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HOW TO THINK ABOUT ALGORITHMS

There are many algorithm texts that provide lots of well-polished code and
proofs of correctness. Instead, this one presents insights, notations, and
analogies to help the novice describe and think about algorithms like an
expert. It is a bit like a carpenter studying hammers instead of houses. Jeff
Edmonds provides both the big picture and easy step-by-step methods for
developing algorithms, while avoiding the comon pitfalls. Paradigms such
as loop invariants and recursion help to unify a huge range of algorithms
into a few meta-algorithms. Part of the goal is to teach students to think
abstractly. Without getting bogged down in formal proofs, the book fosters
deeper understanding so that how and why each algorithm works is trans-
parent. These insights are presented in a slow and clear manner accessible
to second- or third-year students of computer science, preparing them to
find on their own innovative ways to solve problems.
Abstraction is when you translate the equations, the rules, and the under-
lying essences of the problem not only into a language that can be commu-
nicated to your friend standing with you on a streetcar, but also into a form
that can percolate down and dwell in your subconscious. Because, remem-
ber, it is your subconscious that makes the miraculous leaps of inspiration,
not your plodding perspiration and not your cocky logic. And remember,
unlike you, your subconscious does not understand Java code.

i
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ii
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HOW TO THINK ABOUT

ALGORITHMS

JEFF EDMONDS
York University

iii
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo

Cambridge University Press

The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK
Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York
www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521849319

© Jeff Edmonds 2008

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of

relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place
without the written permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published in print format 2008

ISBN-13 978-0-511-41370-4 eBook (EBL)

ISBN-13 978-0-521-84931-9 hardback

ISBN-13 978-0-521-61410-8 paperback

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of urls
for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not
guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.
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CUUS154-FM CUUS154-Edmonds 978 0 521 84931 9 April 2, 2008 17:52

Dedicated to my father, Jack, and to my sons, Joshua and Micah.

May the love and the mathematics continue to flow between

the generations.

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Problem Solving
Out of the Box Leaping
Deep Thinking
Creative Abstracting
Logical Deducing
with Friends Working
Fun Having
Fumbling and Bumbling
Bravely Persevering
Joyfully Succeeding

vi
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CONTENTS vii

Preface page xi

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

PART ONE. ITERATIVE ALGORITHMS AND LOOP INVARIANTS

1 Iterative Algorithms: Measures of Progress and Loop Invariants . . . . . 5
1.1 A Paradigm Shift: A Sequence of Actions vs. a Sequence of
Assertions 5
1.2 The Steps to Develop an Iterative Algorithm 8
1.3 More about the Steps 12
1.4 Different Types of Iterative Algorithms 21
1.5 Typical Errors 26
1.6 Exercises 27
2 Examples Using More-of-the-Input Loop Invariants . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.1 Coloring the Plane 29
2.2 Deterministic Finite Automaton 31
2.3 More of the Input vs. More of the Output 39
3 Abstract Data Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.1 Specifications and Hints at Implementations 44
3.2 Link List Implementation 51
3.3 Merging with a Queue 56
3.4 Parsing with a Stack 57
4 Narrowing the Search Space: Binary Search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4.1 Binary Search Trees 60
4.2 Magic Sevens 62
4.3 VLSI Chip Testing 65
4.4 Exercises 69
5 Iterative Sorting Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
5.1 Bucket Sort by Hand 71
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Contents

5.2 Counting Sort (a Stable Sort) 72

5.3 Radix Sort 75
5.4 Radix Counting Sort 76
6 Euclid’s GCD Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
7 The Loop Invariant for Lower Bounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
viii

PART TWO. RECURSION

8 Abstractions, Techniques, and Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
8.1 Thinking about Recursion 97
8.2 Looking Forward vs. Backward 99
8.3 With a Little Help from Your Friends 100
8.4 The Towers of Hanoi 102
8.5 Checklist for Recursive Algorithms 104
8.6 The Stack Frame 110
8.7 Proving Correctness with Strong Induction 112
9 Some Simple Examples of Recursive Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
9.1 Sorting and Selecting Algorithms 114
9.2 Operations on Integers 122
9.3 Ackermann’s Function 127
9.4 Exercises 128
10 Recursion on Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
10.1 Tree Traversals 133
10.2 Simple Examples 135
10.3 Generalizing the Problem Solved 138
10.4 Heap Sort and Priority Queues 141
10.5 Representing Expressions with Trees 149
11 Recursive Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
11.1 Drawing a Recursive Image from a Fixed Recursive and a Base
Case Image 153
11.2 Randomly Generating a Maze 156
12 Parsing with Context-Free Grammars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

PART THREE. OPTIMIZATION PROBLEMS

13 Definition of Optimization Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
14 Graph Search Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
14.1 A Generic Search Algorithm 174
14.2 Breadth-First Search for Shortest Paths 179
14.3 Dijkstra’s Shortest-Weighted-Path Algorithm 183
14.4 Depth-First Search 188
14.5 Recursive Depth-First Search 192
14.6 Linear Ordering of a Partial Order 194
14.7 Exercise 196
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Contents

15 Network Flows and Linear Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198

15.1 A Hill-Climbing Algorithm with a Small Local Maximum 200
15.2 The Primal–Dual Hill-Climbing Method 206
15.3 The Steepest-Ascent Hill-Climbing Algorithm 214
ix
15.4 Linear Programming 219
15.5 Exercises 223
16 Greedy Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
16.1 Abstractions, Techniques, and Theory 225
16.2 Examples of Greedy Algorithms 236
16.2.1 Example: The Job/Event Scheduling Problem 236
16.2.2 Example: The Interval Cover Problem 240
16.2.3 Example: The Minimum-Spanning-Tree Problem 244
16.3 Exercises 250
17 Recursive Backtracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
17.1 Recursive Backtracking Algorithms 251
17.2 The Steps in Developing a Recursive Backtracking 256
17.3 Pruning Branches 260
17.4 Satisfiability 261
17.5 Exercises 265
18 Dynamic Programming Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
18.1 Start by Developing a Recursive Backtracking 267
18.2 The Steps in Developing a Dynamic Programming Algorithm 271
18.3 Subtle Points 277
18.3.1 The Question for the Little Bird 278
18.3.2 Subinstances and Subsolutions 281
18.3.3 The Set of Subinstances 284
18.3.4 Decreasing Time and Space 288
18.3.5 Counting the Number of Solutions 291
18.3.6 The New Code 292
19 Examples of Dynamic Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
19.1 The Longest-Common-Subsequence Problem 295
19.2 Dynamic Programs as More-of-the-Input Iterative Loop
Invariant Algorithms 300
19.3 A Greedy Dynamic Program: The Weighted Job/Event
Scheduling Problem 303
19.4 The Solution Viewed as a Tree: Chains of Matrix Multiplications 306
19.5 Generalizing the Problem Solved: Best AVL Tree 311
19.6 All Pairs Using Matrix Multiplication 314
19.7 Parsing with Context-Free Grammars 315
19.8 Designing Dynamic Programming Algorithms via Reductions 318
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20 Reductions and NP-Completeness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324

