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Introduction to Simulink
with Engineering Applications
Second Edition
Steven T. Karris

Orchard Publications
www.orchardpublications.com
Introduction to Simulink®
with Engineering Applications
Second Edition
Steven T. Karris

Orchard Publications
www.orchardpublications.com
Introduction to Simulink ® with Engineering Applications, Second Edition

Copyright ©2008 Orchard Publications. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. No part of this
publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a data base or retrieval system,
without the prior written permission of the publisher.

Direct all inquiries to Orchard Publications, info@orchardpublications.com

Product and corporate names are trademarks or registered trademarks of The MathWorks™, Inc. They are used only
for identification and explanation, without intent to infringe.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Library of Congress Control Number 2008923972

ISBN-10: 1-934404-10-1
ISBN-13: 978-1-934404-10-2

TXu 1−303-668

Disclaimer
The author has made every effort to make this text as complete and accurate as possible, but no warranty is implied.
The author and publisher shall have neither liability nor responsibility to any person or entity with respect to any loss
or damages arising from the information contained in this text.
 Preface
This text is an introduction to Simulink ®, a companion application to MATLAB ®. It is written
for students at the undergraduate and graduate programs, as well as for the working professional.

The author claims no originality of the content, and the description of the Simulink blocks is
extracted from The MathWorks™ documentation without intent to infringe. The intent is to
provide a complete reference text, and whenever necessary, the author refers the reader to The
MathWorks™ documentation. Whenever there is a conflict between this text and The
MathWorks™ documentation, the latter takes precedence.

Although some previous knowledge of MATLAB would be helpful, it is not absolutely necessary;
Appendix A of this text is an introduction to MATLAB to enable the reader to begin learning
both MATLAB and Simulink simultaneously, and to perform graphical computations and
programming.

Chapters 2 through 19 describe the blocks in all Simulink Version 7.1 libraries. Their application
is illustrated with Simulink models that contain the pertinent blocks, and some are supplemented
with MATLAB functions, commands, and statements. Some background information is provided
for lesser known definitions and topics. Chapters 1 and 20 contain several Simulink models to
illustrate various applied math and engineering applications. Appendix B is an introduction to
masked subsystems, and Appendix C introduces the reader to random generation procedures.
Appendix D is an introduction to Weighted Moving Averages.

This text supplements our Numerical Analysis Using MATLAB and Excel, ISBN 978−1−934404−
03−4. It is self-contained; the blocks of each library are described in an orderly fashion that is
consistent with Simulink’s documentation. This arrangement provides insight into how a model is
used and how its parts interact with each another.

Like MATLAB, Simulink can be used with both linear and nonlinear systems, which can be
modeled in continuous time, sample time, or a hybrid of these. Examples are provided in this text.

Most of the examples presented in this book can be implemented with the Student Versions of
MATLAB and Simulink. A few may require the full versions of these outstanding packages, and
these examples may be skipped. Some add−ons, known as Toolboxes and Blocksets can be
obtained from The MathWorks,™ Inc., 3 Apple Hill Drive, Natick, MA, 01760-2098, USA,
www.mathworks.com.

To get the most out of this outstanding application, it is highly recommended that this text is used
in conjunction with the MATLAB and Simulink User’s Guides. Other references are provided in
the reference section of this text.
This is the second edition of this title, and although every effort was made to correct possible
typographical errors and erroneous references to figures and tables, some may have been
overlooked. Accordingly, the author will appreciate it very much if any such errors are brought to
his attention so that corrections can be made for the next edition.

The author wishes to express his gratitude to the staff of The MathWorks™, the developers of
MATLAB® and Simulink® for the encouragement and unlimited support they have provided me
with during the production of this text.

Our heartfelt thanks also to Mr. Howard R. Hansen, and Dr. Niel Ransom, former CTO of
Alcatel, for bringing some errors on the first print to our attention.

Orchard Publications
www.orchardpublications.com
info@orchardpublications.com
Table of Contents
1 Introduction to Simulink 1−1
1.1 Simulink and its Relation to MATLAB ....................................................................1−1
1.2 Simulink Demos ......................................................................................................1−20
1.3 Summary ..................................................................................................................1−28
1.4 Exercises ..................................................................................................................1−29
1.5 Solutions to End−of−Chapter Exercises ..................................................................1−30

2 The Commonly Used Blocks Library 2−1

2.1 Inport, Outport, and Subsystem Blocks................................................................ 2−2
2.2 Ground Block ........................................................................................................ 2−4
2.3 Terminator Block .................................................................................................. 2−5
2.4 Constant and Product Blocks ............................................................................... 2−6
2.5 Scope Block ........................................................................................................... 2−8
2.6 Bus Creator and Bus Selector Blocks ................................................................... 2−8
2.7 Mux and Demux Blocks ..................................................................................... 2−12
2.8 Switch Block ....................................................................................................... 2−15
2.9 Sum Block ........................................................................................................... 2−17
2.10 Gain Block .......................................................................................................... 2−18
2.11 Relational Operator Block .................................................................................. 2−19
2.12 Logical Operator Block ....................................................................................... 2−20
2.13 Saturation Block ................................................................................................. 2−21
2.14 Integrator Block .................................................................................................. 2−22
2.15 Unit Delay Block ................................................................................................ 2−27
2.16 Discrete-Time Integrator Block .......................................................................... 2−29
2.17 Data Types and The Data Type Conversion Block ........................................... 2−32
2.18 Summary ............................................................................................................. 2−42
2.19 Exercises .............................................................................................................. 2−46
2.20 Solutions to End−of−Chapter Exercises ............................................................. 2−48

3 The Continuous Blocks Library 3−1

3.1 Continuous−Time Linear Systems Sub−Library ....................................................... 3−2
3.1.1 Integrator Block .............................................................................................. 3−2
3.1.2 Derivative Block.............................................................................................. 3−2
3.1.3 State−Space Block ........................................................................................... 3−7
3.1.4 Transfer Fcn Block .......................................................................................... 3−7
3.1.5 Zero−Pole Block............................................................................................... 3−9
3.2 Continuous−Time Delays Sub−Library .................................................................. 3−10

Introduction to Simulink with Engineering Applications, Second Edition i

Copyright © Orchard Publications
 3.2.1 Transport Delay Block................................................................................. 3−11
3.2.2 Variable Time Delay Block ......................................................................... 3−12
3.2.3 Variable Transport Delay Block.................................................................. 3−13
3.3 Summary ............................................................................................................... 3−15
3.4 Exercises ............................................................................................................... 3−17
3.5 Solutions to End−of−Chapter Exercises ............................................................... 3−18

4 The Discontinuities Blocks Library 4−1

4.1 Saturation Block ..................................................................................................... 4−2
4.2 Saturation Dynamic Block ..................................................................................... 4−3
4.3 Dead Zone Block .................................................................................................... 4−4
4.4 Dead Zone Dynamic Block..................................................................................... 4−5
4.5 Rate Limiter Block.................................................................................................. 4−6
4.6 Rate Limiter Dynamic Block .................................................................................. 4−8
4.7 Backlash Block........................................................................................................ 4−9
4.8 Relay Block ........................................................................................................... 4−11
4.9 Quantizer Block.................................................................................................... 4−12
4.10 Hit Crossing Block................................................................................................ 4−13
4.11 Coulomb and Viscous Friction Block................................................................... 4−14
4.12 Wrap to Zero Block .............................................................................................. 4−16
4.13 Summary ............................................................................................................... 4−17
4.14 Exercises ............................................................................................................... 4−19
4.15 Solutions to End−of−Chapter Exercises ............................................................... 4−20

5 The Discrete Blocks Library 5−1

5.1 Discrete−Time Linear Systems Sub−Library............................................................ 5−2
5.1.1 Unit Delay Block.......................................................................................... 5−2
5.1.2 Integer Delay Block...................................................................................... 5−2
5.1.3 Tapped Delay Block..................................................................................... 5−3
5.1.4 Discrete−Time Integrator Block .................................................................. 5−4
5.1.5 Discrete Transfer Fcn Block ........................................................................ 5−4
5.1.6 Discrete Filter Block .................................................................................... 5−5
5.1.7 Discrete Zero−Pole Block............................................................................. 5−8
5.1.8 Difference Block........................................................................................... 5−9
5.1.9 Discrete Derivative Block .......................................................................... 5−10
5.1.10 Discrete State−Space Block ....................................................................... 5−11
5.1.11 Transfer Fcn First Order Block.................................................................. 5−14
5.1.12 Transfer Fcn Lead or Lag Block................................................................. 5−15
5.1.13 Transfer Fcn Real Zero Block .................................................................... 5−18
5.1.14 Discrete FIR Filter Block ........................................................................... 5−19

ii Introduction to Simulink with Engineering Applications, Second Edition

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 5.2 Sample & Hold Delays Sub−Library..................................................................... 5−21
5.2.1 Memory Block ............................................................................................ 5−21
5.2.2 First−Order Hold Block.............................................................................. 5−22
5.2.3 Zero−Order Hold Block.............................................................................. 5−23
5.3 Summary ............................................................................................................... 5−25
5.4 Exercises................................................................................................................ 5−27
5.5 Solutions to End−of−Chapter Exercises ............................................................... 5−29

