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An Instructor’s Solutions Manual to Accompany

Fundamentals of Digital Signal

Processing using MATLAB, 2nd Edition
Robert J. Schilling
Sandra L. Harris
 © 2012, 2005 Cengage Learning ISBN-13: 978-1-1114-2603-3
ISBN-10: 1-111-42603-1
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 14 13 12 11 10
 INSTRUCTOR'S SOLUTIONS MANUAL
TO ACCOMPANY

FUNDAMENTALS OF
DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSING
using MATLAB

SECOND EDITION

ROBERT J. SCHILLING

SANDRA L. HARRIS
 Contents
Chapter 1 1

Chapter 2 57

Chapter 3 155

Chapter 4 274

Chapter 5 384

Chapter 6 467

Chapter 7 572

Chapter 8 675

Chapter 9 765
 Chapter 1
1.1 Suppose the input to an amplifier is xa (t) = sin(2πF0 t) and the steady-state output is

ya (t) = 100 sin(2πF0 t + φ1 ) − 2 sin(4πF0 t + φ2 ) + cos(6πF0 t + φ3 )

(a) Is the amplifier a linear system or is it a nonlinear system?

(b) What is the gain of the amplifier?
(c) Find the average power of the output signal.
(d) What is the total harmonic distortion of the amplifier?

Solution

(a) The amplifier is nonlinear because the steady-state output contains harmonics.
(b) From (1.1.2), the amplifier gain is K = 100.
(c) From (1.2.4), the output power is

d20 1 2
d1 + d+ 22 + d23


Py = +
4 2
= .5(1002 + 22 + 1)
= 5002.5

(d) From (1.2.5)

100(Py − d21 /2)

THD =
Py
100(5002.5 − 5000)
=
5002.5
= .05%

© 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

1
√
1.2 Consider the following signum function that returns the sign of its argument.


 1 , t>0
∆
sgn(t) = 0 , t=0
−1 , t < 0


(a) Using Appendix 1, find the magnitude spectrum

(b) Find the phase spectrum

Solution

(a) From Table A2 in Appendix 1

1
Xa (f ) =
jπf

Thus the magnitude spectrum is

Aa (f ) = |Xa(f )|
1
=
|jπf |
1
=
π|f |

(b) The phase spectrum is

φa (f ) = 6 Xa (f )
= −6 jπf
π 
= −sgn(f )
2

© 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

2
 1.3 Parseval’s identity states that a signal and its spectrum are related in the following way.

Z ∞ Z ∞
2
|xa (t)| dt = |Xa(f )|2 df
−∞ −∞

Use Parseval’s identity to compute the following integral.

Z ∞
J = sinc2 (2Bt)dt
−∞

Solution

From Table A2 in Appendix 1 if

xa (t) = sinc(2Bt)

then

µa (f + B) − µa (f − B)
Xa (f ) =
2B

Thus by Parseval’s identity

Z ∞
J = sin2 (2Bt)dt
Z−∞
∞
= |xa (t)|2 dt
Z−∞
∞
= |Xa(f )|2 df
−∞
B
1
Z
= df
2B −B
= 1

© 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

3
 1.4 Consider the causal exponential signal

xa (t) = exp(−ct)µa (t)

(a) Using Appendix 1, find the magnitude spectrum.

(b) Find the phase spectrum
(c) Sketch the magnitude and phase spectra when c = 1.

Solution

(a) From Table A2 in Appendix 1

1
Xa (f ) =
c + j2πf

Thus the magnitude spectrum is

Aa(f ) = |Xa(f )|
1
=
|c + j2πf |
1
= p
c + (2πf )2
2

(b) The phase spectrum is

Aa (f ) = |Xa (f )|
= 1 − 6 (c + j2πf )
6
 
2πf
= − tan−1
c

© 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

4
 1

0.8

0.6
A (f)
a

0.4

0.2

0
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5
f (Hz)

1
φa(f)

−1

−2
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5
f (Hz)
Problem 1.4 (c) Magnitude and Phase Spectra, c = 1

© 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

5
 1.5 If a real analog signal xa (t) is square integrable, then the energy that the signal contains
within the frequency band [F0 , F1 ] where F0 ≥ 0 can be computed as follows.

Z F1
E(F0 , F1 ) = 2 |Xa(f )|2 df
F0

Consider the following double exponential signal with c > 0.

xa(t) = exp(−c|t|)

(a) Find the total energy, E(0, ∞).

(b) Find the percentage of the total energy that lies in the frequency range [0, 2] Hz.

Solution

(a) From Table A2 in Appendix 1

2c
Xa (f ) =
c2 + 4π 2 f 2

Thus the total energy of xa (t) is

Z ∞
E(0, ∞) = 2 |Xa(f )|2 df
Z0 ∞  
2c
= 2 df
0 c2 + 4π 2 f 2
 ∞
4c 2πf
= tan−1
2πc c 0
2 π 
=
π 2
= 1

(b) Using part (a), the percentage of the total energy that lies in the frequency range [0, 2]
Hz is

100E(0, 2)
p =
E(0, ∞)
= 100E(0, 2)
2πf 2
 
200
= tan−1
π c
  0
200 4π
= tan−1 %
π c
© 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

6
 1.6 Let xa (t) be a periodic signal with period T0 . The average power of xa(t) can be defined as
follows.

T0
1
Z
Px = |xa (t)|2 dt
T0 0

Find the average power of the following periodic continuous-time signals.

(a) xa(t) = cos(2πF0 t)

(b) xa(t) = c
(c) A periodic train of pulses of amplitude a, duration T , and period T0 .

Solution

(a) Using Appendix 2,

Z 1/F0
Px = F0 cos2 (2πF0 t)dt
0
1/F0
F0
Z
= [1 + cos(4πF0 t)]dt
2 0
1
=
2

(b)
T0
1
Z
Px = c2 dt
T0 0
= c2

(c)
Z T
1
Px = a2 dt
T0 0
a2 T
=
T0

© 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

7
 1.7 Consider the following discrete-time signal where the samples are represented using N bits.

x(k) = exp(−ckT )µ(k)

(a) How many bits are needed to ensure that the quantization level is less than .001?
(b) Suppose N = 8 bits. What is the average power of the quantization noise?