20.1 Satisfiability Is at Least as Hard as Any Optimization Problem 326
20.2 Steps to Prove NP-Completeness 330
20.3 Example: 3-Coloring Is NP-Complete 338
20.4 An Algorithm for Bipartite Matching Using the Network
x Flow Algorithm 342
21 Randomized Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
21.1 Using Randomness to Hide the Worst Cases 347
21.2 Solutions of Optimization Problems with a Random Structure 350

PART FOUR. APPENDIX

22 Existential and Universal Quantifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
23 Time Complexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
23.1 The Time (and Space) Complexity of an Algorithm 366
23.2 The Time Complexity of a Computational Problem 371
24 Logarithms and Exponentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
25 Asymptotic Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
25.1 Steps to Classify a Function 379
25.2 More about Asymptotic Notation 384
26 Adding-Made-Easy Approximations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
26.1 The Technique 389
26.2 Some Proofs for the Adding-Made-Easy Technique 393
27 Recurrence Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
27.1 The Technique 398
27.2 Some Proofs 401
28 A Formal Proof of Correctness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408

PART FIVE. EXERCISE SOLUTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411

Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437

Index 439
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PREFACE xi

To the Educator and the Student

This book is designed to be used in a twelve-week, third-year algorithms course. The
goal is to teach students to think abstractly about algorithms and about the key algo-
rithmic techniques used to develop them.

Meta-Algorithms: Students must learn so many algorithms that they are sometimes
overwhelmed. In order to facilitate their understanding, most textbooks cover the
standard themes of iterative algorithms, recursion, greedy algorithms, and dynamic
programming. Generally, however, when it comes to presenting the algorithms them-
selves and their proofs of correctness, the concepts are hidden within optimized
code and slick proofs. One goal of this book is to present a uniform and clean way
of thinking about algorithms. We do this by focusing on the structure and proof of
correctness of iterative and recursive meta-algorithms, and within these the greedy
and dynamic programming meta-algorithms. By learning these and their proofs of
correctness, most actual algorithms can be easily understood. The challenge is that
thinking about meta-algorithms requires a great deal of abstract thinking.

Abstract Thinking: Students are very good at learning

how to apply a concrete code to a concrete input in-
stance. They tend, however, to find it difficult to think
abstractly about the algorithms. I maintain that the
more abstractions a person has from which to view
the problem, the deeper his understanding of it will be,
the more tools he will have at his disposal, and the bet-
ter prepared he will be to design his own innovative
ways to solve new problems. Hence, I present a number
of different notations, analogies, and paradigms within
which to develop and to think about algorithms.
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Preface

Way of Thinking: People who develop algorithms have various ways of thinking and
intuition that tend not to get taught. The assumption, I suppose, is that these cannot
be taught but must be figured out on one’s own. This text attempts to teach students
to think like a designer of algorithms.

xii Not a Reference Book: My intention is not to teach a specific selection of algorithms
for specific purposes. Hence, the book is not organized according to the application
of the algorithms, but according to the techniques and abstractions used to develop
them.

Developing Algorithms: The goal is not to present completed algorithms in a nice

clean package, but to go slowly through every step of the development. Many false
starts have been added. The hope is that this will help students learn to develop al-
gorithms on their own. The difference is a bit like the difference between studying
carpentry by looking at houses and by looking at hammers.

Proof of Correctness: Our philosophy is not to follow an algorithm with a formal

proof that it is correct. Instead, this text is about learning how to think about, de-
velop, and describe algorithms in such way that their correctness is transparent.

Big Picture vs. Small Steps: For each topic, I attempt both to give the big picture and
to break it down into easily understood steps.

Level of Presentation: This material is difficult. There is no getting around that. I

have tried to figure out where confusion may arise and to cover these points in more
detail. I try to balance the succinct clarity that comes with mathematical formalism
against the personified analogies and metaphors that help to provide both intuition
and humor.

Point Form: The text is organized into blocks, each containing a title and a single
thought. Hopefully, this will make the text easier to lecture and study from.

Prerequisites: The text assumes that the students have completed a first-year
programming course and have a general mathematical maturity. The Appendix
(Part Four) covers much of the mathematics that will be needed.

Homework Questions: A few homework questions are included. I am hoping to de-

velop many more, along with their solutions. Contributions are welcome.

Read Ahead: The student is expected to read the material before the lecture. This will
facilitate productive discussion during class.

Explaining: To be able to prove yourself on a test or on the job, you need to be able
to explain the material well. In addition, explaining it to someone else is the best way
to learn it yourself. Hence, I highly recommend spending a lot of time explaining
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Preface

the material over and over again out loud to yourself, to each other, and to your
stuffed bear.

Dreaming: I would like to emphasis the importance of

thinking, even daydreaming, about the material. This
can be done while going through your day – while swim- xiii
ming, showering, cooking, or lying in bed. Ask ques-
tions. Why is it done this way and not that way? In-
vent other algorithms for solving a problem. Then look
for input instances for which your algorithm gives the
wrong answer. Mathematics is not all linear thinking.
If the essence of the material, what the questions are really asking, is allowed to seep
down into your subconscious then with time little thoughts will begin to percolate
up. Pursue these ideas. Sometimes even flashes of inspiration appear.