6 The Logic and Bit Operations Library 6−1

6.1 Logic Operations Group Sub−Library ..................................................................... 6−2
6.1.1 Logical Operator Block ................................................................................ 6−2
6.1.2 Relational Operator Block............................................................................ 6−2
6.1.3 Interval Test Block ....................................................................................... 6−2
6.1.4 Interval Test Dynamic Block ....................................................................... 6−3
6.1.5 Combinatorial Logic Block........................................................................... 6−4
6.1.6 Compare to Zero Block ................................................................................ 6−9
6.1.7 Compare to Constant Block....................................................................... 6−10
6.2 Bit Operations Group Sub−Library ...................................................................... 6−11
6.2.1 Bit Set Block ............................................................................................... 6−12
6.2.2 Bit Clear Block ........................................................................................... 6−13
6.2.3 Bitwise Operator Block............................................................................... 6−14
6.2.4 Shift Arithmetic Block ............................................................................... 6−16
6.2.5 Extract Bits Block ....................................................................................... 6−17
6.3 Edge Detection Group Sub−Library ..................................................................... 6−18
6.3.1 Detect Increase Block................................................................................. 6−18
6.3.2 Detect Decrease Block ............................................................................... 6−20
6.3.3 Detect Change Block ................................................................................. 6−21
6.3.4 Detect Rise Positive Block ......................................................................... 6−22
6.3.5 Detect Rise Nonnegative Block ................................................................. 6−23
6.3.6 Detect Fall Negative Block ........................................................................ 6−24
6.3.7 Detect Fall Nonpositive Block ................................................................... 6−25
6.4 Summary............................................................................................................... 6−27
6.5 Exercises ............................................................................................................... 6−31
6.6 Solutions to End−of−Chapter Exercises ............................................................... 6−32

7 The Lookup Tables Library 7−1

7.1 Lookup Table Block ................................................................................................7−2
7.2 Lookup Table (2−D) Block .....................................................................................7−3
7.3 Lookup Table (n−D) Block .....................................................................................7−6
7.4 PreLookup Index Search Block...............................................................................7−7

Introduction to Simulink with Engineering Applications, Second Edition iii

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 7.5 Interpolation (n−D) Using PreLookup Block......................................................... 7−8
7.6 Direct Lookup Table (n−D) Block ....................................................................... 7−10
7.7 Lookup Table Dynamic Block .............................................................................. 7−16
7.8 Sine and Cosine Blocks ........................................................................................ 7−17
7.9 Summary ............................................................................................................... 7−21
7.10 Exercises................................................................................................................ 7−23
7.11 Solutions to End−of−Chapter Exercises ............................................................... 7−24

8 The Math Operations Library 8−1

8.1 Math Operations Group Sub−Library ..................................................................... 8−2
8.1.1 Sum Block .................................................................................................... 8−2
8.1.2 Add Block .................................................................................................... 8−2
8.1.3 Subtract Block.............................................................................................. 8−3
8.1.4 Sum of Elements Block ................................................................................ 8−4
8.1.5 Bias Block..................................................................................................... 8−4
8.1.6 Weighted Sample Time Math Block ........................................................... 8−5
8.1.7 Gain Block ................................................................................................... 8−6
8.1.8 Slider Gain Block ......................................................................................... 8−6
8.1.9 Product Block............................................................................................... 8−7
8.1.10 Divide Block................................................................................................. 8−7
8.1.11 Product of Elements Block........................................................................... 8−7
8.1.12 Dot Product Block ....................................................................................... 8−8
8.1.13 Sign Block .................................................................................................... 8−9
8.1.14 Abs Block ................................................................................................... 8−10
8.1.15 Unary Minus Block .................................................................................... 8−11
8.1.16 Math Function Block................................................................................. 8−11
8.1.17 Rounding Function Block.......................................................................... 8−13
8.1.18 Polynomial Block ....................................................................................... 8−14
8.1.19 MinMax Block ........................................................................................... 8−14
8.1.20 MinMax Running Resettable Block .......................................................... 8−15
8.1.21 Trigonometric Function Block .................................................................. 8−16
8.1.22 Sine Wave Function Block ........................................................................ 8−17
8.1.23 Algebraic Constraint Block........................................................................ 8−18
8.2 Vector / Matrix Operations Group Sub−Library ................................................... 8−19
8.2.1 The Assignment Block............................................................................... 8−19
8.2.2 The Reshape Block .................................................................................... 8−21
8.2.3 The Squeze Block....................................................................................... 8−21
8.2.4 The Matrix Concatenate Block ................................................................. 8−23
8.2.5 The Vector Concatenate Block ................................................................. 8−24
8.2.6 The Permute Block .................................................................................... 8−25
8.3 The Complex Vector Conversions Group Sub−Library ........................................ 8−26

iv Introduction to Simulink with Engineering Applications, Second Edition

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 8.3.1 Complex to Magnitude−Angle Block........................................................ 8−26
8.3.2 Magnitude−Angle to Complex Block....................................................... 8−27
8.3.3 Complex to Real−Imag Block.................................................................... 8−28
8.3.4 Real−Imag to Complex Block.................................................................... 8−29
8.4 Summary................................................................................................................ 8−30
8.5 Exercises ................................................................................................................ 8−34
8.6 Solutions to End−of−Chapter Exercises................................................................ 8−36

9 The Model Verification Library 9−1

9.1 Check Static Lower Bound Block.......................................................................... 9−2
9.2 Check Static Upper Bound Block.......................................................................... 9−3
9.3 Check Static Range Block ..................................................................................... 9−4
9.4 Check Static Gap Block......................................................................................... 9−5
9.5 Check Dynamic Lower Bound Block .................................................................... 9−6
9.6 Check Dynamic Upper Bound Block .................................................................... 9−8
9.7 Check Dynamic Range Block ................................................................................ 9−9
9.8 Check Dynamic Gap Block ................................................................................. 9−10
9.9 Assertion Block.................................................................................................... 9−12
9.10 Check Discrete Gradient Block........................................................................... 9−13
9.11 Check Input Resolution Block ............................................................................ 9−14
9.12 Summary .............................................................................................................. 9−16
9.13 Exercises............................................................................................................... 9−18
9.14 Solutions to End−of−Chapter Exercises .............................................................. 9−19

10 The Model−Wide Utilities Library 10−1

10.1 Linearization of Running Models Sub−Library..................................................10−2
10.1.1 Trigger−Based Linearization Block........................................................10−2
10.1.2 Time−Based Linearization Block...........................................................10−4
10.2 Documentation Sub−Library ............................................................................10−7
10.2.1 Model Info Block...................................................................................10−7
10.2.2 Doc Text Block .....................................................................................10−9
10.3 Modeling Guides Sub−Library ..........................................................................10−9
Block Support Table Block...............................................................................10−9
10.4 Summary .........................................................................................................10−11

11 The Ports & Subsystems Library 11−1

11.1 Inport, Outport, and Subsystem Blocks ........................................................ 11−2
11.2 Trigger Block ................................................................................................. 11−2
11.3 Enable Block.................................................................................................. 11−2
11.4 Function−Call Generator Block .................................................................... 11−3

Introduction to Simulink with Engineering Applications, Second Edition v

Copyright © Orchard Publications
 11.5 Atomic Subsystem Block ............................................................................... 11−4
11.6 Code Reuse Subsystem Block ........................................................................ 11−9
11.7 Model Block ................................................................................................. 11−17
11.8 Configurable Subsystem Block..................................................................... 11−19
11.9 Triggered Subsystem Block.......................................................................... 11−25
11.10 Enabled Subsystem Block............................................................................ 11−27
11.11 Enabled and Triggered Subsystem Block.................................................... 11−30
11.12 Function−Call Subsystem Block ................................................................. 11−34
11.13 For Iterator Subsystem Block ...................................................................... 11−37
11.14 While Iterator Subsystem Block.................................................................. 11−39
11.15 If and If Action Subsystem Blocks .............................................................. 11−41
11.16 Switch Case and The Switch Case Action Subsystem Blocks.................... 11−43
11.17 Subsystem Examples Block ......................................................................... 11−46
11.18 S−Functions in Simulink............................................................................. 11−49
11.19 Summary...................................................................................................... 11−55