Solution

(a) For k ≥ 0, the signal ranges over 0 ≤ x(k) ≤ 1. Thus xmin = 0 and xmax = 1 and from (1.2.3)
the quantization level is

1
q =
2N

Setting q = .001 yields

1 1
=
2N 1000

Taking the log of both sides, −N ln(2) = − ln(1000) or

 
ln(1000)
N = ceil
ln(2)
= ceil(9.966)
= 10 bits

(b) From (1.2.8) the average power of the quantization noise using N = 8 bits is

q2
E[e2] =
12
1
=
12(2N )2
= 1.271 × 10−6

© 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

8
 1.8 Show that the spectrum of a causal signal xa(t) can be obtained from the Laplace transform
Xa(s) be replacing s by j2πf . Is this also true for noncausal signals?

Solution

For a causal signal xa (t), the one-sided Laplace transform can be extended to a two-sided
transform without changing the result.

Z ∞
Xa (s) = xa (t) exp(−st)dt
−∞

If s is now replaced by j2πf , this reduces to the Fourier transform Xa(f ) in (1.2.16). Thus
the spectrum of a causal signal can be obtained from the Laplace transform as follows.

Xa (f ) = Xa (s)|s=j2πf if xa (t) = 0 for t < 0

This is not true for a noncausal signal where xa (t) 6= 0 for t < 0.

© 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

9
 1.9 Consider the following periodic signal.

xa (t) = 1 + cos(10πt)

(a) Compute the magnitude spectrum of xa (t).

(b) Suppose xa(t) is sampled with a sampling frequency of fs = 8 Hz. Sketch the magnitude
spectrum of xa (t) and the sampled signal, x̂a (t).
(c) Does aliasing occur when xa (t) is sampled at the rate fs = 8 Hz? What is the folding
frequency in this case?
(d) Find a range of values for the sampling interval T which ensures that aliasing will not
occur.
(e) Assuming fs = 8 Hz, find an alternative lower-frequency signal, xb (t), that has the same
set of samples as xa (t).

Solution

(a) From the linearity property and Table A2 in Appendix 1

δa (f + 5) + δa (f − 5)
Xa (f ) = δa (f ) +
2

(c) Yes, aliasing does occur (see sketch). The folding frequency is

fs
fd =
2
= 4 Hz

(d) The signal xa (t) is bandlimited to 5 Hz. From Proposition 1.1, to avoid aliasing, the
sampling rate must satisfy fs > 10. Thus 1/T > 10 or

0 < T < .1 sec

© 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

10
 1.5

A (f) 1

0.5
a

−0.5
−15 −10 −5 0 5 10 15
f (Hz)

1.5

1
A* (f)

0.5
a

−0.5
−15 −10 −5 0 5 10 15
f (Hz)

Problem 1.9 (b) Magnitude Spectra

(e) Using the trigonometric identities from Appendix 2 with fs = 8

x(k) = 1 + cos(10πkT )
= 1 + cos(1.25πk)
= 1 + cos(2πk − .75πk)
= 1 + cos(2πk) cos(.75πk) + sin(2πk) sin(.75πk)
= 1 + cos(.75πk)
= 1 + cos(6πk/8)
= 1 + cos(6πkT )

Thus an alternative lower-frequency signal with the same set of samples is

xb (t) = 1 + cos(6πt)

© 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

11
√
1.10 Consider the following bandlimited signal.

xa (t) = sin(4πt)[1 + cos2 (2πt)]

(a) Using the trigonometric identities in Appendix 2, find the maximum frequency present
in xa(t).
(b) For what range of values for the sampling interval T can this signal be reconstructed
from its samples?

Solution

(a) From Appendix 2

xa (t) = sin(4πt) + sin(4πt) cos2 (2πt)

= sin(4πt) + .5 sin(4πt)[1 + cos(4πt)]
= sin(4πt) + .5 sin(4πt) + .5 sin(4πt) cos(4πt)
= sin(4πt) + .5 sin(4πt) + .25 sin(8πt)

Thus the highest frequency present in xa (t) is F0 = 4 Hz.

(b) From Proposition 1.1, to avoid aliasing fs > 8 Hz. Thus

0 < T < .125 sec

© 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

12
1.11 It is not uncommon for students to casually restate the sampling theorem in the following
way: “A signal must be sampled at twice the highest frequency present to avoid aliasing”.
Interesting enough, this informal formulation is not quite correct. To verify this, consider the
following simple signal.

xa (t) = sin(2πt)

(a) Find the magnitude spectrum of xa (t), and verify that the highest frequency present is
F0 = 1 Hz.
(b) Suppose xa (t) is sampled at the rate fs = 2 Hz. Sketch the magnitude spectrum of xa (t)
and the sampled signal, x̂a (t). Do the replicated spectra overlap?
(c) Compute the samples x(k) = xa (kT ) using the sampling rate fs = 2 Hz. Is it possible to
reconstruct xa (t) from x(k) using the reconstruction formula in Proposition 1.2 in this
instance?
(d) Restate the sampling theorem in terms of the highest frequency present, but this time
correctly.

Solution

(a) From Table A2 in Appendix 2

j[δa(f + 1) − δa (f − 1)]
Xa (f ) =
2

Thus the magnitude spectrum of xa (t) is

δa (f + 1) + δa (f − 1)
Aa (f ) =
2

Clearly, the highest frequency present is F0 = 1 Hz. See sketch.

(b) Yes, the replicated spectra do overlap (see sketch). In this instance, the overlapping
spectra cancel one another.
(c) When fs = 2, the samples are

x(k) = sin(2πkT )
= sin(πk)
= 0

No, it is not possible to reconstruct xa(t) from these samples using Proposition 1.2.
(d) A signal must be sampled at a rate that is higher than twice the highest frequency
present to avoid aliasing.

© 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

13
 1

0.5
Aa(f)

−0.5
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
f (Hz)

0.5
A*a(f)

−0.5
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
f (Hz)

Problem 1.11 (b) Magnitude Spectra

© 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

14
1.12 Why is it not possible to physically construct an ideal lowpass filter? Use the impulse response,
ha (t), to explain your answer.

Solution

From Example 1.4, an ideal lowpass filter with gain one and cutoff frequency B has the
following impulse response

ha (t) = 2Bsinc(2Bt)

Therefore ha (t) 6= 0 for t < 0. This makes the impulse response a noncausal signal and the
system that produced it a noncausal system. Noncausal systems are not physically realizable
because the system would have to anticipate the input (an impulse at time t = 0) and respond
to it before it occurred.

© 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

15
1.13 There are special circumstances where it is possible to reconstruct a signal from its samples
even when the sampling rate is less than twice the bandwidth. To see this, consider a signal
xa(t) whose spectrum Xa (f ) has a hole in it as shown in Figure 1.45.