Acknowledgments
I would like to thank Andy Mirzaian, Franck van Breugel, James Elder, Suprakash
Datta, Eric Ruppert, Russell Impagliazzo, Toniann Pitassi, and Kirk Pruhs, with whom
I co-taught and co-researched algorithms for many years. I would like to thank Jen-
nifer Wolfe and Lauren Cowles for their fantastic editing jobs. All of these people were
a tremendous support for this work.
Discovering Diverse Content Through
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distance. We now made sail for the island; and, presently after,
discovered a small inlet which had the appearance of being a good
harbour. In order to be better informed, I sent away two armed
boats, under the command of Lieutenant Cooper, to sound it; and, in
the mean while, we stood on and off with the ship, to be ready to
follow, or give them any assistance they might want. On the east
point of the entrance, we observed a number of people, and several
houses and canoes; and when our boats entered the harbour they
launched some, and followed them, but came not near. It was not
long before Mr. Cooper made the signal for anchorage; and we stood
in with the ship. The wind being at west, and our course S. S. W., we
borrowed close to the west point, and passed over some sunken
rocks, which might have been avoided by keeping a little more to the
east, or about one-third channel over. The wind left us as soon as
we were within the entrance, and obliged us to drop an anchor in
four fathoms water. After this, the boats were sent again to sound;
and, in the mean time, the launch was hoisted out, in order to carry
out anchors to warp in by, as soon as we should be acquainted with
the channel.
While we were thus employed, many of the natives got together in
parties, on several parts of the shore, all armed with bows, spears,
&c. Some swam off to us, others came in canoes. At first they were
shy, and kept at the distance of a stone’s throw; they grew
insensibly bolder; and, at last, came under our stern, and made
some exchanges. The people in one of the first canoes, after coming
as near as they durst, threw towards us some cocoa-nuts. I went
into a boat and picked them up, giving them in return some cloth
and other articles. This induced others to come under the stern, and
alongside, where their behaviour was insolent and daring. They
wanted to carry off every thing within their reach; they got hold of
the fly of the ensign, and would have torn it from the staff; others
attempted to knock the rings off the rudder; but the greatest trouble
they gave us was to look after the buoys of our anchors, which were
no sooner thrown out of the boats, or let go from the ship, than they
got hold of them. A few musquets fired in the air had no effect; but
a four-pounder frightened them so much, that they quitted their
canoes that instant, and took to the water. But as soon as they
found themselves unhurt, they got again into their canoes; gave us
some halloos; flourished their weapons; and returned once more to
the buoys. This put us to the expence of a few musketoon shot,
which had the desired effect. Although none were hurt, they were
afterwards afraid to come near the buoys; very soon all retired on
shore; and we were permitted to sit down to dinner undisturbed.
During these transactions, a friendly old man in a small canoe
made several trips between us and the shore, bringing off each time
a few cocoa-nuts, or a yam, and taking in exchange whatever we
gave him. Another was on the gangway when the great gun was
fired, but I could not prevail on him to stay there long. Towards the
evening, after the ship was moored, I landed at the head of the
harbour, in the S. E. corner, with a strong party of men, without any
opposition being made by a great number of the natives who were
assembled in two parties, the one on our right, the other on our left,
armed with clubs, darts, spears, slings, and stones, bows and
arrows, &c. After distributing to the old people, (for we could
distinguish no chief,) and some others, presents of cloth, medals,
&c., I ordered two casks to be filled with water out of a pond about
twenty paces behind the landing-place; giving the natives to
understand, that this was one of the articles we wanted. Besides
water, we got from them a few cocoa-nuts, which seemed to be in
plenty on the trees; but they could not be prevailed upon to part
with any of their weapons. These they held in constant readiness,
and in the proper attitudes of offence and defence; so that little was
wanting to make them attack us; at least we thought so, by their
pressing so much upon us, and in spite of our endeavours to keep
them off. Our early re-embarking probably disconcerted their
scheme; and after that, they all retired. The friendly old man before
mentioned, was in one of these parties; and we judged, from his
conduct, that his temper was pacific.
 CHAP. V.

AN INTERCOURSE ESTABLISHED WITH THE

NATIVES; SOME ACCOUNT OF THE ISLAND; AND A
VARIETY OF INCIDENTS THAT HAPPENED DURING
OUR STAY AT IT.