12 The Signal Attributes Library 12−1

12.1 Signal Attribute Manipulation Sub−Library .................................................... 12−2
12.1.1 Data Type Conversion Block ............................................................. 12−2
12.1.2 Data Type Duplicate Block ................................................................ 12−2
12.1.3 Data Type Propagation Block ............................................................ 12−4
12.1.4 Data Type Scaling Strip Block ........................................................... 12−5
12.1.5 Data Conversion Inherited Block ...................................................... 12−5
12.1.6 IC (Initial Condition) Block............................................................... 12−6
12.1.7 Signal Conversion Block .................................................................... 12−7
12.1.8 Rate Transition Block ........................................................................ 12−8
12.1.9 Signal Specification Block ................................................................ 12−11
12.1.10 Bus to Vector Block.......................................................................... 12−12
12.1.11 Data Type Propagation Examples Block .......................................... 12−14
12.2 Signal Attribute Detection Sub−Library ........................................................ 12−16
12.2.1 Probe Block....................................................................................... 12−17
12.2.2 Weighted Sample Time Block.......................................................... 12−18
12.2.3 Width Block ..................................................................................... 12−19
12.3 Summary ........................................................................................................ 12−20

13 The Signal Routing Library 13−1

13.1 Signal Routing Group Sub−Library ................................................................. 13−2
13.1.1 Bus Creator Block .............................................................................. 13−2
13.1.2 Bus Selector Block ............................................................................. 13−2
13.1.3 Bus Assignment Block ....................................................................... 13−2

vi Introduction to Simulink with Engineering Applications, Second Edition

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 13.1.4 Mux Block ..........................................................................................13−6
13.1.5 Demux Block ......................................................................................13−6
13.1.6 Selector Block.....................................................................................13−6
13.1.7 Index Vector Block.............................................................................13−8
13.1.8 Merge Block........................................................................................13−8
13.1.9 Environmental Controller Block......................................................13−10
13.1.10 Manual Switch Block .......................................................................13−12
13.1.11 Multiport Switch Block ....................................................................13−13
13.1.12 Switch Block.....................................................................................13−14
13.1.13 From Block .......................................................................................13−14
13.1.14 Goto Tag Visibility Block .................................................................13−15
13.1.15 Goto Block........................................................................................13−16
13.2 Signal Storage and Access Group Sub−Library .............................................13−18
13.2.1 Data Store Read Block .....................................................................13−18
13.2.2 Data Store Memory Block................................................................13−18
13.2.3 Data Store Write Block....................................................................13−19
13.3 Summary ........................................................................................................13−22

14 The Sinks Library 14−1

14.1 Models and Subsystems Outputs Sub−Library................................................14−2
14.1.1 Outport Block.......................................................................................14−2
14.1.2 Terminator Block .................................................................................14−2
14.1.3 To File Block........................................................................................14−2
14.1.4 To Workspace Block ...........................................................................14−4
14.2 Data Viewers Sub−Library...............................................................................14−6
14.2.1 Scope Block .........................................................................................14−6
14.2.2 Floating Scope Block ...........................................................................14−8
14.2.3 XY Graph Block.................................................................................14−12
14.2.4 Display Block .....................................................................................14−16
14.3 Simulation Control Sub−Library ...................................................................14−17
Stop Simulation Block...................................................................................14−17
14.4 Summary........................................................................................................14−18

15 The Sources Library 15−1

15.1 Models and Subsystems Inputs Sub−Library .................................................. 15−2
15.1.1 Inport Block .......................................................................................15−2
15.1.2 Ground Block.................................................................................... 15−2
15.1.3 From File Block................................................................................. 15−2
15.1.4 From Workspace Block .................................................................... 15−2
15.2 Signal Generators Sub−Library ...................................................................... 15−3

Introduction to Simulink with Engineering Applications, Second Edition vii

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 15.2.1 Constant Block ................................................................................. 15−3
15.2.2 Signal Generator Block ..................................................................... 15−4
15.2.3 Pulse Generator Block ...................................................................... 15−5
15.2.4 Signal Builder Block.......................................................................... 15−6
15.2.5 Ramp Block ....................................................................................... 15−9
15.2.6 Sine Wave Block............................................................................... 15−9
15.2.7 Step Block....................................................................................... 15−12
15.2.8 Repeating Sequence Block ............................................................. 15−13
15.2.9 Chirp Signal Block.......................................................................... 15−14
15.2.10 Random Number Block .................................................................. 15−15
15.2.11 Uniform Random Number Block ................................................... 15−16
15.2.12 Band Limited White Noise Block................................................... 15−17
15.2.13 Repeating Sequence Stair Block..................................................... 15−22
15.2.14 Repeating Sequence Interpolated Block ........................................ 15−22
15.2.15 Counter Free−Running Block ........................................................ 15−24
15.2.16 Counter Limited Block ................................................................... 15−25
15.2.17 Clock Block..................................................................................... 15−26
15.2.18 Digital Clock Block......................................................................... 15−27
15.3 Summary....................................................................................................... 15−29

16 The User−Defined Functions Library 16−1

16.1 Fcn Block....................................................................................................... 16−2

16.2 MATLAB Fcn Block ..................................................................................... 16−3
16.3 Embedded MATLAB Function Block .......................................................... 16−3
16.4 S−Function Block .......................................................................................... 16−7
16.5 Level−2 M−file S−Function Block................................................................. 16−7
16.6 S−Function Builder Block ........................................................................... 16−11
16.7 S−Function Examples Block........................................................................ 16−11
16.8 Summary...................................................................................................... 16−12

17 The Additional Discrete Library 17−1

17.1 Transfer Fcn Direct Form II Block............................................................... 17−2
17.2 Transfer Fcn Direct Form II Time Varying Block........................................ 17−3
17.3 Fixed-Point State-Space Block..................................................................... 17−4
17.4 Unit Delay External IC Block ...................................................................... 17−6
17.5 Unit Delay Resettable Block ........................................................................ 17−7
17.6 Unit Delay Resettable External IC Block..................................................... 17−8
17.7 Unit Delay Enabled Block ............................................................................ 17−9
17.8 Unit Delay Enabled Resettable Block ........................................................ 17−11
17.9 Unit Delay Enabled External IC Block ...................................................... 17−12

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 17.10 Unit Delay Enabled Resettable External IC Block .................................... 17−13
17.11 Unit Delay With Preview Resettable Block............................................... 17−15
17.12 Unit Delay With Preview Resettable External RV Block ......................... 17−16
17.13 Unit Delay With Preview Enabled Block .................................................. 17−17
17.14 Unit Delay With Preview Enabled Resettable Block................................. 17−19
17.15 Unit Delay With Preview Enabled Resettable External RV Block ........... 17−20
17.16 Summary .................................................................................................... 17−22

18 The Additional Math Increment / Decrement Library 18−1

18.1 Increment Real World Block........................................................................... 18−2
18.2 Decrement Real World Block ......................................................................... 18−3
18.3 Increment Stored Integer Block ...................................................................... 18−4
18.4 Decrement Stored Integer Block ..................................................................... 18−5
18.5 Decrement to Zero Block ................................................................................ 18−6
18.6 Decrement Time To Zero Block...................................................................... 18−7
18.7 Summary .......................................................................................................... 18−8

19 The Simulink Extras Library 19−1

19.1 Additional Discrete Group blocks ...................................................................19−2

19.1.1 Discrete Transfer Fcn (with initial states) block.................................19−2
19.1.2 Discrete Transfer Fcn (with initial outputs) block..............................19−5
19.1.3 Discrete Zero−Pole (with initial states) block .....................................19−8
19.1.4 Discrete Zero−Pole (with initial outputs) block ................................19−12
19.1.5 Idealized ADC Quantizer block ........................................................19−15
19.2 Additional Linear Group blocks ....................................................................19−18
19.2.1 Transfer Fcn (with initial states) block .............................................19−18
19.2.2 Transfer Fcn (with initial outputs) block ..........................................19−21
19.2.3 Zero−Pole (with initial states) block..................................................19−23
19.2.4 Zero−Pole (with initial outputs) block ..............................................19−26
19.2.5 State−Space (with initial outputs) block...........................................19−27
19.2.6 PID Controller block .........................................................................19−29
19.2.7 PID Controller (with Approximate Derivative) block......................19−31
19.3 Additional Sinks Group blocks......................................................................19−33
19.3.1 Power Spectral Density block ............................................................19−33
19.3.2 Averaging Power Spectral Density block ..........................................19−37
19.3.3 Spectrum Analyzer block...................................................................19−38
19.3.4 Averaging Spectrum Analyzer block .................................................19−41
19.3.5 Cross Correlator block .......................................................................19−43
19.3.6 Auto Correlator block........................................................................19−45
19.3.7 Floating Bar Plot block ......................................................................19−46

