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The Essential Guide
to Physics for Flash
Games, Animation,
and Simulations
Dev Ramtal
Adrian Dobre
 The Essential Guide to Physics for
Flash Games, Animation, and
Simulations
Copyright © 2011 by Dev Ramtal and Adrian Dobre
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without the prior written
permission of the copyright owner and the publisher.
ISBN-13 (pbk): 978-1-4302-3674-0
ISBN-13 (electronic): 978-1-4302-3675-7
Trademarked names, logos, and images may appear in this book. Rather than use a trademark symbol with every
occurrence of a trademarked name, logos, or image we use the names, logos, or images only in an editorial fashion and to
the benefit of the trademark owner, with no intention of infringement of the trademark.
The use in this publication of trade names, service marks, and similar terms, even if they are not identified as such, is not to
be taken as an expression of opinion as to whether or not they are subject to proprietary rights.
Distributed to the book trade worldwide by Springer Science+Business Media LLC., 233 Spring Street, 6th Floor, New York,
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any loss or damage caused or alleged to be caused directly or indirectly by the information contained in this work.
The source code for this book is freely available to readers at www.apress.com in the Downloads section.

Credits
President and Publisher: Coordinating Editor:
Paul Manning Corbin Collins
Lead Editor: Copy Editor:
Chris Nelson Nancy Sixsmith
Technical Reviewer: Compositor:
RJ Owen Apress Production (Christine Ricketts)
Editorial Board: Indexer:
Steve Anglin, Mark Beckner, SPI Global
Ewan Buckingham, Gary Cornell,
Jonathan Gennick, Jonathan Hassell, Artist:
Michelle Lowman, James Markham, SPI Global
Matthew Moodie, Jeff Olson, Jeffrey Pepper, Cover Artist:
Frank Pohlmann, Douglas Pundick, Anna Ishchenko
Ben Renow-Clarke, Dominic Shakeshaft,
Matt Wade, Tom Welsh Cover Designer:
Corné van Dooren

ii
 To my mother, who made me possible; and to my wife and daughter, who
supported me in making this book possible.
–DR
To my family who have been so understanding while I have been away from
them working on this book.
–AD
Contents at a Glance

Contents at a Glance .................................................................................................. iv!

Contents ...................................................................................................................... vi!

About the Authors ................................................................................................... xvii!

About the Technical Reviewer ............................................................................... xviii!

About the Cover Image Artist .................................................................................. xix!

Acknowledgments ..................................................................................................... xx!

Preface ....................................................................................................................... xxi

Part I: The Basics

Chapter 1: Introduction to Physics Programming .................................................... 3!

Chapter 2: Selected ActionScript 3.0 Topics .......................................................... 13!

Chapter 3: Some Math Background ......................................................................... 45!

Chapter 4: Basic Physics Concepts......................................................................... 91!

Part II: Particles, Forces and Motion

Chapter 5: The Laws Governing Motion ................................................................ 135!

Chapter 6: Gravity, Orbits, and Rockets ................................................................ 157!

Chapter 7: Contact and Fluid Forces ..................................................................... 181!

Chapter 8: Restoring Forces: Springs and Oscillations ...................................... 221!

Chapter 9: Centripetal Forces: Rotational Motion ................................................ 251!

Chapter 10: Long-Range Forces ............................................................................ 281

iv
 Contents at a Glance

Part III: Multi-particle and Extended Systems

Chapter 11: Collisions ............................................................................................. 321!

Chapter 12: Particle Systems ................................................................................. 359!

Chapter 13: Extended Objects ................................................................................ 395!

Part IV: Building More Complex Simulations

Chapter 14: Numerical Integration Schemes ........................................................ 443!

Chapter 15: Other Technical Issues ....................................................................... 461!

Chapter 16: Simulation Projects............................................................................. 481!

Index.......................................................................................................................... 517!

v
Contents

Contents at a Glance .................................................................................................. iv!

Contents ...................................................................................................................... vi!

About the Authors ................................................................................................... xvii!

About the Technical Reviewer ............................................................................... xviii!

About the Cover Image Artist .................................................................................. xix!

Acknowledgments ..................................................................................................... xx!

Preface ....................................................................................................................... xxi!