A s we wanted to take in a large quantity both of wood and water,

and as, when I was on shore, I had found it practicable to lay the
ship much nearer the landing-place than she now was, which would
greatly facilitate that work, as well as over-awe the natives, and
enable us better to cover and protect the working party on shore;
with this view, on the 6th, we went to work to transport the ship to
the place I designed to moor her in. While we were about this, we
observed the natives assembling from all parts, and forming
themselves into two parties, as they did the preceding evening, one
on each side the landing-place, to the amount of some thousands,
armed as before. A canoe, sometimes conducted by one, and at
other times by two or three men, now and then came off, bringing a
few cocoa-nuts or plantains. These they gave us without asking for
any return; but I took care that they should always have something.
Their chief design seemed to be to invite us on shore. One of those
who came off was the old man who had already ingratiated himself
into our favour. I made him understand, by signs, that they were to
lay aside their weapons, took those which were in the canoe and
threw them overboard, and made him a present of a large piece of
cloth. There was no doubt that he understood me, and made my
request known to his countrymen. For as soon as he landed we
observed him to go first to the one party, and then to the other; nor
was he, ever after, seen by us with any thing like a weapon in his
hand. After this, three fellows came in a canoe under the stern, one
of them brandishing a club, with which he struck the ship’s side, and
committed other acts of defiance, but at last offered to exchange it
for a string of beads, and some other trifles. These were sent down
to him by a line; but the moment they were in his possession, he
and his companions paddled off in all haste, without giving the club,
or any thing else, in return. This was what I expected, and indeed
what I was not sorry for, as I wanted an opportunity to show the
multitude on shore the effect of our fire-arms, without materially
hurting any of them. Having a fowling-piece, loaded with small shot,
(No. 8.) I gave the fellow the contents; and, when they were above
musket-shot off, I ordered some of the musketoons, or wall-pieces,
to be fired, which made them leap out of the canoe, keep under her
off side, and swim with her ashore. This transaction seemed to make
little or no impression on the people there. On the contrary, they
began to halloo, and to make sport of it.
After mooring the ship, by four anchors, with her broadside to the
landing-place, hardly a musket-shot off, and placing our artillery in
such a manner as to command the whole harbour, I embarked with
the marines, and a party of seamen, in three boats, and rowed in for
the shore. It hath been already mentioned, that the two divisions of
the natives were drawn up on each side the landing-place. They had
left a space between them of about thirty or forty yards, in which
were laid, to the most advantage, a few small bunches of plantains,
a yam, and two or three roots. Between these and the water were
stuck upright in the sand, for what purpose I never could learn, four
small reeds, about two feet from each other, in a line at right angles
to the shore, where they remained for two or three days after. The
old man before mentioned, and two more, stood by these things,
inviting us, by signs, to land; but I had not forgot the trap I was so
near being caught in at the last island; and this looked something
like it. We answered, by making signs for the two divisions to retire
farther back, and give us more room. The old man seemed to desire
them so to do, but no more regard was paid to him than to us. More
were continually joining them, and, except two or three old men, not
one unarmed. In short, every thing conspired to make us believe
they meant to attack us as soon as we should be on shore; the
consequence of which was easily supposed; many of them must
have been killed and wounded, and we should hardly have escaped
unhurt; two things I equally wished to prevent. Since, therefore,
they would not give us the room we required, I thought it was better
to frighten them into it, than to oblige them by the deadly effect of
our fire-arms. I accordingly ordered a musket to be fired over the
party on our right, which was by far the strongest body; but the
alarm it gave them was momentary. In an instant they recovered
themselves, and began to display their weapons. One fellow showed
us his backside, in a manner which plainly conveyed his meaning.
After this I ordered three or four muskets to be fired. This was the
signal for the ship to fire a few great guns, which presently
dispersed them; and then we landed, and marked out the limits, on
the right and left, by a line. Our old friend stood his ground, though
deserted by his two companions, and I rewarded his confidence with
a present. The natives came gradually to us, seemingly in a more
friendly manner; some even without their weapons, but by far the
greatest part brought them; and when we made signs to lay them
down, they gave us to understand that we must lay down ours first.
Thus all parties stood armed. The presents I made to the old people,
and to such as seemed to be of consequence, had little effect on
their conduct. They indeed climbed the cocoa-nut trees, and threw
us down the nuts, without requiring any thing for them; but I took
care that they should always have somewhat in return. I observed
that many were afraid to touch what belonged to us; and they
seemed to have no notion of exchanging one thing for another. I
took the old man, whose name we now found to be Paowang, to the
woods, and made him understand, I wanted to cut down some trees
to take on board the ship; cutting some down at the same time,
which we put into one of our boats, together with a few small casks
of water, with a view of letting the people see what it was we chiefly
wanted. Paowang very readily gave his consent to cut wood; nor
was there any one who made the least objection. He only desired
the cocoa-nut trees might not be cut down. Matters being thus
settled, we embarked and returned on board to dinner, and,
immediately after, they all dispersed. I never learnt that any one was
hurt by our shot, either on this or the preceding day; which was a
very happy circumstance. In the afternoon, having landed again, we
loaded the launch with water, and having made three hauls with the
seine, caught upwards of three hundred pounds of mullet and other
fish. It was some time before any of the natives appeared, and not
above twenty or thirty at last, amongst whom was our trusty friend
Paowang, who made us a present of a small pig, which was the only
one we got at this isle, or that was offered us.
During the night, the volcano, which was about four miles to the
west of us, vomited up vast quantities of fire and smoke, as it had
also done the night before; and the flames were seen to rise above
the hill which lay between us and it. At every eruption, it made a
long rumbling noise like that of thunder, or the blowing up of large
mines. A heavy shower of rain, which fell at this time, seemed to
increase it; and the wind blowing from the same quarter, the air was
loaded with its ashes, which fell so thick, that every thing was
covered with the dust. It was a kind of fine sand or stone, ground or
burnt to powder, and was exceedingly troublesome to the eyes.
Early in the morning of the 7th, the natives began again to
assemble near the watering-place, armed as usual, but not in such
numbers as at first. After breakfast we landed, in order to cut wood
and fill water. I found many of the islanders much inclined to be
friends with us, especially the old people; on the other hand, most of
the younger were daring and insolent, and obliged us to keep to our
arms. I staid till I saw no disturbance was like to happen, and then
returned to the ship, leaving the party under the command of
Lieutenants Clerke and Edgcumbe. When they came on board to
dinner, they informed me that the people continued to behave in the
same inconsistent manner as in the morning; but more especially
one man, whom Mr. Edgcumbe was obliged to fire at, and believed
he had struck with a swan-shot. After that, the others behaved with
more discretion; and as soon as our people embarked, they all
retired. While we were sitting at dinner, an old man came on board,
looked into many parts of the ship, and then went ashore again.
In the afternoon, only a few of those who lived in the
neighbourhood, with whom we were now upon a tolerable footing,
made their appearance at the watering-place. Paowang brought us
an axe which had been left by our people, either in the woods or on
the beach, and found by some of the natives. A few other articles
were afterwards returned to us, which either they had stolen, or we
had lost by our negligence. So careful were they now not to offend
us in this respect.
Early the next morning, I sent the launch, protected by a party of
marines in another boat, to take in ballast, which we wanted. This
work was done before breakfast; and after it, she was sent for wood
and water, and with her the people employed in this service under
the protection of a serjeant’s guard, which was now thought
sufficient, as the natives seemed to be pretty well reconciled to us. I