Introduction to Simulink with Engineering Applications, Second Edition ix

Copyright © Orchard Publications
 19.4 Flip Flops Group blocks................................................................................. 19−48
19.4.1 Clock block ....................................................................................... 19−48
19.4.2 D Latch block.................................................................................... 19−49
19.4.3 S−R Flip Flop block........................................................................... 19−50
19.4.4 D Flip Flop block............................................................................... 19−51
19.4.5 J−K Flip Flop block............................................................................ 19−52
19.5 Linearization Group blocks ........................................................................... 19−53
19.5.1 Switched Derivative for Linearization block ..................................... 19−53
19.5.2 Switched Transport Delay for Linearization block............................ 19−56
19.6 Transformations Group blocks...................................................................... 19−59
19.6.1 Polar to Cartesian block .................................................................... 19−59
19.6.2 Cartesian to Polar block .................................................................... 19−60
19.6.3 Spherical to Cartesian block.............................................................. 19−61
19.6.4 Cartesian to Spherical block.............................................................. 19−62
19.6.5 Fahrenheit to Celsius block ............................................................... 19−63
19.6.6 Celsius to Fahrenheit block ............................................................... 19−64
19.6.7 Degrees to Radians block .................................................................. 19−65
19.6.8 Radians to Degrees block .................................................................. 19−65
19.7 Summary........................................................................................................ 19−67

20 Engineering Applications 20−1

20.1 Applications to Differential Equations ........................................................... 20−1

20.1.1 Math Example .................................................................................. 20−1
20.1.2 Dynamics Example ........................................................................... 20−3
20.1.3 Chemical Solutions Example ........................................................... 20−6
20.1.4 Heat Flow Example .......................................................................... 20−8
20.1.5 Cantilever Beam Deflection Example ............................................ 20−10
20.1.6 Tractrix Curve Example ................................................................. 20−13
20.1.7 Bessel Differential Equation Example ............................................ 20−15
20.1.8 Van der Pol Differential Equation Example .................................. 20−18
20.1.9 The Simple Pendulum Example ..................................................... 20−22
20.1.10 Simple Oscillator Example ............................................................. 20−26
20.2 Zero−Order Hold and First−Order Hold Circuits as Reconstructors .......... 20−28
20.3 Digital Filter Realization Forms ................................................................... 20−30
20.3.1 Direct Form I Realization of a Digital Filter .................................. 20−30
20.3.2 Direct Form II Realization of a Digital Filter ................................. 20−31
20.3.3 Series Form Realization of a Digital Filter ..................................... 20−34
20.3.4 Parallel Form Realization of a Digital Filter ................................... 20−36
20.4 Models for Binary Counters ......................................................................... 20−39
20.4.1 Model for a 3−bit Up / Down Counter .......................................... 20−39

x Introduction to Simulink with Engineering Applications, Second Edition

Copyright © Orchard Publications
Discovering Diverse Content Through
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 THE PUPA STATE

The word pupa is from the Latin meaning baby. Linnæus gave it
this name from its resemblance to a baby which has been swathed or
bound up, as is still the custom in Southern Europe. The term pupa
should be restricted to the resting inactive stage of the
holometabolous insects.
Lamarck’s term chrysalis was applied to the complete or obtected pupa of
Lepidoptera and of certain Diptera, and mumia, a mummy, to the pupæ of
Coleoptera, Trichoptera, and most Hymenoptera. Latreille (1830) also restricted
the term pupa to the “oviform nymph,” or puparium, of Diptera. Brauer applies the
term nymph to the pupa of metabolous insects.
The typical pupa is that of a moth or butterfly,
popularly called a chrysalis. A lepidopterous pupa
in which the appendages are more or less folded
close to the body and soldered to the integument,
was called by Linnæus a pupa obtecta; and when
the limbs are free, as in Neuroptera, Mecoptera,
Trichoptera, and the lepidopterous genus
Micropteryx it is called a pupa libera (Fig. 579).
When the pupa is enclosed in the old larval skin, Fig. 578.—Pupa
which forms a pupal covering (puparium), the obtecta: a, of
pupa was said by Linnæus to be coarctate. The Sesia, with its
pupa of certain Diptera, as that of the cocoon-cutterthe head; b, of
on
orthoraphous families, is nearly as much obtected Tortrix
as that of the tineoid families of moths, especially vacciniivorana.
as regards the appendages of the head; the legs
being more as in pupæ liberæ (Fig. 580).
The male Coccid anticipates the metabolous insects in passing
through a quiescent state, when, as Westwood states, it is “covered
by the skin of the larva, or by an additional pellicle.” The body
appears to be broad and flat, the antennæ and fore legs resting under
the head, while the two hinder pairs of legs are appressed to the
 under side of the body. There is but a slight
approach to the pupa libera of a metabolous
insect.
Riley states that the male larva of Icerya purchasi
forms a cocoon waxy in character, but lighter, more
flossy, and less adhesive than that of the female egg-
cocoon. It melts and disappears when heated, proving
its entirely waxy nature. When the mass has reached
the proper length, the larva casts its skin, which
remains in the hind end of the cocoon, and pushes itself
forward into the middle of the cocoon. The pupa (Fig.
581) is of the same general form and size as the larva.
Fig. 579.—Pupa libera of All the limbs are free and slightly movable, so that they
neuropterous insects a, vary in position, though ordinarily the antennæ are
Corydalus cornutus; b, pressed close to the side, as are the wing-pads; the front
Sialis; c, Hemerobius. pair of legs are extended forward. “If disturbed, they
twist and bend their bodies quite vigorously.” The pupa
state lasts two or three weeks. A similar pupa is that of
Icerya rosæ. (Riley and Howard.)
The metamorphosis of
Aspidiotus perniciosus is of
interest. The male nymph
differs much after the first
moult from the female, having
large purple eyes, while the
female nymph loses its eyes
entirely. It passes into what
Riley terms the pro-pupa (Fig.
Fig. 580.—Pupa obtecta of 582, b), in which the wing-pads
Diptera: a, Ptychoptera; b, are present, while the limbs are
Tabanus atratus; c, short and thick. The next stage Fig. 581.—
Proctacanthus philadelphicus; d, is the “true pupa” (Fig. 582, c, Pupa libera
Midas clavatus. d), in which the antennæ and of Icerya
legs are much longer than purchasi,
before. There is no waxy ventral
cocoon, but only a case or scale composed of the shed larval skin, i.e. view.—After
“with the first moult the shed larval skin is retained beneath the Riley, Insect
scale, as in the case of the female; with the later moultings the shed Life.
skins are pushed out from beneath the scale,” and when they
transform into the imago they “back out from the rear end of their
scale.”
 Fig. 582.—Aspidiotus perniciosus, development of
male insect: a, ventral view of larva after first moult;
b, the same, after second moult (pro-pupa stage); c
and d, true pupa, ventral and dorsal views. All
greatly enlarged.—After Riley.

The pupæ of Coleoptera and of Hymenoptera, though there is,

apparently, no near relationship between these two orders, are much
alike in shape, and, as Chapman pertinently suggests, those of both
orders are helpless from their quiescence, and hence have resorted
for protection to some cocoon or cell.
But it is quite otherwise with the pupæ of Lepidoptera and Diptera,
which vary so much in adaptation to their surroundings, and hence
afford important taxonomical and phylogenetic characters. This, as
regards the Lepidoptera, was almost wholly overlooked until
Chapman called attention to the subject, and showed that the pupæ
had characters of their own, of the greatest service in working out the
classification, and hence the phylogeny, of the different
lepidopterous groups. We have, following the lead of Chapman,
found the most striking confirmation of his views, and applied our
present knowledge of pupal structures to dividing the haustellate
Lepidoptera into two groups,—Paleolepidoptera and Neolepidoptera.
The pupæ of the Neuroptera, Coleoptera, and Hymenoptera differ
structurally from the imago, in the parts of the head and thorax
being less differentiated. Thus in the head the limits or sutures
between the epicranium and clypeus, and the occiput and gula, are
obscurely marked, while the tergal and pleural sclerites of the imago
are not well differentiated until the changes occurring just before the
final ecdysis.
 It is easy, however, to homologize the appendages of the pupæ
with those of the imago of all the holometabolous orders except in
the case of the obtected pupa of the Lepidoptera (and probably of the
obtected dipterous pupæ), where the cephalic appendages are
soldered together.
That the appendages of the lepidopterous pupa are, as generally
supposed, merely cases for those of the imago has been shown by
Poulton to be quite erroneous. He says: “If we examine a section of a
pupal antenna or leg (in Lepidoptera), we shall find that there is no
trace of the corresponding imaginal organ until shortly before the
emergence of the imago. In the numerous species with a long pupal
period, the formation of imaginal appendages within those of the
pupa is deferred until very late, and then takes place rapidly in the
lapse of a few weeks. This also strengthens the conclusion that such
pupal appendages are not mere cases for the parts of the imago,
inasmuch as these latter are only contained within them for a very
small proportion of the whole pupal period.” On the other hand,
Miall and Hammond claim that there is a strong superficial contrast
as to the formation of the imaginal organs, between Lepidoptera and
tipularian Diptera, the appendages, wings, and compound eyes being
substantially those of the imago. “With the exception of the
prothoracic respiratory appendages and the tail-fin, there is little in
the pupa of Chironomus which does not relate to the next stage.”
The exact homology of the “glazed eye” of the lepidopterous pupæ
and of the parts under the head, situated over the maxillæ, is difficult
to decide upon, and these points need farther examination. In the
dipterous pupa it is interesting to observe that the halteres are large
and broad, which plainly indicates that they are modified hind wings.
The number and arrangement of the spiracles is different in pupæ
from those of the larva and imago.
 Fig. 583.—Simulium piscicidium: a, larva; b,
c, d, pupa; e, thoracic leg; f, row of bristles at
end of body. A, S. pecuarum, pupa; a, b, c,
adminicula.—After Riley.

