trade, both for Italy and for
Europe.
The activity of the intellectual life of the city, and the fact that its
citizens were cultivated and that its scholars were so largely
themselves men of wealth, the convenient location of the city for
trade communications with the other cities of Italy and with the great
marts in the East, in the West, and in the North, and the
accumulation in such libraries as those of the Medici of collections,
nowhere else to be rivalled, of manuscripts, both ancient and
modern, united in securing for Florence the pre-eminence for literary
production and for literary interests.
Scholars, not only from the other Italian cities, but from France,
Germany, and Hungary, came to Florence to consult manuscripts
which in many cases could be found only in Florence, or to purchase
transcripts of these manuscripts, which could be produced with
greater correctness, greater beauty, and smaller expense by the
librarii of Florence than by producers of books in any other city. After
the Greek refugees began their lecture courses, there was an
additional attraction for scholars from the outer world to visit the
Tuscan capital.
 The wealthy scholars and merchant princes of Florence, whose
collections of manuscripts were given to the city during their lifetime,
or who left such collections after their death to the Florentine
libraries, made it, as a rule, a condition of such gifts and such
bequests that the books should be placed freely at the disposal of
visitors desiring to make transcripts of the same. Such a condition
appears in the will of Bonaccorsi,[334] while a similar condition was
quoted by Poggio[335] in his funeral oration upon Niccolo d’ Niccoli,
as having been the intention of Niccolo for the books bequeathed by
him to his Florentine fellow-citizens.
Foreign collectors who did not find it convenient themselves to visit
Florence, such as the Duke of Burgundy, and Matthias Corvinus of
Hungary, kept employed in the city for a number of years scribes
engaged in the work of preparing copies of these Florentine literary
treasures for the libraries of Nancy and of Buda-Pesth.
Matthias was, it seems, not content with ordering the transcripts of
the works desired by him, but employed a scholarly editor, resident
in Florence, to supervise the work and to collate the transcripts with
the originals, and who certified to the correctness of the copies
forwarded to Buda.[336] At the death of Matthias, there appear to
have been left in Florence a number of codices ordered by him
which had not yet been paid for, and these were taken over by the
Medici.[337]
In a parchment manuscript of the Philippian orations is inscribed a
note by a previous owner, a certain Dominicus Venetus, to the effect
that he had bought the same in Rome from a Florentine bookseller
for five ducats in gold in 1460.[338] Dominicus goes on to say that he
had used this manuscript in connection with the lectures of the
learned Brother Patrus Thomasius.
During the thirteenth century, there was a considerable
development in the art of preparing and of illuminating and
illustrating manuscripts. One author is quoted by Tiraboschi as
saying that the work on a manuscript now required the services not
of a scribe, but of an artist. For the transcribing of a missal and
illuminating the same with original designs, a monk in Bologna is
quoted as having received in 1260 two hundred florins gold, the
equivalent of about one hundred dollars. For copying the text of the
Bible, without designs, another scribe received in the same year
eighty lire, about sixteen dollars.[339]
The work of the manuscript-dealers in Florence was carried on not
only for the citizens and sojourners in the city itself, but for the
benefit of other Italian cities in which there was no adequate
machinery for the manifolding of manuscripts. Bartholomæus Facius,
writing from Naples in 1448, speaks of the serious inadequacy of the
scribes in that city. There were but few men engaged in the
business, and these were poorly educated and badly equipped.[340]
Facius was, therefore, asking a correspondent in Florence to have
certain work done for him which could not be completed in Naples.
Poggio writes from Rome about the same date to Niccolo in Florence
to somewhat similar effect. He speaks with envy of the larger literary
facilities possessed by his Florentine friends.[341]
Next to Florence, the most important centre for the manuscript
trade of North Italy was Milan. As early as the middle of the
fourteenth century, there is record of no less than forty professional
scribes being at work in the city. Such literary work as was required
by Genoa and other Italian towns within reach of the Lombardy
capital came to Milan. At the beginning of the thirteenth century,
when the population of the city was about 200,000, there had been
in the city but two registered copyists. More important, however, than
that of either Florence or Milan, was the manuscript trade of Venice,
the position of which city gave it exceptional advantages as well for
the collection of codices from the East as for securing the services of
skilled scribes from Athens or from Constantinople. One of the more
noteworthy of the Venetian importers of manuscripts was Johannes
Galeotti, a Genoese by birth, who made various journeys to
Constantinople, and whose special trade is referred to in an
inscription on a manuscript dating from 1450 and containing the
speeches of Demosthenes.[342]