(a) What is the bandwidth of the signal xa (t) whose spectrum is shown in Figure 1.45? The
pulses are of radius 100 Hz.
(b) Suppose the sampling rate is fs = 750 Hz. Sketch the spectrum of the sampled signal
x̂a(t).
(c) Show that xa(t) can be reconstructed from x̂a (t) by finding an idealized reconstruc-
tion filter with input x̂a (t) and output xa (t). Sketch the magnitude response of the
reconstruction filter.
(d) For what range of sampling frequencies below 2fs can the signal be reconstructed from
the samples using the type of reconstruction filter from part (c)?

Spectrum with a Hole in It

1.5

1
|Xa(f)|

0.5

0
−1500 −1000 −500 0 500 1000 1500
f (Hz)

Problem 1.45 A Signal Whose Spectrum has a Hole in It

Solution

(a) From inspection of Figure 1.45, the bandwidth of xa (t) is B = 600 Hz.
(d) From inspection of the solution to part (c), the signal can be reconstructed from the
samples (no overlap of the spectra) for 700 < fs < 800 Hz.

© 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

16
 Sampled Spectrum

1000

|Xa(f)| 800

600

400

200

0
−1500 −1000 −500 0 500 1000 1500
f (Hz)

Problem 1.13b (b) Magnitude Spectrum of Sampled Signal

−3
x 10 Ideal Reconstruction Filter
2

1.8

1.6

1.4

1.2
A(f)

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
−1500 −1000 −500 0 500 1000 1500
f (Hz)

Problem 1.13c (c) Magnitude Response of Ideal Reconstruction Filter

© 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

17
1.14 Consider the problem of using an anti-aliasing filter as shown in Figure 1.46. Suppose the
anti-aliasing filter is a lowpass Butterworth filter of order n = 4 with cutoff frequency Fc = 2
kHz.

(a) Find a lower bound fL on the sampling frequency that ensures that the aliasing error is
reduced by a factor of at least .005.
(b) The lower bound fL represents oversampling by what factor?

Anti- xb (t)
xa(t) e - aliasing - ADC e x(k)
filter

Figure 1.46 Preprocessing with an Anti-Aliasing Filter

Solution

(a) Suppose fs = 2αFc for some α > 1. Using (1.5.1) and evaluating Ha (f ) at the folding
frequency fd = fs /2 we have

1
√ = .005
1 + α8

Squaring both sides and taking reciprocals

1 + α8 = 40000

Solving for α

α = 399991/8
= 3.761

Thus the lower bound on the cutoff frequency is

fL = 2αFc
= 2(3.761)2000
= 15.044 kHz

(b) This represents oversampling by a factor of factor α = 3.761.

© 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

18
1.15 Show that the transfer function of a linear continuous-time system is the Laplace transform
of the impulse response.

Solution

Let ya (t) be the impulse response. Using Definition 1.8 and Table A4 in Appendix 1

L{ya (t)} = Ya (s)

= Ha (s)Xa(s)
= Ha (s)L{δa(t)}
= Ha (s)

© 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

19
1.16 A bipolar DAC can be constructed from a unipolar DAC by inserting an operational amplifier
at the output as shown in Figure 1.47. Note that the unipolar N -bit DAC uses a reference
voltage of 2VR , rather than −Vr as in Figure 1.34. This means that the unipolar DAC output
is −2ya where ya is given in (1.6.4). Analysis of the operational amplifier section of the circuit
reveals that the bipolar DAC output is then

za = 2ya − Vr

(a) Find the range of values for za .

(b) Suppose the binary input is b = bN −1 bN −2 · · · b0 . For what value of b is za = 0?
(c) What is the quantization level of this bipolar DAC?

2Vr R
e

Unipolar@ −2ya R @
b e @ • −@
DAC @ e za
R •
+

e e
Vr GND

Figure 1.47 A Bipolar N -bit DAC

Solution

(a) From (1.6.5) we have 0 ≤ ya ≤ (2N − 1)Vr /2N . When ya = 0, this yields za = −Vr . The
upper limit of za is

2(2N − 1)Vr
za ≥ − Vr
2N
[2(2N − 1) − 2N ]Vr
=
2N
(2N − 2)Vr
=
2N

Thus the range of values for the bipolar DAC output is

2N − 2
 
−Vr ≤ za ≤ Vr
2N

© 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

20
 (b) If b = 10 · · · 0, then from (1.6.4) and (1.6.1) we have

 
Vr
ya = x
2N
  NX
−1
Vr
= b k 2k
2N
k=0
 
Vr
= 2N −1
2N
Vr
=
2

The bipolar DAC output is then

za = 2ya − Vr
= 0

(c) From (1.2.3), the quantization level of a bipolar DAC with output −Vr ≤ za < Vr is

Vr − (−Vr )
q =
2N
Vr
= N
2 −1

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21
√
1.17 Suppose a bipolar ADC is used with a precision of N = 12 bits, and a reference voltage of
Vr = 10 volts.

(a) What is the quantization level q?

(b) What is the maximum value of the magnitude of the quantization noise assuming the
ADC input-output characteristics is offset by q/2 as in Figure 1.35.
(c) What is the average power of the quantization noise?

Solution

(a) From (1.6.7)

Vr
q = N
2 −1
10
=
211
= .0049

(b) The maximum quantization error, assuming rounding, is

q
Emax =
2
= .0024

(c) From (1.2.8), the average power of the quantization noise is

q2
E[e2 ] =
12
= 1.9868 × 10−6

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22
1.18 Suppose an 8-bit bipolar successive approximation ADC has reference voltage Vr = 10 volts.

(a) If the analog input is xa = −3.941 volts, find the successive approximations by filling in
the entries in Table 1.8.
(b) If the clock rate is fclock = 200 kHz, what is the sampling rate of this ADC?
(c) Find the quantization level of this ADC.
(d) Find the average power of the quantization noise.

Table 1.8 Successive Approximations

k bn−k uk yk
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Solution

(a) Applying Alg. 1.1, the successive approximations are as follows

Table 1.8 Successive Approximations

k bn−k uk yk
0 0 0 -10.0000
1 1 1 -5.0000
2 0 0 -5.0000
3 0 0 -5.0000
4 1 1 -4.3750
5 1 1 -4.0625
6 0 0 -4.0625
7 1 1 -3.9844

(b) Since there are N = 8 bits, the successive approximation sampling rate is

fclock
fs =
N
2 × 105
=
8
= 25 kHz

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23
 (c) Using (1.6.7), the quantization level of this bipolar ADC is

10
q =
27
= .0781

(d) Using (1.2.8) the average power of the quantization noise is

q2
E[e2] =
12
= 5.083 × 10−4

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24
1.19 An alternative to the R-2R ladder DAC is the weighted-resistor DAC shown in Figure 1.48
for the case N = 4. Here the switch controlled by bit bk is open when bk = 0 and closed when
bk = 1. Recall that the decimal equivalent of the binary input b is as follows.