was told, that they asked our people to go home with them, on
condition they stripped naked as they were. This shows that they
had no design to rob them, whatever other they might have.
On the 9th, I sent the launch for more ballast, and the guard and
wooders to the usual place. With these I went myself, and found a
good many of the natives collected together, whose behaviour,
though armed, was courteous and obliging; so that there was no
longer any occasion to mark out the limits by a line; they observed
them without this precaution. As it was necessary for Mr. Wales’s
instruments to remain on shore all the middle of the day, the guard
did not return to dinner, as they had done before, till relieved by
others. When I came off, I prevailed on a young man, whose name
was Wha-a-gou, to accompany me. Before dinner I showed him
every part of the ship; but did not observe that any one thing fixed
his attention a moment, or caused in him the least surprise. He had
no knowledge of goats, dogs, or cats, calling them all hogs (Booga
or Boogas). I made him a present of a dog and a bitch, as he
showed a liking to that kind of animal. Soon after he came on board,
some of his friends followed in a canoe, and enquired for him,
probably doubtful of his safety. He looked out of the quarter-gallery,
and having spoken to them, they went ashore, and quickly returned
with a cock, a little sugar-cane, and a few cocoa-nuts, as a present
to me. Though he sat down with us, he did but just taste our salt
pork, but eat pretty heartily of yam, and drank a glass of wine. After
dinner I made him presents, and then conducted him ashore.
As soon as we landed, the youth and some of his friends took me
by the hand, with a view, as I understood, to conduct me to their
habitations. We had not gone far, before some of them, for what
reason I know not, were unwilling I should proceed; in consequence
of which the whole company stopped; and, if I was not mistaken, a
person was dispatched for something or other to give me; for I was
desired to sit down and wait, which I accordingly did. During this
interval, several of our gentlemen passed us, at which they showed
great uneasiness, and importuned me so much to order them back,
that I was at last obliged to comply. They were jealous of our going
up the country, or even along the shore of the harbour. While I was
waiting here, our friend Paowang came with a present of fruit and
roots, carried by about twenty men; in order, as I supposed, to make
it appear the greater. One had a small bunch of plantains, another a
yam, a third a cocoa-nut, &c.: but two men might have carried the
whole with ease. This present was in return for something I had
given him in the morning; however, I thought the least I could do
now, was to pay the porters.
After I had dispatched Paowang, I returned to Wha-a-gou and his
friends, who were still for detaining me. They seemed to wait with
great impatience for something, and to be unwilling and ashamed to
take away the two dogs, without making me a return. As night was
approaching, I pressed to be gone; with which they complied, and
so we parted.
The preceding day, Mr. Forster learnt from the people the proper
name of the island, which they call Tanna; and this day I learnt from
them the names of those in the neighbourhood. The one we touched
at last is called Erromango; the small isle, which we discovered the
morning we landed here, Immer; the Table Island to the east,
discovered at the same time, Erronan or Foottoona; and an island
which lies to the S. E. Annattom. All these islands are to be seen
from Tanna.
They gave us to understand, in a manner which I thought
admitted of no doubt, that they eat human flesh, and that
circumcision was practised among them. They began the subject of
eating human flesh of their own accord, by asking us if we did;
otherwise I should never have thought of asking them such a
question. I have heard people argue, that no nation could be
cannibals, if they had other flesh to eat, or did not want food; thus
deriving the custom from necessity. The people of this island can be
under no such necessity; they have fine pork and fowls, and plenty
of roots and fruits. But since we have not actually seen them eat
human flesh, it will admit of doubt with some, whether they are
cannibals.
When I got on board, I learnt that, when the launch was on the
west side of the harbour taking in ballast, one of the men employed
on this work had scalded his fingers in taking a stone up out of some
water. This circumstance produced the discovery of several hot
springs at the foot of the cliff, and rather below high water mark.
This day Mr. Wales and two or three of the officers advanced a
little, for the first time, into the island. They met with a straggling
village, the inhabitants of which treated them with great civility; and
the next morning, Mr. Forster and his party, and some others, made
another excursion inland. They met with several fine plantations of
plantains, sugar-canes, yams, &c.; and the natives were courteous
and civil. Indeed, by this time, the people, especially those in our
neighbourhood, were so well reconciled to us, that they showed not
the least dislike at our rambling about in the skirts of the woods,
shooting, &c. In the afternoon, some boys having got behind
thickets, and having thrown two or three stones at our people, who
were cutting wood, they were fired at by the petty officers present
on duty. Being ashore at the time, I was alarmed at hearing the
report of the muskets, and seeing two or three boys run out of the
wood. When I knew the cause, I was much displeased at so wanton
an use being made of our fire-arms, and took measures to prevent it
for the future. Wind southerly, with heavy showers of rain.
During the night, and also all the 11th, the volcano was
exceedingly troublesome, and made a terrible noise, throwing up
prodigious columns of fire and smoke at each explosion, which
happened every three or four minutes; and, at one time, great
stones were seen high in the air. Besides the necessary work of
wooding and watering, we struck the main-top-mast to fix new
trestle-trees and back-stays. Mr. Forster and his party went up the
hill on the west side of the harbour, where he found three places
from whence smoke of a sulphureous smell issued, through cracks
or fissures in the earth. The ground about these was exceedingly
hot, and parched or burnt, and they seemed to keep pace with the
volcano, for at every explosion of the latter, the quantity of smoke or
steam in these was greatly increased, and forced out so as to rise in
small columns, which we saw from the ship, and had taken for
common fires made by the natives. At the foot of this hill are the hot
springs before mentioned.
In the afternoon Mr. Forster, having begun his botanical researches
on the other side of the harbour, fell in with our friend Paowang’s
house, where he saw most of the articles I had given him, hanging
on the adjoining trees and bushes, as if they were not worthy of
being under his roof.
On the 12th, some of the officers accompanied Mr. Forster to the
hot places he had been at the preceding day. A thermometer placed
in a little hole made in one of them, rose from 80, at which it stood
in the open air, to 170. Several other parts of the hill emitted smoke
or steam all the day, and the volcano was unusually furious,
insomuch, that the air was loaded with its ashes. The rain which fell
at this time, was a compound of water, sand, and earth; so that it
properly might be called showers of mire. Whichever way the wind
was, we were plagued with the ashes; unless it blew very strong
indeed from the opposite direction. Notwithstanding the natives
seemed well enough satisfied with the few expeditions we had made
in the neighbourhood; they were unwilling we should extend them
farther. As a proof of this, some undertook to guide the gentlemen
when they were in the country, to a place where they might see the
mouth of the volcano. They very readily embraced the offer; and
were conducted down to the harbour, before they perceived the
cheat.
The 13th, wind at N. E., gloomy weather. The only thing worthy of
note this day was, that Paowang being at dinner with us on board, I
took the opportunity to show him several parts of the ship, and
various articles, in hopes of finding out something which they might
value, and be induced to take from us in exchange for refreshments;
for what we got of this kind was trifling. But he looked on every
thing that was shown him with the utmost indifference; nor did he
take notice of any one thing except a wooden sand-box, which he
seemed to admire, and turned two or three times over in his hand.
Next morning, after breakfast, a party of us set out for the
country, to try if we could not get a nearer and better view of the
volcano. We went by the way of one of those hot smoking places
before mentioned, and dug a hole in the hottest part, into which a
thermometer of Fahrenheit’s construction was put; and the mercury
presently rose to 100°. It remained in the hole two minutes and a
half without either rising or falling. The earth about this place was a
kind of white clay, had a sulphureous smell, and was soft and wet,
the surface only excepted, over which was spread a thin dry crust,
that had upon it some sulphur, and a vitriolic substance, tasting like
alum. The place affected by the heat was not above eight or ten