There are also secondary adaptive structures peculiar to the pupa,

which are present and only of use in this stage. These are the
thoracic, spiracular, or breathing appendages of the aquatic Diptera
(Fig. 583), the various spines situated on the head or thorax, or on
the sides, or more often at the end of the abdomen, besides also the
little spines arranged in more or less circular rows around the
abdominal segments, the cocoon-breaker, and the cremaster of many
pupæ.
In the pupa of certain Diptera, there is a terminal cremaster-like
spine, as in that of Tipula eluta (Fig. 584), Tabanus lineola (Fig.
585), besides adminicula or locomotive spines like those of
lepidopterous pupæ (Fig. 580, a, b, c).
Fig. 584. Fig. 585.
—Pupa of —Pupa of
Tipula Tabanus
eluta. lineola.—
This and
Fig. 584
after
Hart.
 Fig. 586.—Pupa of Galerita lecontei, and of
Adelops hirtus (a, b, c).—After Hubbard.

The pupæ of Coleoptera are variously spined or hairy (Fig. 586).

Those of Hydrophilus and of Hydrobius are provided with stout
spines on the prothorax and abdomen which support the body in its
cells, so that, as Lyonet first showed, though surrounded on all sides
by moist earth, it is kept from contact with it by the pupal spines;
other pupæ of beetles, such as that of the plum weevil, which is also
subterranean, possess similar spines. The abdomen of many
coleopterous pupæ, such as those of Carabidæ, end in two spines, to
aid them in escaping from their cells in wood or in the earth; others
have stiff bristles, and others spines along each side of the abdomen
(Fig. 586). All these structures are the result of a certain amount of
activity in what we call quiescent pupæ, but most of these are for use
at the end of pupal life, at the critical moment when by their aid the
insect escapes from its cocoon or subterranean cell, or if parasitic,
bores out of its host.
If we are to account for the causes of their origin, we are obliged to
infer that they are temporary deciduous structures due to the need of
support while the body is subjected to unusual strains and stresses in
working its way out of its prison in the earth, or its cell within the
stems and trunks of plants and similar situations. They are pupal
inheritances or heirlooms, and well illustrate the inheritance of
characters acquired during a certain definite, usually brief, period of
life, and transmitted by the action of synchronous heredity.
The pupæ of certain insects are quite active, thus that of Raphidia,
unlike that of Sialis, before its final ecdysis regains its activity and is
able to run about. (Sharp, p. 448.)
a. The pupa considered in reference to its adaptation to its
surroundings and its relation to phylogeny

The form of the pupa is a very variable one, as even in Lepidoptera

it is not entirely easy to draw the line between a pupa libera and a
pupa obtecta (Fig. 578); and though the period is one of inactivity,
yet when they are not in cocoons or in the earth in subterranean
cells, their form is more or less variable and adapted to changes in
their surroundings. Even in the obtected pupa of butterflies, there is,
as every one knows, considerable variability of shape and of
armature, which seems to be in direct adaptability to the nature of
their environment. Scudder has well shown that in certain
chrysalids, such as those of the Nymphalidæ, which are variously
tuberculated, and hang suspended by the tail, and often hibernate,
these projections serve to protect the body. All chrysalids with
projections or ridges on different parts of the body, being otherwise
unprotected, move freely when struck by gusts of wind, hence “the
greater the danger to the chrysalis from surrounding objects, the
greater its protection by horny tubercles and roughened callous
ridges.” The greater the protection possessed in other ways, as by
firm swathing or a safe retreat, the smoother the surface of the body
and the more regular and rounded its contours. The tendency to
protection by tubercles is especially noticeable in certain South
American chrysalids of nymphalid butterflies. This response to the
stimuli of blows or shocks is also accompanied by a sensitiveness to
the stimulus of too strong light.
Previously Scudder[103] had made the important suggestion that the
smooth crescent-shaped belt of the “glazed eye” or “eyepiece” of
chrysalids is, as an external covering of the eye, midway between that
of the caterpillar and the perfect insect, and he asks: “May it not be a
relic of the past, the external organ of what once was? And are we to
look upon this as our hint that the archaic butterfly in its
transformations passed through an active pupal stage, like the lowest
insect of to-day, when its limbs were unsheathed, its appetite
unabated?” etc. Scudder also shows that “the expanded base of the
sheath covering the tongue affords protection also to the palpi which
lie beneath and beside the tongue.”
 All this tends to show the importance of studying the structure of
the pupa, in order to ascertain how the pupal structures have been
brought about, with the final object of discovering whether the pupæ
of the holometabolic insects are not descended from active nymphs,
and if so, the probable course of the line of descent.

b. Mode of escape of the pupa from its cocoon

“In all protected pupæ,” as Chapman

says, “the problem has to be faced, how is
the imago to free itself from the cocoon or
other envelope protecting the pupa.” In the
Coleoptera and Hymenoptera the imago
becomes perfected within the cocoon or
cell, as the case may be, and as Chapman
states, “not only throws off the pupal skin
within the cocoon, but remains there till its
appendages have become fully expanded
and completely hardened, and then the
mandibles are used to force an outlet of
escape,” and he calls attention to the fact
that “in many cases, even in some entire
families, they are of no use whatever to the
imago except in this one particular,” and he
Fig. 587.—Pupa of cites the Cynipidæ as perhaps the most
Micropteryx purpuriella, striking instance of this circumstance.
front view: md, mandibles; In those Neuroptera which spin a silken
mx. p, maxillary palpus,
end drawn separately; mx.′ cocoon, e.g. the Hemerobiidæ, the
p, labial palpi; lb, labrum. Trichoptera, and in Micropteryx (Fig. 588),
the jaws used by the pupa for cutting its
way out of the cocoon are even larger in
proportion than in the pupa of caddis-flies (Fig. 588), being of
extraordinary size.
 Fig. 588.—Mandibles (md) of
Micropteryx purpuriella, enlarged.—
Author del. A, pupal head of a
hydropsychid caddis-fly, showing the
large mandibles.—After Reaumur, from
Miall.

In Myrmeleon the pupa pushes its way half out of the cocoon, and
then remains, while the imago ruptures the skin and escapes (Fig.
589, a).
Thus in the Neuroptera and Trichoptera we have already
established the more fundamental methods of escape from the
cocoon, which we see carried out in various ways in the more
generalized or primitive Lepidoptera.
The most primitive method in the Lepidoptera of escaping from
the cocoon seems to be that of Micropteryx.
 Fig. 589.—Larva of Myrmeleon
with (a) its cocoon and cast
pupa-skin.