N
X −1
x = b k 2k
k=0

(a) Show that the current through the kth branch of an N -bit weighted-resistor DAC is

−Vr bk
Ik = , 0≤k<N
2N −k R

(b) Show that the DAC output voltage is

 
Vr
ya = x
2N

(c) Find the range of output values for this DAC.

(d) Is this DAC unipolar, or is it bipolar?
(e) Find the quantization level of this DAC.

−Vr e • • •

2R 4R 8R 16R
?
I3 ?
I2 ?
I1 ?
I0
• • • • R






b3
b2
b1
b0

-I • @
• • • −@
V @ • eya
GND e +

Figure 1.48 A Four-Bit Weighted-Resistor DAC

Solution

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25
 (a) The kth branch (starting from the right) has resistance 2N −k R. For an ideal op amp, the
principle of the virtual short circuit says that the voltage drop between the noninverting
terminal (+) and the inverting terminal(−) is zero. Thus V = 0. Applying Ohm’s law,
current through the kth branch is

(−Vr − V )bk
Ik =
2N −k R
−Vr bk
= , 0≤k<N
2N −k R

(b) For an ideal op amp, there is no current flowing into the inverting input (infinite input
impedance). Consequently, using V = 0 and Ik from part (a),

ya = V − RI
= −RI
N
X −1
= −R Ik
i=0
N −1
X −Vr bk
= −R
2N −k R
i=0
N
X −1
= Vr bk 2k−N
i=0
  NX
−1
Vr
= b k 2k
2N
i=0
 
Vr
= x
2N

(c) Since x ranges from 0 to 2N −1 , it follows from part (b) that

2N −1
 
0 ≤ ya ≤ Vr
2N

(d) Since ya ≥ 0, this is a unipolar DAC.

(e) For the unipolar DAC, 0 ≤ ya < Vr . Thus from (1.2.3), the quantization level is

Vr − 0
q =
2N
Vr
=
2N

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26
1.20 Use GUI module g sample to plot the time signals and magnitude spectra of the square wave
using f s = 10 Hz. On the magnitude spectra plot, use the Caliper option to display the
amplitude and frequency of the third harmonic. Are there even harmonics present the square
wave?

Solution

Anti− x
x b
a aliasing ADC x
filter

0
0

Time signals, square wave input: n=4, Fc=4, N=8, Vr=1, fs=10

1.5 xa(t)
xb(t)
1
x(k)
0.5
x(t)

−0.5

−1

−1.5

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4

t (sec)

Problem 1.20 (a)

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27
 Anti− x
x b
a aliasing ADC x
filter

0
0

Magnitude spectra, square wave input: n=4, F =4, N=8, V =1, f =10
c r s
140
|Xa(f)|
120 |Xb(f)|
|X(f)|
100
Ideal filter
|X(f)|

80

60
(x,y) = (3.09,54.19)
40

20

0
−20 −15 −10 −5 0 5 10 15 20
f (Hz)

Problem 1.20 (b) There are no even harmonics

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28
√
1.21 Use GUI module g sample to plot the magnitude spectra of the User-defined signal in the file,
u sample1. Set Fc = 1 and do the following two cases. For which ones is there noticeable
aliasing?

(a) f s = 2 Hz
(b) f s = 10 Hz

Solution

Anti− xb
xa aliasing ADC x
filter

0
0

Magnitude spectra, user−defined input from file u_sample1: n=4, Fc=1, N=8, Vr=1, fs=2
8
|Xa(f)|
|Xb(f)|
6 |X(f)|
Ideal filter
|X(f)|

0
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
f (Hz)

Problem 1.21 (a) Significant aliasing, fs = 2 Hz

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29
 Anti− x
x b
a aliasing ADC x
filter

0
0

Magnitude spectra, user−defined input from file u_sample1: n=4, F =1, N=8, V =1, f =10
c r s
40
|Xa(f)|
|Xb(f)|
30 |X(f)|
Ideal filter
|X(f)|

20

10

0
−20 −15 −10 −5 0 5 10 15 20
f (Hz)

Problem 1.21 (b) No significant aliasing, fs = 10 Hz

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30
1.22 Consider the following exponentially damped sine wave with c = 1 and F0 = 1.

xa (t) = exp(−ct) sin(2πF0 t)µa (t)

(a) Write a MATLAB function called u sample2 that returns the value xa (t).
(b) Use the User-Defined option in GUI module g sample to sample this signal at fs = 12
Hz. Plot the time signals.
(c) Adjust the sampling rate to fs = 4 Hz and set the cutoff frequency to Fc = 2 Hz. Plot
the magnitude spectra.

Solution

(a) Write a MATLAB function called u sample2 that returns the value xa (t).

function y = u_sample2 (t)

%U_SAMPLE2: User file for problem 1.22

%
% Usage: y = u_sample2 (t);
%
% Inputs: t = vector of input times
%
% Outputs: y = vector of samples of analog signal evaluated at t

y = exp(-t) .* sin(2*pi*t);

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31
 Anti− x
x b
a aliasing ADC x
filter

0
0

Time signals, user−defined input from file u_sample2: n=4, F =4, N=8, V =1, f =12
c r s
0.8
xa(t)
0.6 x (t)
b
x(k)
0.4

0.2
x(t)

−0.2

−0.4

−0.6
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
t (sec)

Problem 1.22 (b) Time Plots

Anti− x
xa b
aliasing ADC x
filter

0
0

Magnitude spectra, user−defined input from file u_sample2: n=4, Fc=2, N=8, Vr=1, fs=6
12
|Xa(f)|
10 |Xb(f)|
|X(f)|
8 Ideal filter
|X(f)|

0
−15 −10 −5 0 5 10 15
f (Hz)

Problem 1.22 (c) Spectra

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32
√
1.23 Use GUI module g reconstruct to load the User-Defined signal in the file, u reconstruct1.
Adjust f s to 12 Hz and set Vr = 4.

(a) Plot the time signals, and use the Caliper option to identify the amplitude and time of
the peak output.
(b) Plot the magnitude spectra.