What this book will (and won’t) teach you .............................................................................. xxi!
Overview of this book .............................................................................................................xxii!
Source code and examples ....................................................................................................xxii!
Part I: The Basics
Chapter 1: Introduction to Physics Programming .................................................... 3!
Why model real physics? .......................................................................................................... 3!
Creating realistic animation effects ....................................................................................... 4!
Creating realistic games ........................................................................................................ 4!
Building simulations and models ........................................................................................... 4!
Generating art from code ...................................................................................................... 4!
Can’t I just use a physics engine? ......................................................................................... 5!
What is physics?........................................................................................................................ 6!
Everything behaves according to the laws of physics ........................................................... 6!
The laws can be written as math equations .......................................................................... 6!
Predicting motion ................................................................................................................... 7!
Programming physics ................................................................................................................ 7!
The difference between animation and simulation ................................................................ 8!
The laws of physics are simple ............................................................................................. 8!
Hence, they can be readily coded up! ................................................................................... 8!
The four steps for programming physics ............................................................................... 9!
A simple example ...................................................................................................................... 9!
A bouncing ball: the physics ................................................................................................ 10!
Coding up a bouncing ball in 2D ......................................................................................... 10!
Summary ................................................................................................................................. 12!
vi
 Contents

Chapter 2: Selected ActionScript 3.0 Topics .......................................................... 13!

ActionScript 3.0 classes .......................................................................................................... 14!
Classes and objects ............................................................................................................ 14!
Structure of an AS3.0 class ................................................................................................. 15!
Functions, methods and constructors ................................................................................. 16!
Properties ............................................................................................................................ 16!
Static methods and properties ............................................................................................. 17!
Inheritance ........................................................................................................................... 18!
ActionScript 3.0 language basics ............................................................................................ 18!
Variables and constants ...................................................................................................... 18!
Data types ........................................................................................................................... 19!
Operators ............................................................................................................................. 22!
Math ..................................................................................................................................... 23!
Logic .................................................................................................................................... 24!
Loops ................................................................................................................................... 25!
Events in ActionScript 3.0 ....................................................................................................... 27!
Event listeners and handlers ............................................................................................... 27!
Events and user interaction ................................................................................................. 28!
Drag and drop...................................................................................................................... 28!
The Flash coordinate system .................................................................................................. 29!
2D coordinates .................................................................................................................... 29!
3D in Flash .......................................................................................................................... 30!
The Flash drawing API ............................................................................................................ 32!
Drawing lines and curves .................................................................................................... 32!
Creating fills and gradients .................................................................................................. 33!
Example: Bouncing ball in a box ......................................................................................... 34!
Producing animation using code ............................................................................................. 36!
Using the built-in frame stepping as a clock ........................................................................ 36!
Using the Timer class .......................................................................................................... 37!
Using getTimer() to compute elapsed time ......................................................................... 38!
Precalculating motion .......................................................................................................... 40!
Collision detection ................................................................................................................... 40!
Using the hitTestObject() method........................................................................................ 41!
Using the hitTestPoint() method .......................................................................................... 41!
Distance-based collision detection ...................................................................................... 41!
Advanced collision detection ............................................................................................... 43!
Summary ................................................................................................................................. 43!

Chapter 3: Some Math Background ......................................................................... 45!

Coordinates and simple graphs............................................................................................... 46!
vii
Contents

Building a plotter: the Graph class ...................................................................................... 46!

Plotting functions using the Graph class ............................................................................. 47!
Straight lines ........................................................................................................................ 48!
Polynomial curves ............................................................................................................... 49!
Things that grow and decay: exponential and log functions ............................................... 50!
Making an object move along a curve ................................................................................. 52!
Distance between two points ............................................................................................... 59!
Basic trigonometry ................................................................................................................... 60!
Degrees and radians ........................................................................................................... 60!
The sine function ................................................................................................................. 61!
The cosine function ............................................................................................................. 63!
The tangent function ............................................................................................................ 63!
The inverse trig functions .................................................................................................... 64!
Using trig functions for animation ........................................................................................ 65!
Vectors and basic vector algebra ............................................................................................ 70!
What are vectors? ............................................................................................................... 70!
Vectors and scalars ............................................................................................................. 71!
Adding and subtracting vectors ........................................................................................... 72!
Resolving vectors: vector components................................................................................ 73!
Multiplying vectors: Scalar or dot product ........................................................................... 76!
Multiplying vectors: Vector or cross product ....................................................................... 77!
Building a Vector class with vector algebra ......................................................................... 79!
Simple calculus ideas .............................................................................................................. 80!
Slope of a line: gradient ....................................................................................................... 81!
Rates of change: derivatives ............................................................................................... 82!
Doing sums: integrals .......................................................................................................... 87!
Summary ................................................................................................................................. 89!