“In this genus,” says Chapman, “though it is nominally the pupa that escapes
from the cocoon, it is in reality still the imago, the imago clothed in the effete pupal
skin. To rupture the cocoon it uses not its own jaws, but those of the pupal skin,
energizing them, however, in some totally different way from ordinary direct
muscular action, their movements being the result of the vermicular movements of
the pupa, acting probably by fluid pressure on the articular structure of the jaws,
by some arrangement not altogether different perhaps from the frontal sac of the
higher Diptera. In the Micropteryges the jaws of the pupa not only rupture the
cocoon, but appear to be the most active agents in dragging the pupa through the
opening in the cocoon and through any superincumbent earth, being merely
assisted by the vermicular action of the abdominal segments, and we find in
accordance with this circumstance that the pupal envelope is still very thin and
delicate, and has little or no hardening or roughness by which to obtain a leverage
against the walls of the channel of escape.” (Trans. Ent. Soc. London, 1896, pp.
570, 571.)
Some sort of a beak or hard process, more or less developed,
according to Chapman, adapted for breaking open the cocoon exists
in nearly all the Lepidoptera with incomplete pupæ (pupæ
incompletæ), except the limacodid and nepticulid section. “In all
these instances the pupa emerges from the cocoon precisely as in the
Micropteryges, that is, the moth it really is that emerges, but does so
encased in the pupal skin. To achieve this object, it seems to have
been found most efficient to have three, four, or five abdominal
segments capable of movement, but to have the terminal sections
(segments) soldered together.”
This cocoon-breaker, as we may call it, is especially developed in
Lithocolletis hamadryadella. As described by Comstock, it forms a
toothed crest on the forehead which enables it to pierce or saw
through the cocoon.
 “Each pupa first sawed through the cocoon near its juncture with the
leaf and worked its way through the gap, by means of the minute
backward-directed spines upon its back, until it reached the upper
cuticle of the leaf. Through this cuticle it sawed in the same way that it
did through the cocoon. The hole was in each case just large enough to
permit the chrysalis to work its way out, holding it firmly when partly
emerged. When half-way out it stopped, and presently the skin split
across the back of the neck and down in front along the antennal
sheaths, and allowed the moth to emerge.”[104]
We have observed and figured the cocoon-breaker in
Bucculatrix, Talæporia (Fig. 590, a), Thyridopteryx, and
Œceticus, and rough knobs or slight projection answering
the purpose in Hepialidæ, Megalopyge, Zeuzera, and in
Datana.[105] See also the spine on the head of Sesia
Fig. 590. tipuliformis (Fig. 578).
—Pupa of The imago of the attacine moths cuts or saws through its
Talæpori
a: a,
cocoon by means of a pair of large, stout, black spines
cocoon- (sectores coconis), one on each side of the thorax at the
cutter; base of the fore wings (Fig. 591), and provided with five or
with six teeth on the cutting edge (C, D).
vestiges Our attention[106] was drawn to this subject by a rustling, cutting,
of four and tearing noise issuing from a cocoon of Actias luna. On
pairs of examination a sharp black point was seen moving to and fro, and then
abdomin another, until both points had cut a rough irregular slit, through which
al legs, the shoulder of the moth could be seen vigorously moving from side to
and the side. The hole or slit was made in one or two minutes, and the moth
cremaste worked its way at once out of the slit. The cocoon was perfectly dry.
r. The cocoon-cutter occurs in all the American genera, in Samia
cynthia, and is large and well marked in the European Saturnia
pavonia-minor and Endromis versicolora. In Bombyx mori the spines
are not well marked, and they are quite different from those in the Attaci. There
are three sharp points, being acute angles of the pieces at the base of the wing, and
it must be these spines which at times perform the cutting through of the threads
of the cocoon described by Réaumur, and which he thought was done by the facets
of the eyes. It is well known that in order to guard against the moths cutting the
threads, silkraisers expose the cocoon to heat sufficient to destroy the enclosed
pupa. In Platysamia the cocoon-cutters, though well developed, do not appear to
be used at all, and the pupa, like that of the silkworm and other moths protected by
a cocoon, moistens the silk threads by a fluid issuing from the mouth, which also
moistens the hairs of the head and thorax, together with the antennæ. It remains to
be seen whether these structures are only occasionally used, and whether the
emission of the fluid is not the usual and normal means of egress of the moth from
 its cocoon. Dr. Chapman remarks
that throughout the obtected
moths “there are many devices for
breaking through the cocoon:
specially constructed weak places
in the cocoon, softening fluid,
applied by the moth, assisted by
special appliances of diverse sorts,
[107] and
Fig. 591.—Cocoon- such as in Hybocampa
cutter of the Luna Attacus,” etc.
moth: front view of As to the fluid mentioned
the moth with the above, Trouvelot states that it is
shoulders elevated secreted during the last few days Fig. 592.—Larva and
and the rudimentary of the pupa state, and is a pupa of a wood-wasp
wings hanging down: dissolvent for the gum so firmly (Rhopalum),
s, cocoon-cutter; p, uniting the fibres of the cocoon. enlarged: h,
patagium. B, “This liquid is composed in great temporary locomotive
represents another part of bombycic acid.” (Amer. tubercles on head of
specimen with fully Naturalist, i, p. 33.) pupa.—Trouvelot del.
developed wings: ms, The pupa of the dipterous genus
scutum; st, scutellum Sciara (S. ocellaris O. S.)
of the mesothoracic resembles a tineid pupa, and before transforming emerges
segment; s, cocoon- for about two-thirds of its length from the cocoon; the
cutter, which is pupa-skin remaining firmly attached in this position.[108]
evidently a Certain hymenopterous pupæ are provided with
modification of one temporary deciduous conical processes. Thus we have
of the pieces at the observed in the pupa of Rhopalum pedicellatum two very
base of the fore prominent acute tubercles between the eyes (h, Fig. 592).
wings; it is As the cocoon is very slight, these may be of use either in
surrounded by extracting itself from the silken threads or in pushing its
membrane, allowing way along before emerging from the tunnel in the stem of
free movement. C plants. (See also p. 611.)
and D, different
views of the spine,
magnified, showing
the five or six
c. The cremaster
irregular teeth on the
cutting edge. Although this structure is in general confined
to lepidopterous pupæ, and is not always present
even in them, since it is purely adaptive in its
nature, yet on account of its singular mode of development from the
larval organs, and the accompanying changes in the pupal abdomen,
it should be mentioned in this connection. The cremaster is the stout,
triangular, flattened, terminal spine of the abdomen, which aids the
pupa in working its way out of the earth when the pupa is
subterranean, or in the pupa of silk-spinning caterpillars its
armature of secondary hooks and curved setæ enables it to retain its
hold on the threads of the interior of its cocoon after the pupa has
partially emerged from the cocoon, restraining it, as Chapman well
says, “at precisely that degree of emergence from the cocoon that is
most desirable.” He also informs us that while in the “pupæ
incompletæ the cremaster is attached to an extensible cable, which
always allows some emergence of the pupa, in the pupæ obtectæ
there is no doubt but that in such cases as the Ichthyuræ, Acronyctæ,
and many others, it retains the pupal case in the same position
within the cocoon that the living pupa occupied; this is also very
usually the case in the Geometræ and in the higher tineids (my
pyraloids).”
In many of the more generalized moths there is no cremaster (Micropteryx,
Gracilaria, Prodoxus, Tantura, Talæporia, Psychidæ, Hepialidæ, Zeuzera, Nola,
Harrisina), though in Tischeria and Talæporia (Fig. 590, but not in Solenobia) and
Psychidæ, two stout terminal spines perform the office of a cremaster, or there are
simply curved setæ on the rounded, unarmed end of the abdomen, as in Solenobia.
In the obtected Lepidoptera, for example in such a group as the Notodontidæ,
where the cremaster is present, though variable in shape, it may from disuse,
owing to the dense cocoon, be without the spines and hooks in Cerura, or the
cremaster itself is entirely wanting in Gluphisia, and only partially developed in
Notodonta. In the butterflies whose pupæ are suspended (Suspensi), the cremaster
is especially well developed. Reference might here be made to the temporary pupal
structures in certain generalized moths, which take the place of a cremaster, such
as the transverse terminal row of spines in Tinea, the two stout spines in Tischeria,
and the dense rough integument and thickened callosities of the pupal head and
end of abdomen of Phassus, which bores in trees with very hard wood; also the
numerous stout spines at the end and sides of the abdomen in Ægerians. These
various projections and spines, besides acting as anchors and grappling hooks, in
some cases serve to resist strains and blows, and have undoubtedly, like the
armature in the larvæ and imagines of other insects, arisen in response to
intermittent or occasional pressure, stresses, and impacts.
Mode of formation of the cremaster and suspension of
the chrysalis in butterflies.—We are indebted to Riley[109] for an
explanation of the way the cremaster has originated, his observations
having been made on species of over a dozen genera of butterflies
(Suspensi).
He shows that the cremaster is the homologue of the suranal plate
of the larva.[110] The preliminary acts of the larva have been observed
by various authors since the days of Vallisneri, i.e. the larva hanging
by the end of the abdomen, turning up the anterior part of the body
in a more or less complete curve, and the skin finally splitting from
the head to the front edge of the metathoracic segment, and being
worked back in a shrivelled mass toward the point of attachment.
The critical feat, adds Riley, which has most puzzled naturalists, is
the independent attachment of the chrysalis and the withdrawal
from and riddance of the larval skin which such attachment implies.
Réaumur explained this in 1734 by the clutching of the larval skin
between sutures of the terminal segments of the chrysalis, and this is
the case, though the sutures act in a somewhat different way.
Before pupation the larva spins a mass or heap of silk, the shape of which is like
an inverted settee or a ship’s knee, and “one of the most interesting acts of the
larva, preliminary to suspension, is the bending and working of the anal parts in
order to fasten the back of the (suranal) plate to the inside of the back of the settee,
while the crotchets of the legs are entangled in the more flattened position or seat.”
In shedding the larval skin, the following parts are also shed, and have some part
to play in the act of suspension: i.e. 1st, the tracheal ligaments (Fig. 593, tl), or the
shed tracheæ from the last or 9th pair of spiracles; 2d, the rectal ligament (Fig.
593, rl), or shed intestinal canal; 3d, the Osborne or retaining membrane
(membrana retinens, Fig. 593, mr), which is the stretched part of the membrane
around the rectum and in the anal legs, and which is intimately associated with the
rectal ligament.
 Fig. 593.—Shrunken larval skin
of Vanessa antiopa, cut open
from the back and showing (mr)
the retaining membrane, (rl)
the rectal ligament, and (tl) the
tracheal ligaments.