Solution

yb Anti−
y DAC imaging ya
filter

0
0

Time signals, user−defined input from file u_reconstruct1: N=8, Vr=4, n=4, Fc=4, fs=12
4
yb(t)
(x,y) = (1.62,3.31)
3 ya(t)
y
2
y(t)

−1

−2
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
t (sec)

Problem 1.23 (a)

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33
 yb Anti−
y DAC imaging y
a
filter

0
0

Magnitude spectra, user−defined input from file u_reconstruct1: N=8, V =4, n=4, F =4, f =12
r c s
120
|Y(f)|
|Y (f)|
100 b
|Y (f)|
a
80 Ideal filter
|Y(f)|

60

40

20

0
−25 −20 −15 −10 −5 0 5 10 15 20 25
f (Hz)

Problem 1.23 (b)

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34
1.24 Consider the exponentially damped sine wave in problem 1.22.

(a) Write a MATLAB function that returns the value xa (t).

(b) Use the User-Defined option in GUI module g reconstruct to sample this signal at fs = 8
Hz. Plot the time signals.
(c) Adjust the sampling rate to fs = 4 Hz and set Fc = 2 Hz. Plot the magnitude spectra.

Solution

(a) Write a MATLAB function that returns the value xa (t).

function y = u_sample2 (t)

%U_SAMPLE2: User file for problem 1.24

%
% Usage: y = u_sample2 (t);
%
% Inputs: t = vector of input times
%
% Outputs: y = vector of samples of analog signal evaluated at t

y = exp(-t) .* sin(2*pi*t);

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35
 yb Anti−
y DAC imaging y
a
filter

0
0

Time signals, user−defined input from file u_sample2: N=8, V =1, n=4, F =4, f =8
r c s
0.8
yb(t)
0.6 y (t)
a
y
0.4

0.2
y(t)

−0.2

−0.4

−0.6
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
t (sec)

Problem 1.24 (b)

y Anti−
b ya
y DAC imaging
filter

0
0

Magnitude spectra, user−defined input from file u_sample2: N=8, Vr=1, n=4, Fc=2, fs=4
10
|Y(f)|
|Yb(f)|
8 |Ya(f)|
Ideal filter
6
|Y(f)|

0
−8 −6 −4 −2 0 2 4 6 8
f (Hz)

Problem 1.24 (c)

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36
1.25 Use GUI module g sample to plot the magnitude responses of the following anti-aliasing filters.
What is the oversampling factor, α, in each case?

(a) n = 2, Fc = 1, fs = 2
(b) n = 6, Fc = 2, fs = 12

Solution

Anti− x
x b
a aliasing ADC x
filter

0
0

Anti−aliasing filter magnitude response: n=2, Fc=1, N=8, Vr=1, fs=2

1.5
Anti−aliasing filter
Ideal filter

1
A(f)

0.5

0
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
f (Hz)

Problem 1.25 (a) Oversampling factor: α = fs /(2Fc) = 1

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37
 Anti− x
x b
a aliasing ADC x
filter

0
0

Anti−aliasing filter magnitude response: n=6, F =2, N=8, V =1, f =12

c r s
1.5
Anti−aliasing filter
Ideal filter

1
A(f)

0.5

0
−20 −15 −10 −5 0 5 10 15 20
f (Hz)

Problem 1.25 (b) Oversampling factor: α = fs /(2Fc ) = 3

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38
1.26 Use GUI module g reconstruct to plot the magnitude responses of the following anti-imaging
filters. What is the oversampling factor in each case?

(a) n = 1, F c = 2, fs = 5
(a) n = 8, F c = 4, fs = 16

Solution

yb Anti−
y DAC imaging y
a
filter

0
0

DAC and anti−imaging filter magnitude responses: N=8, Vr=1, n=1, Fc=2, fs=5

DAC
Anti−imaging filter
1

0.8
A(f)

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
−15 −10 −5 0 5 10 15
f (Hz)

Problem 1.26 (a) Oversampling factor: α = fs /(2Fc ) = 1.25

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39
Other documents randomly have
different content
latter were the representatives of the highest civilisation of the East with
which possibly the former had never been brought into contact.

[127] The Testimony of Tradition.

[128] History of Human Marriage, Chapter II.
[129] Celtic Folklore, ii., 654.
[130] Pomp. Mela, Lib. II. c. 2. I have already (p. 52) quoted Cæsar’s testimony to the
same effect.
[131] “Disciplina in Britannia reperta, atque in Galliam translata esse existimatur.”—C.
Bell. Gall. lib. vi. c. 13. This “discipline” also included magic according to Pliny.
“Britannia hodie eam (i.e. Magiam) attonite celebrat tantis ceremoniis, ut eam
Persis dedisse videri possit” (lib. xxx. c. 1.)
[132] Bertrand and Reinach, Les Celtes et les Gaulois dans les Vallées du Pô et du
Danube, p. 82. Tregellis, “Stone Circles in Cornwall.” Trans. Penzance Natural
History and Antiquarian Society, 1893-4.
 APPENDICES
I. Details of the Theodolite Observations at Stonehenge
The instrument chiefly employed was a six-inch transit theodolite by
Cooke with verniers reading to 20″ in altitude and azimuth. Most of the
observations were made at two points very near the axis, which may be
designated by a, b. Station a was at a distance of 61 feet to the south-west
of the centre of the temple, and b 364 feet to the north-east. The distance
from the centre of Stonehenge to Salisbury Spire being 41,981 feet, the
calculated corrections for parallax at the points of observation with
reference to Salisbury Spire are:—

Station a + 4′ 12″.
„ b - 25′ 20″.
(1) Relative Azimuths.—Theodolite at station a—

Salisbury Spire 0° 0′ 0″
N. side of opening in N.E. trilithon of the external ring 237 27 40
Tree in middle of clump on Sidbury Hill 237 40 20
Highest point of Friar’s Heel 239 47 25
S. side of opening in N.E. trilithon 240 14 40
Middle of opening in N.E. trilithon 238 51 10

(2) Absolute Azimuths.—All the azimuths were referred to that of

Salisbury Spire, the azimuth of which was determined by observations of the
Sun and Polaris.
(a) Observation of Sun, June 23, 1901, 3.30-3.40 p.m.

Mean of observed altitudes of Sun 41° 26′ 35″

Refraction - 1′ 4″
Parallax + 6 } 0 0 58
True altitude of Sun’s centre 41 25 37
 Latitude = 51° 10′ 42″. Sun’s declination = 23° 26′ 43″. Using the
formula
sin 1⁄2(Δ + c - z) sin 1⁄2(Δ + z - c)
cos2 1⁄2 A =
sin c . sin z

where A = azimuth from south, Δ = polar distance,

c = co-latitude, and z = zenith distance,
we get

Azimuth of Sun S. 75° 30′ 30″ W.