Chapter 4: Basic Physics Concepts......................................................................... 91!

General physics concepts and notation .................................................................................. 92!
Physical quantities and units ............................................................................................... 92!
Scientific notation ................................................................................................................ 92!
Things: particles and other objects in physics ......................................................................... 93!
What is a particle? ............................................................................................................... 93!
Particle properties................................................................................................................ 94!
Building a Particle class....................................................................................................... 94!
Moving particles: the Mover class ....................................................................................... 98!
Extending the Particle class .............................................................................................. 100!
Describing motion: kinematics............................................................................................... 103!
Concepts: displacement, velocity, speed, acceleration..................................................... 104!
viii
 Contents

Combining vector quantities .............................................................................................. 107!

Describing motion using graphs ........................................................................................ 108!
Equations of motion for uniform acceleration .................................................................... 108!
Applying the equations to projectile motion ....................................................................... 110!
More motion-related concepts: inertia, mass, and momentum ......................................... 114!
Predicting motion: forces and dynamics ............................................................................... 114!
The cause of motion: forces .............................................................................................. 115!
The relationship between force, mass, and acceleration .................................................. 115!
Types of forces .................................................................................................................. 116!
Combining forces: force diagrams and resultant force...................................................... 117!
Forces in equilibrium ......................................................................................................... 118!
An example: object falling under gravity and drag ............................................................ 119!
Energy concepts .................................................................................................................... 122!
The notion of work in physics ............................................................................................ 123!
The capacity to do work: energy ....................................................................................... 124!
Energy transfer, conversion, and conservation ................................................................. 125!
Potential and kinetic energy .............................................................................................. 126!
Power................................................................................................................................. 126!
Example: a rudimentary “car” simulation ........................................................................... 127!
Summary ............................................................................................................................... 131!

Part II: Particles, Forces and Motion

Chapter 5: The Laws Governing Motion ................................................................ 135!

Newton’s laws of motion........................................................................................................ 136!
Newton’s first law of motion (N1)....................................................................................... 136!
Newton’s second law of motion (N2) ................................................................................. 137!
Newton’s third law of motion (N3) ..................................................................................... 138!
Applying Newton’s laws......................................................................................................... 139!
General method for applying F = ma ................................................................................. 139!
The Forcer class ................................................................................................................ 139!
The Forces class ............................................................................................................... 141!
A simple example: projectile with drag .............................................................................. 142!
A more complicated example: floating ball ........................................................................ 144!
Newton’s second law as a differential equation .................................................................... 146!
Taking a deeper look at F = ma......................................................................................... 146!
An example: Fall under gravity and drag revisited ............................................................ 147!
The principle of energy conservation .................................................................................... 148!
Conservation of mechanical energy .................................................................................. 149!
An example: Energy changes in a projectile ..................................................................... 149!
ix
Contents

The principle of momentum conservation ............................................................................. 152!

Example: 1D elastic collision between two particles ......................................................... 154!
Laws governing rotational motion.......................................................................................... 156!
Summary ............................................................................................................................... 156!

Chapter 6: Gravity, Orbits, and Rockets ................................................................ 157!

Gravity ................................................................................................................................... 157!
Gravity, weight, and mass ................................................................................................. 158!
Newton’s universal law of gravitation ................................................................................ 158!
Creating the gravity function .............................................................................................. 159!
Orbits ..................................................................................................................................... 161!
Orbiter class ...................................................................................................................... 162!
Escape velocity.................................................................................................................. 165!
Two-body motion ............................................................................................................... 166!
Local gravity .......................................................................................................................... 169!
The force of gravity near the Earth’s surface .................................................................... 169!
Variation of gravity with height .......................................................................................... 170!
Gravity on other celestial bodies ....................................................................................... 172!
Rockets.................................................................................................................................. 173!
It is rocket science! ............................................................................................................ 173!
Modeling the thrust of a rocket .......................................................................................... 173!
Building a rocket simulation ............................................................................................... 174!
Summary ............................................................................................................................... 180!