The structures in the chrysalis are, first, the cremaster, with its dorsal (Fig. 594,
dcr) and ventral (vcr) ridges, and the cremastral hook-pad (chp), said by Riley to
be “thickly studded with minute but stout hooks, which are sometimes compound
or furnished with barbs, very much as are some of our fishing-hooks, and which
are most admirably adapted to the purpose for which they are intended.”
Secondly, there are the other structures, viz., the sustainers (sustentors), two
projections which Riley states “homologize with the soles (plantæ) of the anal
prolegs, which take on various forms (3), but are always directed forward so as
easily to catch hold of the retaining membrane.” These sustentors are, however, as
Jackson[111] has shown, and as we are satisfied, the vestiges of the anal legs.
 Fig. 595.—Anal parts
Fig. 594.—Ideal of chrysalis of Vanessa
representation of antiopa, just prior to
the anal subjoint of final extraction from
Vanessa antiopa, shrunken larval skin:
from behind, with c, cremaster; chp,
the spines cremastral hook-pad;
removed, and all h, one of the hooks,
parts forced apart more enlarged; vcr,
by pressure so as to ventral cremastral
show the ridge; dcr, dorsal
homologies of the cremastral ridge; lr,
parts in the larval rectum; pr,
chrysalis which are pupal rectum; rp,
concerned in rectal plate; sr,
pupation: sustentor ridges; mr,
homologies membrana retinens;
indicated by rl, rectal ligament; tl,
corresponding tracheal ligament; the
letters in Fig. 595, 11th or last spiracle-
except that r (the bearing joint and the
rectum) 12th joint being
corresponds with numbered.
pr in Fig. 595.
 Fig. 596.—A, chrysalis of Terias. B,
posterior end of chrysalis of Paphia.
C, posterior end of chrysalis of
Danais. E, one of the sustainers of
Terias, greatly enlarged to show its
hooked nature. All the parts of
subjoint lettered to correspond with
Fig. 595.

Thirdly, the sustentor ridges, which, as Riley states, may be more or less obsolete
in some forms, in Paphia (Fig. 596, B) and Limenitis form “quite a deep notch,
which doubtless assists in catching hold of the larval skin in the efforts to attach
the cremaster.”
 Fig. 597.—Pupation of butterflies: a,
attachment of larva of Danais archippus;
p, attachment of larva of Paphia
glycerium; b, ideal larva soon after
suspension; d, ideal larva a few hours later,
the needle (n) separating the forming
membrane from the sustainers; l, ideal
larva just before splitting of larval skin,
with retaining membrane loosened from
the sustainers and showing its connection
both with the larval and pupal rectum. In
all the figures the joints of the body are
numbered; the forming chrysalis is shaded
in transverse lines; the intervening space
between it and larval skin is dotted: h, is
the hillock of silk; hl, hooks of hind legs;
ap, anal plate; lr, larval rectum; pr, pupal
rectum; mr, retaining membrane; c,
cremaster; s, sustainers.—This and Figs.
593–596 after Riley.

“It is principally,” adds Riley, “by the leverage obtained by the hooking of the
sustainers in the retaining membrane, which acts as a swimming fulcrum, that the
chrysalis is prevented from falling after the cremaster is withdrawn from the larval
skin. It is also principally by this same means that it is enabled to reach the silk
with the cremastral hook-pads.”
“Dissected immediately after suspension, the last abdominal segment of the
larva is found to be bathed, especially between the legs and around the rectum, in
an abundance of translucent, membranous material.”
“An hour or more after suspension the end of the forming chrysalis begins to
separate from the larval skin, except at the tip of the cremaster (Fig. 597, b).
Gradually the skin of the legs and of the whole subjoint (10th segment) stretches,
and with the stretching, the cremaster elongates, the rectal piece recedes more and
more from the larval rectum, and the sustentor ridges diverge more and more from
the cremaster, carrying with them, on the sustainers, a part of the soft membrane.”
The rectal ligament will sustain at least 10 or 12 times the weight of the chrysalis.
That of Apatura seems to rely almost entirely on the rectal ligament, assisted by the
partial holding of the delicate larval skin.
 FORMATION OF THE PUPA AND IMAGO IN
THE HOLOMETABOLOUS INSECTS (THE
DIPTERA EXCEPTED)

We have seen that in the incomplete metamorphosis, although

there may be as many as five, and possibly seven moults, and in
Chloëon as many as 20, and in Cicada septemdecim perhaps 25 or
30, there is but a slight change of form from one stage to another,
and no period of inactivity. And this gradual outer transformation is
so far as yet known paralleled by that of the internal organs, the
slight successive changes of which do not differ from those observed
in the growth of ametabolous insects. With the growth of the internal
organs there probably goes on a series of gradual regenerative
processes, and Korschelt and Heider state that we may venture to
assume that each changed cell or group of cells which have become
exhausted by the exercise of the functions of life are reabsorbed and
become restored through the vital powers of the tissues, so that as
the result there goes on a constant, gradual regeneration of the
organs.
While the Hemiptera have only an incomplete metamorphosis, the
males of the Coccidæ are, as shown by O. Schmidt, remarkable for
passing through a complete or holometabolous development, with
four stages, three of which are pupal and inactive. Hence, as Schmidt
observes, there is here a hypermetamorphosis, like that of the
Meloidæ, Stylopidæ, etc.
Shortly before the end of the larval stage of the male appear the
imaginal buds of the eyes, legs, and wings. In the 2d or 1st pupal
stage there is an atrophy of the antennæ and legs. On the other hand,
at this stage the female completes its metamorphosis.
The rudiments of the wings arise on the edge of the dorsal and
ventral side of the 2d thoracic segment, and this, we would remark, is
significant as showing a mode of origin of the wings intermediate
between that of the manometamorphic and holometamorphic
insects. (See pp. 137–142.) While Schmidt could not ascertain the
exact structure of the imaginal buds, he says “in general the process
of formation of the extremities is exactly as Weismann has described
in Corethra.” The two later pupal stages are “as in other metabolic
insects.” (See p. 690, Fig. 637.)
Thus far the internal changes in the metamorphosis of the
Coleoptera have not been thoroughly studied. They are less complete
than in the other holometabolous insects, the differences between
the larva and imago being much less marked than in the more
specialized orders, and so far as known all the larval organs pass,
though not without some great changes, directly into the imaginal
ones, the only apparent exception being the mid-intestine, which, as
stated by Kowalevsky, undergoes a complete transformation during
metamorphosis. The following account, then, refers almost wholly to
the Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera, and Diptera.