yards square; and near it were some fig-trees, which spread their
branches over a part of it, and seemed to like their situation. We
thought that this extraordinary heat was caused by the steam of
boiling water, strongly impregnated with sulphur. I was told that
some of the other places were larger than this; though we did not
go out of the road to look at them, but proceeded up the hill
through a country so covered with trees, shrubs, and plants, that the
bread-fruit and cocoa-nut trees, which seem to have been planted
here by nature, were in a manner choked up. Here and there we
met with a house, some few people, and plantations. These latter
we found in different states; some of long standing; others lately
cleared; and some only clearing, and before any thing had been
planted. The clearing a piece of ground for a plantation seemed to
be a work of much labour, considering the tools they had to work
with, which, though much inferior to those at the Society Isles, are
of the same kind. Their method is, however, judicious, and as
expeditious as it can well be. They lop off the small branches of the
large trees, dig under the roots, and there burn the branches and
small shrubs and plants which they root up. The soil, in some parts,
is a rich black mould; in other parts, it seemed to be composed of
decayed vegetables, and of the ashes the volcano sends forth
throughout all its neighbourhood. Happening to turn out of the
common path, we came into a plantation, where we found a man at
work, who, either out of good-nature, or to get us the sooner out of
his territories, undertook to be our guide. We followed him
accordingly, but had not gone far before we came to the junction of
two roads, in one of which stood another man with a sling and a
stone, which he thought proper to lay down when a musket was
pointed at him. The attitude in which we found him, the ferocity
appearing in his looks, and his behaviour after, convinced us that he
meant to defend the path he stood in. He, in some measure, gained
his point; for our guide took the other road, and we followed; but
not without suspecting he was leading us out of the common way.
The other man went with us likewise, counting us several times over,
and hallooing, as we judged, for assistance; for we were presently
joined by two or three more, among whom was a young woman
with a club in her hand. By these people we were conducted to the
brow of a hill, and shown a road leading down to the harbour, which
they wanted us to take. Not choosing to comply, we returned to that
we had left, which we pursued alone, our guide refusing to go with
us. After ascending another ridge, as thickly covered with wood as
those we had come over, we saw yet other hills between us and the
volcano, which seemed as far off as at our first setting out. This
discouraged us from proceeding farther, especially as we could get
no one to be our guide. We therefore came to a resolution to return;
and had but just put this in execution, when we met between twenty
and thirty people, whom the fellow before mentioned had collected
together, with a design, as we judged, to oppose our advancing into
the country; but as they saw us returning, they suffered us to pass
unmolested. Some of them put us into the right road, accompanied
us down the hill, made us stop by the way to entertain us with
cocoa-nuts, plantains, and sugar-cane; and what we did not eat on
the spot, they brought down the hill with us. Thus, we found these
people hospitable, civil, and good-natured, when not prompted to a
contrary conduct by jealousy; a conduct I cannot tell how to blame
them for, especially when I consider the light in which they must
view us. It was impossible for them to know our real design; we
enter their ports without their daring to oppose; we endeavour to
land in their country as friends, and it is well if this succeeds; we
land, nevertheless, and maintain the footing we have got, by the
superiority of our fire-arms. Under such circumstances, what opinion
are they to form of us? Is it not as reasonable for them to think that
we come to invade their country, as to pay them a friendly visit?
Time, and some acquaintance with us, can only convince them of
the latter. These people are yet in a rude state; and, if we may judge
from circumstances and appearances, are frequently at war, not only
with their neighbours, but among themselves; consequently must be
jealous of every new face. I will allow there are some exceptions to
this rule to be found in this sea; but there are few nations who
would willingly suffer visitors like us to advance far into their country.
Before this excursion, some of us had been of opinion, that these
people were addicted to an unnatural passion, because they had
endeavoured to entice some of our men into the woods; and, in
particular, I was told, that one who had the care of Mr. Forster’s
plant bag, had been, once or twice, attempted. As the carrying of
bundles, &c. is the office of the women in this country, it had
occurred to me, and I was not singular in this, that the natives might
mistake him, and some others, for women. My conjecture was fully
verified this day: for this man, who was one of the party, and carried
the bag as usual, following me down the hill, by the words which I
understood of the conversation of the natives, and by their actions, I
was well assured that they considered him as a female; till, by some
means, they discovered their mistake, on which they cried out,
Erramange! Erramange! It’s a man! It’s a man! The thing was so
palpable that every one was obliged to acknowledge, that they had
before mistaken his sex; and that, after they were undeceived, they
seemed not to have the least notion of what we had suspected. This
circumstance will show how liable we are to form wrong conjectures
of things, among people whose language we are ignorant of. Had it
not been for this discovery, I make no doubt that these people would
have been charged with this vile custom.
In the evening I took a walk, with some of the gentlemen, into the
country on the other side of the harbour, where we had very
different treatment from what we had met with in the morning. The
people we now visited, among whom was our friend Paowang, being
better acquainted with us, showed a readiness to oblige us in every
thing in their power. We came to the village which had been visited
on the 9th. It consisted of about twenty houses, the most of which
need no other description than comparing them to the roof of a
thatched house in England taken off the walls and placed on the
ground. Some were open at both ends; others partly closed with
reeds; and all were covered with palm thatch. A few of them were
thirty or forty feet long, and fourteen or sixteen broad. Besides
these, they have other mean hovels, which, I conceived, were only
to sleep in. Some of these stood in a plantation, and I was given to
understand, that in one of them lay a dead corpse. They made signs
that described sleep, or death; and circumstances pointed out the
latter. Curious to see all I could, I prevailed on an elderly man to go
with me to the hut, which was separated from the others by a reed
fence, built quite round it, at the distance of four or five feet. The
entrance was by a space in the fence, made so low as to admit one
to step over. The two sides and one end of the hut were closed or
built up in the same manner, and with the same materials, as the
roof. The other end had been open, but was now well closed up with
mats, which I could not prevail on the man to remove, or suffer me
to do it. There hung at this end of the hut a matted bag or basket, in
which was a piece of roasted yam, and some sort of leaves, all quite
fresh. I had a strong desire to see the inside of the hut, but the man
was peremptory in refusing this, and even showed an unwillingness
to permit me to look into the basket. He wore round his neck,
fastened to a string, two or three locks of human hair; and a woman
present had several about her neck. I offered something in exchange
for them; but they gave me to understand they could not part with
them, as it was the hair of the person who lay in the hut. Thus I was
led to believe, that these people dispose of their dead in a manner
similar to that of Otaheite. The same custom of wearing the hair is
observed by the people of that island, and also by the New
Zealanders. The former make Tamau of the hair of their deceased
friends, and the latter make ear-rings and necklaces of their teeth.
Near most of their large houses were fixed upright in the ground
the stems of four cocoa-nut trees, in a square position, about three
feet from each other. Some of our gentlemen, who first saw them,
were inclined to believe they were thus placed on a religious
account; but I was now satisfied that it was for no other purpose but
to hang cocoa-nuts on to dry. For when I asked, as well as I could,
the use of them, a man took me to one, loaded with cocoa-nuts
from the bottom to the top; and no words could have informed me
better. Their situation is well chosen for this use, as most of their
large houses are built in an open airy place, or where the wind has a
free passage, from whatever direction it blows. Near most, if not all
of them, is a large tree, or two, whose spreading branches afford an
agreeable retreat from the scorching sun. This part of the island was