Chapter 7: Contact and Fluid Forces ..................................................................... 181!

Contact forces ....................................................................................................................... 182!
Normal contact forces........................................................................................................ 182!
Tension and compression ................................................................................................. 183!
Friction ............................................................................................................................... 183!
Example: Sliding down a slope ......................................................................................... 185!
Pressure ................................................................................................................................ 191!
The meaning of pressure .................................................................................................. 191!
Density ............................................................................................................................... 192!
Variation of pressure with depth in a fluid ......................................................................... 193!
Static and dynamic pressure ............................................................................................. 194!
Upthrust (buoyancy) .............................................................................................................. 194!
Archimedes’s Principle ...................................................................................................... 195!
Apparent weight................................................................................................................. 196!
Submerged objects............................................................................................................ 196!
Floating objects ................................................................................................................. 197!
x
 Contents

Example: Balloon............................................................................................................... 197!

Drag ....................................................................................................................................... 199!
Drag law for low velocities ................................................................................................. 200!
Drag law for high velocities ............................................................................................... 201!
Which drag law should I use? ........................................................................................... 202!
Adding drag to the balloon simulation ............................................................................... 203!
Example: Floating ball ....................................................................................................... 203!
Terminal velocity................................................................................................................ 207!
Example: Parachute .......................................................................................................... 209!
Lift .......................................................................................................................................... 212!
Lift coefficients ................................................................................................................... 213!
Example: An airplane ........................................................................................................ 213!
Wind and turbulence ............................................................................................................. 216!
Force due to the wind ........................................................................................................ 216!
Wind and drag ................................................................................................................... 217!
Steady and turbulent flow .................................................................................................. 217!
Example: Air bubbles in a steady wind.............................................................................. 217!
Modeling turbulence .......................................................................................................... 219!
Summary ............................................................................................................................... 220!

Chapter 8: Restoring Forces: Springs and Oscillations ...................................... 221!

Springs and oscillations: Basic concepts .............................................................................. 221!
Spring-like motion .............................................................................................................. 222!
Restoring force, damping, and forcing .............................................................................. 222!
Hooke’s law ....................................................................................................................... 223!
Free oscillations..................................................................................................................... 224!
The spring force function ................................................................................................... 224!
Creating a basic oscillator ................................................................................................. 224!
Simple harmonic motion .................................................................................................... 226!
Oscillations and numerical accuracy ................................................................................. 229!
Damped oscillations .............................................................................................................. 233!
Damping force ................................................................................................................... 233!
The effect of damping on oscillations ................................................................................ 234!
Analytical solutions for oscillations with damping .............................................................. 236!
Forced oscillations ................................................................................................................. 237!
Driving forces..................................................................................................................... 238!
Example: A periodic driving force ...................................................................................... 238!
Example: A random driving force ...................................................................................... 239!
Gravity as a driving force: bungee jumping ....................................................................... 240!
Example: Driving force by user interaction ........................................................................ 243!
xi
Contents

Coupled oscillators: Multiple springs and objects ................................................................. 245!

Example: A chain of objects connected by springs ........................................................... 246!
Summary ............................................................................................................................... 250!

Chapter 9: Centripetal Forces: Rotational Motion ................................................ 251!

Kinematics of uniform circular motion ................................................................................... 251!
Angular displacement ........................................................................................................ 252!
Angular velocity ................................................................................................................. 253!
Angular acceleration .......................................................................................................... 253!
Period, frequency, and angular velocity ............................................................................ 254!
Relation between angular velocity and linear velocity....................................................... 255!
Example: A rolling wheel ................................................................................................... 256!
Particles with spin .............................................................................................................. 258!
Example: Satellite around a rotating Earth ........................................................................ 259!
Centripetal acceleration and centripetal force ....................................................................... 263!
Centripetal acceleration ..................................................................................................... 263!
Centripetal acceleration, velocity and angular velocity ..................................................... 264!
Centripetal force ................................................................................................................ 264!
Common misconceptions about centripetal force ............................................................. 265!
Example: Revisiting the satellite animation ....................................................................... 266!
Example: Circular orbits with gravitational force ............................................................... 267!
Example: Car moving around a bend ................................................................................ 270!
Non-uniform circular motion .................................................................................................. 274!
Tangential force and acceleration ..................................................................................... 274!
Example: A simple pendulum ............................................................................................ 275!
Summary ............................................................................................................................... 279!