Mean circle reading on Sun 84 38 35
Azimuth of Salisbury Spire S. 9 8 5 E.

(b) Observations of Polaris.—June 23, 1901. Time of greatest easterly

elongation, calculated by formula cos h = tan φ cot δ, is G.M.T. 1.34 a.m.
Azimuth at greatest easterly elongation, calculated by the formula
sin A = cos δ sec φ
is 181° 57′ 0″ from south.

Observed maximum reading of circle 256° 33′ 0″

True azimuth of star 181 57 0
Meridian (S.) reading of circle 74 36 0
Circle reading on Salisbury Spire 65 28 0
Azimuth of Salisbury Spire S. 9 8 0 E.

The mean of the two determinations gives for the azimuth of Salisbury
Spire S. 9° 8′ 2″ E. This result agrees well with the value of the azimuth
communicated by the Ordnance Survey Office, namely, 9° 4′ 8″ from the
centre of the circle, which being corrected by +4′ 12″ for the position of
station a, is increased to 9° 8′ 20″.
Hence, from the point of observation a, 9° 8′ 20″ has been adopted as
the azimuth of Salisbury Spire.
We thus get the following absolute values of the principal azimuths from
the point a:
 Highest point of Friar’s Heel 239° 47′ 25″
-9 8 20
230 39 5
or N. 50 39 5 E.
Middle of opening in N.E. trilithon 238 51 10
-9 8 20
229 42 50
or N. 49 42 50 E.

The difference of 81⁄2′ between this and the assumed axis 49° 34′ 18″ is
so slight that considering the indirect method which has necessarily been
employed in determining the axis of the temple from the position of the
leaning stone, and the want of verticality, parallelism and straightness of the
inner surfaces of the opening in the N.E. trilithon, we are justified in
adopting the azimuth of the avenue as that of the temple.
Next, with regard to the determination of the azimuth of the avenue as
indicated by the line of pegs to which reference is made on p. 65. The small
angle between the nearest pegs A and B (which are supposed to be parallel
to the axis of the avenue), observed from station a, was measured, and the
corresponding calculated correction was applied to the ascertained true
bearing of the more distant peg B.
Thus

True bearing of peg B = 238° 35′ 0″

Calculated correction to peg A = 0 12 8
True bearing of line AB 238 47 8
Bearing of Salisbury Spire 189 8 20
True bearing of a line parallel to the axis of near
part of avenue N. 49 38 48 E.

The mean of the three independent determinations by another observer

was 49° 39′ 6″.
The calculated bearing of the more distant part of the axis of the avenue
determined in the same manner by observations from station b is 49° 32′
54″. The mean of the two, namely, 49° 35′ 51″, justifies the adoption of the
value 49° 34′ 18″ as given by the Ordnance Survey for the straight line from
Stonehenge to Sidbury Hill.
 (3) Observation of Sunrise.—On the morning of June 25, 1901, sunrise
was observed from station a, and a setting made as nearly as possible on
the middle of the visible segment as soon as could be done after the Sun
appeared.
The telescope was then set on the highest point of the Friar’s Heel, and
the latter was found to be 8′ 40″ south of the Sun.

Sun’s declination at time of observation 23° 25′ 5″

Elevation of horizon at point of sunrise 0 35 48
Assuming 2′ vertical of Sun to have been visible at
observation, we have apparent altitude of Sun’s
upper limb 0 37 48
Refraction - 27′ 27″
Parallax + 0 9
-0 } 27 18
True altitude of upper limb 0 10 30
Sun’s semi-diameter 0 15 46
True altitude of Sun’s centre -0 5 16
From this it results that the true azimuth of the
Sun at the time of observation = N. 50° 30′ 54″ E.
And since azimuth of Friar’s Heel = 50 39 5
2′ of sunrise should be N. of Friar’s Heel 0 8 11
Observed difference of azimuth = 0 8 40
Observed - calculated = 0 0 29

The observation thus agrees with calculation, if we suppose about 2′ of

the Sun’s limb to have been above the horizon when it was made, and
therefore substantially confirms the azimuth above given of the Friar’s Heel
and generally the data adopted.

II. Hints on Making, and Method of Reducing, the Field Observations.

It will probably be found useful if I give here a few hints as to the
precautions which must be taken in making the field observations and an
example of their reduction to an astronomical basis.
 For the azimuths of the sight-lines the investigator of these monuments
cannot do better than use the 25-inch, or 6-inch, maps published by the
Ordnance Survey. Their accuracy is of a very high order and is not likely to
be exceeded, even if approached, by any casual observer having to make
his own special arrangements for correct time before he can begin his
surveying work.
In some cases, however, it may be found that the Survey has not included
every outstanding stone which may be found by an investigator on making a
careful search; many of the stones are covered by gorse, &c., and are not,
therefore, easily found.
In such cases the azimuth of some object that is marked on the map
should be taken as a reference line and the difference of azimuth between
that and the unmarked objects determined. By this means the azimuths of
all the sight-lines may be obtained.
When using the 25-inch maps for determining azimuths it must be borne
in mind that the side-lines are not, necessarily, due north and south. The
Director-General of the Ordnance Survey, Southampton, will probably on
application state the correction to be applied to the azimuths on this
account, and this should be applied, of course, to each of the values
obtained.
If for any reason it is found necessary or desirable to make observations
of the azimuths independently of the Ordnance Survey, full instructions as to
the method of procedure may be found in an inexpensive instruction
book[133] issued by the Board of Education. The instructions given on p. 49,
§ 3, are most generally applicable, and the form on p. 76 will be found very
handy for recording and reducing the observations.
In making observations of the angular elevation of the horizon a good
theodolite is essential. Both verniers should be read, the mean taken, and
then the telescope should be reversed in its Ys, reset, and both readings
taken again. One setting and reading are of little use.
The Ordnance Survey maps may also be employed in a preliminary
reconnaissance to obtain approximate values of the horizon elevations. This
may be done by measuring the distances and contour-lines shown on the
one-inch maps. This method, however, is only very roughly approximate
owing to the fact that sharp but very local elevations close to the
monuments may not appear on these maps and yet be of sufficient
magnitude to cause large errors in the results.
Where trees, houses, &c., top the horizon, they should, of course, be
neglected and the elevation of the ground level, at that spot, taken. Should
the top of the azimuth mark (stone, &c.) show above the actual horizon, its
elevation should be recorded and not that of the horizon.
Having measured the angular elevation of the horizon along the sight-line,
it is necessary to convert this into actual zenith distance and to apply the
refraction correction before the computations of declination can be made.
The process of doing this and of calculating the declination will be
gathered from the examples given below:—
Data.
Monument:—E. circle Tregeseal, lat. 50° 8′ N. i.e. colat = 39° 52′.
Alignment. Centre of circle to Longstone.
Az. (from 25″ Ordnance Map). N. 66° 38′ E.
Elevation of horizon (measured) 2° 10′.
Reference to the May-Sun curve, given on p. 263, indicates that this is
probably an alignment to the sunrise on May morning. Therefore, in
determining the zenith distance, the correction for the sun’s semi-diameter
(16′) must be taken into account, allowing that 2′ of the sun’s disc was
above the horizon when the observation was made.
Zenith Distance:—
Zenith distance of true horizon = 90°
„ „ local „ = 90° - 2° 10′ = 87° 50′
Bessel’s tables show that refraction, at altitude 2° 10′, raises sun 17′. If 2′
of sun’s limb is above horizon, sun’s centre is 14′ below.
∴ True zenith distance of sun’s centre = 87° 50′ + 17′ + 14′ = 88° 21′.
Declination:—
Having obtained the zenith distance, and the azimuth, the latitude being
known, the N.P.D. (North Polar Distance) of the sun may be found by the
following equations:—
(1) tan θ = tan z. cos A,
where θ is the subsidiary angle which must be determined for the purpose
of computation, z is the true zenith distance, and A is the distance from the
North point.
(2) cos z . cos (c - θ)[134]
cos Δ = ,
cos θ
where Δ is the N.P.D. of the celestial object, and c is the colatitude (90° -
lat.) of the place of observation.
In the example taken this gives us—
(1) tan θ = tan 88° 21′ . cos 66° 38′