well cultivated, open and airy; the plantations were laid out by line,
abounding with plantains, sugar-canes, yams, and other roots, and
stocked with fruit trees. In our walk we met with our old friend
Paowang, who, with some others, accompanied us to the water-side,
and brought with them, as a present, a few yams and cocoa-nuts.
On the 15th, having finished wooding and watering, a few hands
only were on shore making brooms, the rest being employed on
board, setting up the rigging, and putting the ship in a condition for
sea. Mr. Forster, in his botanical excursion this day, shot a pigeon, in
the craw of which was a wild nutmeg. He took some pains to find
the tree, but his endeavours were without success. In the evening a
party of us walked to the eastern sea-shore, in order to take the
bearing of Annattom, and Erronan or Foottoona. The horizon proved
so hazy that I could see neither; but one of the natives gave me, as
I afterwards found, the true direction of them. We observed that in
all, or most of their sugar plantations, were dug holes or pits, four
feet deep, and five or six in diameter, and on our inquiring their use,
we were given to understand, that they caught rats in them. These
animals, which are very destructive to the canes, are here in great
plenty. The canes, I observed, were planted as thick as possible
round the edge of these pits, so that the rats in coming at them are
the more liable to tumble in.
Next morning we found the tiller sprung in the rudder-head, and
by some strange neglect, we had not a spare one on board, which
we were ignorant of till now it was wanting. I knew but of one tree
in the neighbourhood fit for this purpose, which I sent the carpenter
on shore to look at, and an officer, with a party of men, to cut it
down, provided he could obtain leave of the natives; if not, he was
ordered to acquaint me. He understood that no one had any
objection, and set the people to work accordingly. But as the tree
was large, this required some time; and, before it was down, word
was brought me that our friend Paowang was not pleased. Upon this
I gave orders to desist, as we found that, by scarfing a piece to the
inner end of the tiller, and letting it farther into the rudder-head, it
would still perform its office. But, as it was necessary to have a
spare one on board, I went on shore, sent for Paowang, made him a
present of a dog and a piece of cloth, and then explained to him that
our great steering paddle was broken, and that I wanted that tree to
make a new one. It was easy to see how well pleased every one
present was with the means I took to obtain it. With one voice they
gave their consent, Paowang joining his also, which he perhaps
could not have done without the others; for I do not know that he
had either more property or more authority than the rest. This point
being obtained, I took our friend on board to dinner, and after it was
over went with him on ashore, to pay a visit to an old chief, who was
said to be king of the island, which was a doubt with me. Paowang
took little or no notice of him. I made him a present, after which he
immediately went away, as if he had got all he came for. His name
was Geogy, and they gave him the title of Areeke. He was very old,
but had a merry open countenance. He wore round his waist a broad
red and white checquered belt, the materials and manufacture of
which seemed the same as that of Otaheite cloth; but this was
hardly a mark of distinction. He had with him a son, not less than
forty-five or fifty years of age. A great number of people were at this
time at the landing-place; most of them from distant parts. The
behaviour of many was friendly, while others were daring and
insolent, which I thought proper to put up with, as our stay was
nearly at an end.
On the 17th, about ten o’clock, I went ashore, and found in the
crowd old Geogy and his son, who soon made me understand that
they wanted to dine with me; and accordingly I brought them, and
two more on board. They all called them Areekees (or kings); but I
doubt if any of them had the least pretensions to that title over the
whole island. It had been remarked that one of these kings had not
authority enough to order one of the people up into a cocoa-nut tree
to bring him down some nuts. Although he spoke to several, he was
at last obliged to go himself, and by way of revenge, as it was
thought, left not a nut on the tree, taking what he wanted himself,
and giving the rest to some of our people.
When I got them on board, I went with them all over the ship,
which they viewed with uncommon surprise and attention. We
happened to have for their entertainment a kind of pie or pudding
made of plantains, and some sort of greens which we had got from
one of the natives. On this, and on yams, they made a hearty
dinner; for, as to the salt beef and pork, they would hardly taste
them. In the afternoon, having made each of them a present of a
hatchet, a spike-nail, and some medals, I conducted them ashore.
 Mr. Forster and I then went over to the other side of the harbour,
and having tried, with Fahrenheit’s thermometer, the head of one of
the hot springs, we found that the mercury rose to 191°. At this time
the tide was up within two or three feet of the spring, so that we
judged it might, in some degree, be cooled by it. We were mistaken,
however; for, on repeating the experiment next morning, when the
tide was out, the mercury rose no higher than 187°; but, at another
spring, where the water bubbled out of the sand from under the
rock at the S. W. corner of the harbour, the mercury, in the same
thermometer, rose to 202° 1⁄2, which is but little colder than boiling
water. The hot places before mentioned are from about three to four
hundred feet perpendicular above these springs, and on the slope of
the same ridge with the volcano; that is, there are no vallies
between them but such as are formed in the ridge itself; nor is the
volcano on the highest part of the ridge, but on the S. E. side of it.
This is, I have been told, contrary to the general opinion of
philosophers, who say that volcanos must be on the summits of the
highest hills. So far is this from being the case on this island, that
some of its hills are more than double the height of that on which
the volcano is, and close to it. To these remarks I must add, that, in
wet or moist weather, the volcano was most violent. There seems to
be room for some philosophical reasoning on these phænomena of
nature; but not having any talent that way, I must content myself
with stating facts as I found them, and leave the causes to men of
more abilities.
The tiller was now finished; but as the wind was unfavourable for
sailing, the guard was sent on shore on the 19th, as before, and a
party of men to cut up and bring off the remainder of the tree from
which we had got the tiller. Having nothing else to do, I went on
shore with them, and finding a good number of the natives collected
about the landing-place as usual, I distributed among them all the
articles I had with me, and then went on board for more. In less
than an hour I returned, just as our people were getting some large
logs into the boat. At the same time four or five of the natives
stepped forward to see what we were about, and as we did not
allow them to come within certain limits, unless to pass along the
beach, the sentry ordered them back, which they readily complied
with. At this time, having my eyes fixed on them, I observed the
sentry present his piece (as I thought at these men), and was just
going to reprove him for it, because I had observed that, whenever
this was done, some of the natives would hold up their arms, to let
us see they were equally ready. But I was astonished beyond
measure when the sentry fired, for I saw not the least cause. At this
outrage most of the people fled: it was only a few I could prevail on
to remain. As they ran off, I observed one man to fall; and he was
immediately lifted up by two others who took him into the water,
washed his wound, and then led him off. Presently after, some came
and described to me the nature of his wound; and, as I found he
was not carried far, I sent for the surgeon. As soon as he arrived, I
went with him to the man, whom we found expiring. The ball had
struck his left arm, which was much shattered, and then entered his
body by the short-ribs, one of which was broken. The rascal who
fired pretended that a man had laid an arrow across his bow, and
was going to shoot at him, so that he apprehended himself in
danger. But this was no more than they had always done, and with
no other view than to show they were armed as well as we; at least
I have reason to think so, as they never went farther. What made
this incident the more unfortunate, was, it not appearing to be the
man who bent the bow that was shot, but one who stood by him.
This affair threw the natives into the utmost consternation; and the
few that were prevailed on to stay ran to the plantations and
brought cocoa-nuts, &c. which they laid down at our feet. So soon
were these daring people humbled! When I went on board to dinner
they all retired, and only a few appeared in the afternoon, amongst
whom were Paowang and Wha-a-gou. I had not seen this young
man since the day he dined on board. Both he and Paowang
promised to bring me fruit, &c. the next morning, but our early
departure put it out of their power.
 CHAP. VI.