Chapter 10: Long-Range Forces ............................................................................ 281!

Particle interactions and force fields ..................................................................................... 281!
Interaction at a distance .................................................................................................... 282!
From particle interactions to force fields............................................................................ 282!
Newtonian gravitation ............................................................................................................ 283!
Gravitational field due to a particle .................................................................................... 283!
Gravity with multiple orbiters ............................................................................................. 284!
Gravity with multiple attractors .......................................................................................... 286!
Particle trajectories in a gravity field .................................................................................. 289!
Building a simple black hole game .................................................................................... 292!
Electrostatic force .................................................................................................................. 299!
Electric charge ................................................................................................................... 299!
Coulomb’s law of electrostatics ......................................................................................... 300!
xii
 Contents

Charged particle attraction and repulsion.......................................................................... 301!

Electric fields ..................................................................................................................... 303!
Electromagnetic force ............................................................................................................ 306!
Magnetic fields and forces ................................................................................................. 306!
The Lorentz force law ........................................................................................................ 308!
Other force laws .................................................................................................................... 310!
Central forces .................................................................................................................... 310!
Gravity with a spring force law? ........................................................................................ 314!
Multiple attractors with different laws of gravity ................................................................. 316!
Summary ............................................................................................................................... 318!

Part III: Multi-particle and Extended Systems

Chapter 11: Collisions ............................................................................................. 321!

Collisions and their modeling ................................................................................................ 322!
Bouncing off horizontal or vertical walls ................................................................................ 323!
Elastic bouncing ................................................................................................................ 323!
Implementing energy loss due to bouncing ....................................................................... 326!
Bouncing off inclined walls .................................................................................................... 327!
Collision detection ............................................................................................................. 327!
Repositioning the particle .................................................................................................. 329!
Calculating the new velocity .............................................................................................. 330!
Velocity correction just before collision ............................................................................. 332!
An example of a ball bouncing off an inclined wall ............................................................ 334!
Example of ball bouncing off multiple inclined walls ......................................................... 339!
Collisions between particles in 1D......................................................................................... 340!
Repositioning the particles ................................................................................................ 340!
Elastic collisions ................................................................................................................ 343!
Inelastic collisions .............................................................................................................. 347!
Collisions between particles in 2D......................................................................................... 349!
An example: 2D collisions between two particles ............................................................. 350!
Example: multiple particle collisions .................................................................................. 353!
Example: multiple particle collisions with bouncing........................................................... 354!
Summary ............................................................................................................................... 358!

Chapter 12: Particle Systems ................................................................................. 359!

Introduction to particle system modeling ............................................................................... 360!
Creating animated effects using particles ............................................................................. 361!
A simple example: splash effect with particles .................................................................. 361!
Creating a particle emitter ................................................................................................. 364!

xiii
Contents

Creating a smoke effect..................................................................................................... 367!

Creating a fire effect .......................................................................................................... 371!
Creating fireworks.............................................................................................................. 373!
Particle animations with long-range forces ........................................................................... 379!
Particle paths in a force field ............................................................................................. 379!
Building a wormhole .......................................................................................................... 382!
Interacting particle systems ................................................................................................... 385!
Multiple particles under mutual gravity .............................................................................. 385!
A simple galaxy simulation ................................................................................................ 389!
Summary ............................................................................................................................... 394!

Chapter 13: Extended Objects ................................................................................ 395!