θ = 85° 50′ 45″

(2) cos Δ = cos 88° 21′. cos (39° 52′ - 85° 50′ 45″)
cos 85° 50′ 45″

Δ = 73° 57′ 50″

Declination, δ, = (90° - Δ) = 16° 2′ 10″ N.

Reference to the Nautical Almanac shows that this is the sun’s declination
on May 5 and August 9. We may therefore conclude that the Long-stone
was erected to mark the May sunrise, as seen from the Tregeseal Circle.
Had we been dealing with a star, instead of the sun, the only modification
necessary in the process of calculating the declination would have been to
omit the semi-diameter correction of 14′.
Having obtained a declination, we must refer to the curves given on pp.
115-6 in order to see if there is any star which fits it, and to find the date.
Take, for example, the case of the apex of Carn Kenidjack, as seen from
the Tregeseal circle—
Az. = N. 12° 8′ E.; hill = 4° 0.′ lat. = 50° 8′.
This gives us a declination of 42° 33′ N., and a reference to the stellar-
declination curves (p. 115-6) shows that Arcturus had that declination in
2330 b.c. From the table given on p. 117, we see that at that epoch Arcturus
acted as warning-star for the August sun.
In cases where the elevation of the horizon is 30′, or in preliminary
examinations, where it may be assumed as 30′, the refraction exactly
counterbalances the hill, and therefore the true zenith distance at the
moment of star-rise is 90°. Hence the N.P.D. of the star may be found from
the following simple equation—
(3) cos Δ = cos A cos λ
where Δ and A have the same significance as before and λ is the latitude of
the place of observation.
[133] Demonstrations and Practical Work in Astronomical Physics at the Royal College
of Science, South Kensington. Wyman and Sons, 1s.
[134] cos (c - θ) = cos -(c - θ).
 INDEX
A.
Abydos, clock star at, 297.
Africa, sacred stones and trees, 235.
Aldebaran, see Tauri α.
“Allée couverte,” 41, 317.
“All Hallows,” 187; Irish and Welsh equivalents, 195.
“All Souls,” change of date, 186.
Alsia well, 227.
Altar stone, Stonehenge, 81; Aberdeen type, 36.
Amen-Rā, 2; temple of, 55, 297.
Amplitude, 10, 111.
Animals, sacrifices of, 197.
Annu, temples at, 296, 297, 304.
Antares, see Scorpionis α.
Antiquaries, Society of, 69, 133.
Antrobus, Sir Edward, 49, 69, 94.
Apollo, 52.
Arabia, sacred stones and trees in, 235.
Archæology, relation to astronomy, 4.
Arcturus, see Boötis α.
Aries, 15, 315.
Armenia, calendar in, 29; fire festival in, 191.
Aryans, 40, 236.
Ascension Day, 185, 231.
Asherah, 245, 257.
Ash Wednesday, 182.
Assacombe, 158.
Assyria, sacred trees, &c., 245.
Astronomer-priests, procedure of, 110, 316.
Athens, May-day worship, 108; temples at, 32; warning stars at,
311.
 August-festival, dates of, 185; in Brittany, 199; in Ireland and
Wales, 186; warning-stars, 311.
Aurigae α (Capella), clock- and warning-star, 117, 272, 290, 292,
293, 298, 299, 304, 312; associated with Ptah, 304.
Avebury, cove at, 37.
Avenue, at Stonehenge, 63, 65.
Avenues, in Brittany, 149; on Dartmoor, 146, 319; definition of, 37.
Axis (of temple), Stonehenge, 55, 60; Karnak, 56; Kouyunjik, 305;
Annu, 305; change of, 42.
Azimuth, defined, 10, 111; changes in, 122; of May sunrise, 264.
Azimuth-marks, illumination of, 110.