a. The Lepidoptera

The first observations on the complete metamorphosis of insects

which were in any way exact were those of Malpighi, in 1667, and of
Swammerdam, in 1733. While the observations of Swammerdam, as
far as they extended, were correct, his conclusions were
extraordinary. They were, however, accepted by Réaumur and by
Bonnet, and generally held until the time of Herold in 1815, and
lingered on for some years after. The rather famous theory of
incasement (“emboîtement”) propounded by Swammerdam was that
the form of the larva, pupa, and imago preëxisted in the egg, and
even in the ovary; and that the insects in these stages were distinct
animals, contained one inside the other, like a nest of boxes, or a
series of envelopes one within the other, or, to use his own words:
“Animal in animali, seu papilio intra erucam reconditus.”
This theory Swammerdam extended to the whole animal kingdom.
It was based on the fact that by throwing the caterpillar, when about
to pupate, in boiling water, and then stripping off the skin, the
immature form of the butterfly with its appendages was disclosed.
Malpighi had previously observed the same fact in the silkworm,
perceiving that before pupation the antennæ are concealed in the
head of the larva, where they occupy the place previously taken by
the mandibular muscles; also that the legs of the moth grew in those
of the larva, and that the wings developed from the sides of the
worm.
Even Réaumur (1734) remarked: “Les parties du papillon cachées
sous le fourreau de chenille sont d’autant plus faciles à trouver que la
transformation est plus proche. Elles y sont neanmoins de tout
temps.” He also believed in the simultaneous existence of two
distinct beings in the insect. “Il serait très curieux de connaître toutes
les communications intimes qui sont entre la chenille et le papillon....
La chenille hache, broye, digere les aliments qu’elle distribué au
papillon; comme les mères préparent ceux qui sont portés aux fœtus.
Notre chenille en un mot est destineé à nourrir et à defendre le
papillon qu’elle renferme.” (T. i, 8e Mémoire, p. 363.)
Lyonet (1760), even, did not expose the error of this view that the
larva enveloped the pupa and imago, and, as Gonin says, it was
undoubtedly because he did not use for his dissections of the
caterpillar of Cossus any specimens about to pupate. Yet he detected
the wing-germs and those of the legs, stating that he presumed the
bodies he saw to be the rudiments of the legs of the moth (p. 450).
Herold, in his work on the development of the butterfly (1815), was
the first to object to this erroneous theory, showing that the wings
did not become visible until the very end of larval life; that as the
larval organs disappear, they are transformed or are replaced by
entirely new organs, which is not reconcilable with a simple putting
off of the outer envelope. The whole secret of metamorphosis, in
Herold’s opinion, consisted in this fact, that the butterfly in the larva
state increases and accumulates a supply of fat until it has reached
the volume of the perfect state; then it begins the chrysalis period,
during which the organs are developed and take their definite form.
[112]
(Abstract mostly from Gonin.) Still the old ideas prevailed, and
even Lacordaire, in his Introduction à l’Entomologie published in
1834, held on to Swammerdam’s theory, declaring that “a caterpillar
is not a simple animal, but compound,” and he actually goes so far as
to say that “a caterpillar, at first scarcely as large as a bit of thread,
contains its own teguments threefold and even eightfold in number,
besides the case of a chrysalis, and a complete butterfly, all lying one
inside the other.” This view, however, we find is not original with
Lacordaire, but was borrowed from Kirby and Spence without
acknowledgment. These authors, in their Introduction to
Entomology (1828), combated Herold’s views and stoutly
maintained the old opinions of Swammerdam. They based their
opinions on the fact, then known, that certain parts of the imago
occur in the caterpillar. On the other hand, Herold denied that the
successive skins of the pupa and imago existed as germs, holding
that they are formed successively from the “rete mucosum,” which
we suppose to be the hypodermis of later authors. In a slight degree
the Swammerdam-Kirby and Spence doctrine was correct, as the
imago does arise from germs, i.e. the imaginal disks of Weismann,
while this was not discovered by Herold, though they do at the outset
arise from the hypodermis, his rete mucosum. Thus there was a grain
of truth in the Swammerdam-Kirby and Spence doctrine, and also a
mixture of truth and error in the opinions of Herold.
The real nature of the internal changes wrought during the process
of metamorphosis was first revealed by Weismann in 1864. His
discovery of the germs of the imago (imaginal buds) of the Diptera,
and his theory of histolysis, or of the complete destruction of the
larval organs by a gradual process, was the result of the application
of modern methods of embryology and histology, although his
observations were first made on the extremely modified type of the
Muscidæ or flies, and, at first, he did not extend his view to include
all the holometabolous insects. Now, thanks to his successors in this
field, Ganin, Dewitz, Kowalevsky, Van Rees, Bugnion, Gonin, and
others, we see that metamorphosis is, after all, only an extension of
embryonic life, the moults and great changes being similar to those
undergone by the embryo, and that metamorphosis and alternation
of generations are but terms in a single series. Moreover, the
metamorphoses of insects are of the same general nature as those of
certain worms, of the echinoderms, and the frog, the different stages
of larva, pupa, and imago being adaptational and secondary.
While the changes in form from the larva to the pupa are
apparently sudden, the internal histogenetic steps which lead to
them are gradual. In the Lepidoptera a few days (usually from one to
three) before assuming the pupa stage, the caterpillar becomes
restless and ceases to take food. Its excrements are now hard, dry,
and, according to Gonin, are “stained carmine red by the secretions
of the urinary tubes.” Under the microscope we find that they are
almost exclusively composed of fragments of the intestinal
epithelium. These red dejections were noticed by Réaumur, and
afterwards by Herold, and they are sure indications of the approach
of the transformations. It now wanders about, and, if it is a spinner,
spins its cocoon, and then lies quietly at rest while the changes are
going on within its body. Meanwhile, it lives on the stores of fat in
the fat-body, and this supply enables it to survive the pupal period.
The amount of fat is sometimes very great. Newport removed from the larva of
Cossus ligniperda 42 grains of fat, being more than one-fourth of the whole weight
of the insect, he adds that the supply is soon nearly exhausted during the rapid
development of the reproductive organs, “since, when these have become
perfected, the quantity that remains is very inconsiderable.”
Although the larval skin of a lepidopterous insect is suddenly cast
off, the pupa quickly emerging front it, yet there are several
intermediate stages, all graduating into each other. If a caterpillar of
a Clisiocampa, which, as we have observed, is much shortened and
thickened a day or two before changing to a pupa, is hardened in
alcohol and the larval skin is stripped off, the semipupa (pro-nymph,
pro-pupa of different authors) is found to be in different stages of
development, and the changes of the mouth-parts are interesting,
though not yet sufficiently studied.
Newport attributes the great enlargement and changes in the
shape of the thoracic segments of the larva of Vanessa urticæ at this
time, to the contraction or shortening of the muscles of the interior
of those segments, “which are repeatedly slowly extended and
shortened, as if the insect were in the act of laborious respiration.”
This, he adds, generally takes place at short intervals during the two
hours immediately preceding the change to the pupa, and increases
in frequency as that period approaches. He thus describes the mode
of moulting the larval skin: “When the period has arrived, the skin
bursts along the dorsal part of the 3d segment, or mesothorax, and is
extended along the 2d and 4th, while the coverings of the head
separate into three pieces. The insect then exerts itself to the utmost
to extend the fissure along the segment of the abdomen, and, in the
meantime, pressing its body through the opening, gradually
withdraws its antennæ and legs, while the skin, by successive
contortions of the abdomen, is slipped backwards, and forced
towards the extremity of the body, just as a person would slip off his
glove or his stocking. The efforts of the insect to get entirely rid of it
are then very great; it twirls itself in every direction in order to burst
the skin, and, when it has exerted itself in this manner for some time,
twirls itself swiftly, first in one direction, then in the opposite, until
at last the skin is broken through and falls to the ground, or is forced
to some distance from it. The new pupa then hangs for a few seconds
at rest, but its change is not yet complete. The legs and antennæ,
which when withdrawn from the old skin were disposed along the
under surface of the body, are yet separate, and do not adhere
together as they do a short time afterwards. The wings are also
separate and very small. In a few seconds the pupa makes several
slow, but powerful, respiratory efforts; during which the abdominal
segments become more contracted along their under surface, and the
wings are much enlarged and extended along the lateral inferior
surface of the body, while a very transparent fluid, which facilitated
the slipping off of the skin, is now diffused among the limbs, and
when the pupa becomes quiet dries, and unites the whole into one
compact covering.”
The changes in the head and mouth-parts.—The changes of
form from the active mandibulate caterpillar to the quiescent pupa,
and then to the adult butterfly, are, as we have seen, in direct
adaptation to their changed habits and surroundings, and they differ
greatly in details in insects of different orders. In many Lepidoptera
and certain Diptera the pupa and imago are without the mandibles of
the larva, and, instead, the 1st maxillæ in the former order, and the
2d maxillæ in the latter, are highly developed and specialized. The
changes in the shape of the head, with the antennæ, the latter
rudimentary in the larvæ of the two orders named, are noteworthy,
and will be referred to under those orders. The same may be said of
the thorax with the legs and wings, and the abdomen with the
ovipositor. Every part of the body undergoes a profound change,
though in the Coleoptera, Trichoptera, and the more generalized and
primitive Diptera, each segment and appendage of the larva are
directly transformed into the corresponding parts of the pupa, and
subsequently of the imago. We shall see, however, beyond, that this
general statement does not apply to the Hymenoptera, in which there
is a process of cephalization or transfer of parts headward, peculiar
to that order.
Fig. 598.—
Internal
organs of
Sphinx
ligustri: 1,
head; 2–4,
thoracic, 5–13,
abdominal
segments; V,
fore-, M, mid-,
E, hind-
intestine; gs,
brain; gi,
infraœsophage
al ganglion; n,
ventral
ganglion; vm,
urinary tubes;
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