Rigid bodies ........................................................................................................................... 395!
Basic concepts of rigid body modeling .............................................................................. 396!
Modeling rigid bodies......................................................................................................... 402!
Rotational dynamics of rigid bodies................................................................................... 405!
Simulating rigid body dynamics ......................................................................................... 409!
Example: a simple wind turbine simulation ....................................................................... 412!
Example: Rolling down an inclined plane .......................................................................... 415!
Rigid body collisions and bouncing ................................................................................... 422!
Example: Simulating a single bouncing block ................................................................... 426!
Example: Colliding blocks ................................................................................................. 430!
Deformable bodies ................................................................................................................ 432!
Mass-spring systems ......................................................................................................... 432!
Rope simulation ................................................................................................................. 434!
Cloth simulation ................................................................................................................. 438!
Summary ............................................................................................................................... 440!

Part IV: Building More Complex Simulations

Chapter 14: Numerical Integration Schemes ........................................................ 443!

General principles ................................................................................................................. 444!
Statement of the problem .................................................................................................. 444!
Characteristics of numerical schemes............................................................................... 446!
Types of integration schemes ........................................................................................... 447!
Modifying Forcer to allow for different integration schemes .............................................. 448!
Euler integration .................................................................................................................... 449!
Explicit Euler ...................................................................................................................... 449!
Implicit Euler ...................................................................................................................... 450!
Semi-implicit Euler ............................................................................................................. 450!

xiv
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endeavour to present them with proper models of imitation.
Conscious of the difficulty of the undertaking, the Author of these
adventures will gladly have declined the task, in the expectation of
such a work’s engaging the attention of those, whose genius were
more equal to its accomplishment. With the hope, therefore, of
inspiring others to excel the example, it is now submitted to the
world “with all its imperfections on its head,” trusting for a candid
reception to the motive which first suggested the idea: That of
presenting the juvenile reader with a a few pages which should be
innocent of corrupting, if they did not amuse.
 THE

ADVENTURES
OF A

P I N C U S H I O N.