DEPARTURE FROM TANNA; WITH SOME ACCOUNT

OF ITS INHABITANTS, THEIR MANNERS AND ARTS.

D uring the night the wind had veered round to S. E. As this was
favourable for getting out of the harbour, at four o’clock in the
morning of the 20th, we began to unmoor, and at eight, having
weighed our last anchor, put to sea. As soon as we were clear of the
land, I brought to, waiting for the launch which was left behind to
take up a kedge-anchor and hawser we had out, to cast by. About
day-break a noise was heard in the woods, nearly abreast of us, on
the east side of the harbour, not unlike singing of psalms. I was told
that the like had been heard at the same time every morning, but it
never came to my knowledge till now, when it was too late to learn
the occasion of it. Some were of opinion, that at the east point of
the harbour (where we observed, in coming in, some houses, boats,
&c.) was something sacred to religion, because some of our people
had attempted to go to this point, and were prevented by the
natives. I thought, and do still think, it was only owing to a desire
they showed, on every occasion, of fixing bounds to our excursions.
So far as we had once been, we might go again; but not farther with
their consent. But by encroaching a little every time, our country
expeditions were insensibly extended without giving the least
umbrage. Besides, these morning ceremonies, whether religious or
not, were not performed down at that point, but in a part where
some of our people had been daily.
 I cannot say what might be the true cause of these people
showing such dislike to our going up into their country. It might be
owing to a naturally jealous disposition, or perhaps to their being
accustomed to hostile visits from their neighbours, or quarrels
among themselves. Circumstances seemed to show that such must
frequently happen; for we observed them very expert in arms, and
well accustomed to them; seldom or never travelling without them.
It is possible all this might be on our account; but I hardly think it.
We never gave them the least molestation, nor did we touch any
part of their property, not even the wood and water, without first
having obtained their consent. The very cocoa-nuts, hanging over
the heads of the workmen, were as safe as those in the middle of
the island. It happened, rather fortunately, that there were so many
cocoa-nut trees near the skirts of the harbour, which seemed not to
be private property; so that we could generally prevail on the natives
to bring us some of these nuts, when nothing would induce them to
bring any out of the country.
We were not wholly without refreshments; for besides the fish,
which our seine now and then provided us with, we procured daily
some fruits or roots from the natives, though but little in proportion
to what we could consume. The reason why we got no more might
be our having nothing to give them in exchange, which they thought
valuable. They had not the least knowledge of iron; consequently,
nails and iron tools, beads, &c. which had so great a run at the more
eastern isles, were of no consideration here; and cloth can be of no
use to people who go naked.
The produce of this island is bread-fruit, plantains, cocoa-nuts, a
fruit like a nectarine, yams, terra, a sort of potatoe, sugar-cane, wild
figs, a fruit like an orange, which is not eatable, and some other fruit
and nuts whose names I have not. Nor have I any doubt that the
nutmeg before mentioned was the produce of this island. The bread-
fruit, cocoa-nuts, and plantains, are neither so plentiful nor so good
as at Otaheite; on the other hand, sugar-canes and yams are not
only in greater plenty, but of superior quality, and much larger. We
got one of the latter which weighed fifty-six pounds, every ounce of
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