It happened one very fine afternoon in the latter end of May, that
Mrs. Airy had been collecting together a great number of different
pieces of silk, in order to made a work-bag; which she intended as a
present to one of her nieces. Miss Martha Airy, her eldest daughter,
was about ten years old, and had been for some time indolently
lolling with both her elbows on the table, looking at her Mamma
while she was chusing the prettiest pattern for the purpose I just
mentioned. Her chin rested on her two hands, which were crossed
over each other, and she was seated on the back of her brother’s
chair, which he had turned down in that manner for the purpose of
serving him as a horse. At last, however, her weight proving too
great for the seat she had chosen, as she did not keep still, the
upper part of the chair-back came to the ground, while the other
end mounted up like a piece of board for a sea-saw; and in her fall
tumbling down backwards, proved the occasion of a great deal of
mischief, by oversetting a curious set of tea-china, which her sister
Charlotte was playing with; and which she had received as a present
the day before from her grandpapa. Charlotte was so enraged at the
loss of her play-things, that without offering to help her sister, she
gave her a slap on the face, and told her, she was very naughty to
spoil things in such a manner by her carelessness; and that she
would break her plates whenever they came in her way. She was
proceeding in this manner when Mrs. Airy thought it time to
interfere, and was extremely angry with Charlotte for her warmth.
“Martha was not to blame,” added she, “as she had no intention of
doing the least mischief to your cups and saucers. I think, as I told
her once before, she was not sitting in a graceful attitude, and had
she moved at the time I spoke to her, it would have prevented her
fall; but that is no justification of your behaviour to your sister. She
has not deserved your reproaches, and I did not think you could
have behaved so improperly, as well as unkindly, as to strike anyone,
especially your elder sister. Indeed I am much displeased with you,
and the threat you made of breaking her plates in return, is so very
naughty and wicked, that I think you deserve to be punished; and I
desire you will ask Martha’s pardon for the blow you have given her.”
Charlotte coloured with indignation and anger, at the thoughts of
submitting in such a manner to humble herself. She had heard some
silly girls declare, they would never own their being in the wrong,
and was withheld from acting in the noblest manner, by the false
shame of confessing an error. At length however, upon her Mamma
coming towards her with an avowed intention of inflicting some
further punishment, she mumbled out, in a low voice, which was
very difficult to be understood, That she was sorry that she had
struck her sister. Martha, who was extremely generous, and
uncommonly good-natured, very affectionately kissed her sister; and
told her, she was much concerned at the mischief she had
occasioned; though she could not have helped it; as she fell down
before she was aware of it, and did not see that her tea-things were
near her. Charlotte grew reconciled by degrees; but it was a long
time before she regained her usual cheerfulness. After some time,
however, the sisters seated themselves in a window by the table,
and solicited their Mamma for a bit of silk to make a Pincushion. Mrs.
Airy gave them several pieces to chuse which they liked best; and
after they had taken them up a dozen times, or perhaps as many
more, had they been reckoned, Martha made a choice of a square
piece of pink sattin, which she neatly sewed and stuffed with bran,
and which, gentle reader, when it was finished, was the identical
Pincushion whose adventures form the subject of this little volume.
Assuming, therefore, the title of an Historian, or Biographer, which is
generally understood to mean a person who is writing an account of
his own, or another’s actions, I shall take the liberty to speak for
myself, and tell you what I saw and heard in the character of a
Pincushion. Perhaps you never thought that such things as are
inanimate, could be sensible of any thing which happens, as they
can neither hear, see, nor understand; and as I would not willingly
mislead your judgment: I would previous to your reading this work,
inform you, that it is to be understood as an imaginary tale; in the
same manner as when you are at play, you sometimes call
yourselves gentlemen, and ladies, though you know you are only
little boys or girls. So, when you read of birds and beads speaking
and thinking, you know it is not so in reality, any more than your
amusements, which you frequently call making believe. To use your
own style, and adopt your own manner of speaking, therefore, you
must imagine, that a Pincushion is now making believe to address
you, and to recite a number of little events, some of which really
have happened, and others might do so with great probability: and if
any of the characters here represented should appear to be
disagreeable, the Author hopes you will endeavour to avoid their
failings, and to practice those virtues or accomplishments, which
render the contrary examples more worthy of imitation. And now, if
you please, we will return to the account of what further befell me in
the family of Mrs. Airy.
 After the young ladies had amused themselves a great while with
the pieces of silk I have so often had occasion to mention, and Miss
Martha had completed me to her entire satisfaction; she took all the
pins out of an old green one, which was originally in the shape of a
heart, but had, by looping a great part of its inside, through various
little holes, quite lost its form; and which, that she might find those
pins which had gone through the silk, she cut open on an old news-
paper, and then stuck all she could find upon my sides in the shape
of letters, which she afterwards changed to flowers, and a third time
altered to stars and circles; which afforded her full amusement till
bed time. Miss Charlotte, though her mamma had given her as much
silk as her sister, had only cut it into waste; while Martha, after she
had furnished me, had saved the rest towards making a housewife
for her doll. I could not help reflecting when I saw all Charlotte’s
little shreds and slips littering the room; what a simple method many
little girls are apt to get into, of wasting every thing which their
friends are so kind as to give them, and which, properly employed,
might, make them many useful ornaments for their dolls; and
sometimes pretty trifles for themselves. Charlotte Airy as such
children usually are, was desirous of having every thing she saw, so
that her drawers were always filled with bits of ribbon, pieces of silk,
cuttings of gauze, catgut, and muslin: and if she wanted to find her
gloves, tippet, tuckers, or any part of her dress, she was obliged to
search for them in twenty different places, and frequently to go
without what she was looking for. Martha on the contrary, by taking
care of what might be of use, and laying it by in a proper place,
always knew where to find what she had occasion for directly. So
that it frequently happened that she went out with her Mamma,
when her sister was forced to stay at home; because she had lost
something which had delayed her so long to lock for, that she could
not get ready in time. This very circumstance happened the day
after I became acquainted with her, to her no small mortification.
Mrs. Airy was going to see the exhibition of pictures, at the Royal
Academy, and told her daughters if they behaved well they should
accompany her; as Mrs. Gardner and her niece Miss Lounge would
call at one o’clock. After breakfast, Charlotte, who had found the
mould of an old button in one of her papa’s waistcoat pockets which
she had been rummaging, had cut to pieces an axle-tree of a little
cart, which belonged to her brother, to make a spindle, in order to
convert it into a tea-totum; with which she was so much
entertained, that she was very unwilling to leave it to go to work,
though her mamma repeatedly told her, she would not be ready
against Mr. Gardner’s coach came. “Yes, I shall, Madam!” said she,
and played on. “Do pray go to work, Charlotte!”
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