B.
Baal, 197, 249, 259.
“Baal’s Fire” (Beltan), 40.
Babylon, 24, 240, 259, 295, 308; May year in, 304.
Babylonians, astronomical knowledge of, 240; early navigators,
241.
Baker, Sir Samuel, 235.
Balder, 320.
Balfour, Prof. Bayley, 201.
Ball, Dr. Henry, 26.
Balus, first king of Orkney, 259.
Baring-Gould, Rev. S., 149, 190, 194, 198, 213, 215, 239, 256.
Barnstone-Maeshowe (Orkney), 129.
Barrows, burials in, 323; chambered, 164, 192, 317; date of, 78,
238; employment of, 38, 110, 140, 268; varieties of, 143.
Bartinné, Cornwall, 219.
Battendon, 158.
Batworthy, avenues near, 160.
Bede’s well, near Jarrow, 230.
Beirna-well (Barnwell), 230.
Bell, Mr. J., of Dundalk, 253.
Beltaine, ceremonies at, 40, 197, 285, 320; variations of, 201, 204,
218, 259.
Betelgeuse, see Orionis α.
Bethel, 245, 255.
Bigswell, 218.
 “Blind Fiddler,” The, 291.
Blisland, Cornwall, 291.
Blocking-stones, 156, 176.
Blow, Mr., 69.
“Blue stones,” at Stonehenge, 80, 91.
Bolitho, Mr. Horton, 140, 219, 268, 270, 277, 282, 287, 289, 291.
Bonfires, see Fires.
Bookan, Ring of, 128.
Boötis α (Arcturus), 117, 137, 150, 151, 156, 158, 159, 160, 161,
163, 174, 273, 280, 299, 301, 311, 314.
Borlase, Dr., 134, 218, 219, 234, 254, 255, 267, 289, 323.
Borlase, Mr. W. C., 37, 213, 266, 274.
Boscawen-Un, 287, 290, 309, 314.
Boswens Common, 282.
Britain, introduction of clock-stars, 299; May-year temples, 309; pre-
Celtic inhabitants, 250.
Brittany, festivals, 198; megalithic remains, 96; solstitial fires, 194.
Britons, Saxon slaughter of, 95.
Bronze-age, 75, 78.
Brugsch, 1, 296.
Budge, Dr., 296.
Burials, 146, 164; in mounds, 323.
Burton, Captain, 235.

C.
Cæsar, 52, 323, 324.
Cairns, employment of, 38, 142, 164, 192, 289; Biblical references
to, 244; burials in, 252; orientation of, 254.
Calabria, 312.
Calends, the winter, 195.
Calendar, changes in the, 23; Armenian and Turkish, 29; Celtic, 186;
Koptic, 28.
Camden, 289.
Canaan, sacred stones and trees in, 245.
Canis Majoris α (Sirius), 108, 117, 143, 311.
Candlemas, 143, 184, 185, 188, 191.
Canopus, 18.
Capella, see Aurigae α.
 Capricorni α, 117.
Caradon Hill, 143.
Carn Kenidjack, 278.
Carnac, bonfires at, 40; menhirs at, 98, 105, 239; sacrifices at, 199.
Carruthers, Mr., 69.
Castallack, Cornwall, 267.
Castor, see Geminorum.
Cattle, drenching in holy wells, 230.
Caves, purpose of, 244, 254.
“Cave of Elephanta,” 256.
Celts, calendar of the, 186, 195; intrusion of, 324; worship, 32.
Ceylon, 235.
Chabas, 1.
Chaldea, 12.
Challacombe, 158; multiple avenue, 149, 159; solstitial worship,
314.
Chapel Euny, Cornwall, 219, 226.
Chaucer, 203.
“Cheesewring, The,” 134.
Chichén-Itzá, 32, 308.
“Choir Gawr,” 53.
Chûn Castle, Cornwall, 284, 286.
Chûn Cromlech, Cornwall, 284.
Churches, replaced stone circles, 219.
Chysoister, 323.
Circles (stone), employment of, 232, 316; associated with wells,
228; classification of, 36, 37; star observations in, 109.
Cists, 164; burials in, 323.
Clock-stars, employment of, 108, 294, 296, 298, 299, 304, 308; fall
into disuse, 322.
Coinage, early British, 52.
Collimation-marks, 316.
Constantine, Cornwall, 269.
Cord, The stretching of the, 1.
Cormac, Archbishop, 181, 189, 195, 204.
Cornish, Mr., 270, 282.
Cornwall, astronomical conditions in, 262; azimuths of May sunrise,
264; clock-stars in, 299; May bathing in, 227; stone circles in, 36, 262;
wells and circles in, 219.
 Cosens, Bishop, of Durham, 184.
Council of Nice, 23.
Couvade, 319.
Coves, 37, 316.
Cresset-stones, 190, 256.
Cromlechs, defined, 37; employed, 101, 102, 161, 253; in cairns,
253; uses of, 110, 141, 245, 252, 317.
Crosses (stone), old monoliths, 141, 273.
Crozon, monuments at, 101.
Cult, change of, 320.
“Cultus Lapidum,” denouncement of, 39.
Cumberland, stone circle in, 36.
Cunnington, Mr., 79, 81, 90.
Cups, for containing lamps, 319.
Cursiter, Mr., 35, 123.
Cursus, The, at Stonehenge, 154, 155, 319.

D.
Danams, 90.
Danckworth, Dr., 111.
Dartmoor, avenues on, 146, 151, 319.
Davies, Mr., 27, 95.
Declination, defined, 10; change of, 111.
Deepdale, 132.
Dekkan, sacred stones and trees in the, 235.
Denderah, 295, 297.
Dessil, pre-Christian custom, 234.
Devoir, Lieut., 98, 104, 105, 145, 152.
Diana, temple of, 31.
Diodorus Siculus, 51.
Diseases, cure of, 318.
Divination, at holy well, 226.
Dolmens, 255, 316; derivation of name, 38; à galerie, described, 38;
à l’allée couverte, described, 38; in tumuli, 253; in Ireland, 37; purpose
of, 41, 252, 254; Semitic origin of, 245.
Down Tor, May-year at, 309.
Draconis γ, 295, 296, 299, 305.
Drizzlecombe, 158.
 Druids, arrival of, 27; customs of, 259, 319, 323; mistletoe and the,
210; teachings of, 52.
Dümichen, 1.
Durandus, 183, 192.
Durham, cathedral customs at, 184.
Dwellings of priests, 317, 323.
Dymond, Mr., 166, 171.

E.
Easter, 40, 182, 183; May festival replaced by, 231; variation of
date, 24.
Ecliptic, change of obliquity, 15.
Eden Hall, 227.
Edgar (a.d. 963), 233.
Edmonds, Mr., 267.
Egypt, astronomy in, 249; calendar, 28; clock-stars, 295; equinoxes
in Lower, 108; May-year, 304; sequence of worships, 312; solstices,
258; temple azimuths, 298; year-gods, of, 259.
Elias (Elijah), or Al-Khidr or El-Khidr, 29, 257.
Ephesus, 32.
Equator, apparent path of stars at, 7.
Equinoxes, the, 13, 18, 108, 211; temples for, 32; in Britain, 64,
315.
Erechtheum, the older, 31, 108, 142.
Euphrates, rise of the, 30.
Evans, Sir John, 76.

F.
Falmouth, Lord, 268.
Farr, Sutherlandshire, 229.
Farmer, Prof., 27.
Feasts, 187, 319.
February, warning-stars in Britain, 312.
Ferguson, Dr., 110.
Fernworthy, avenues at, 158.
Festivals, 182, 185, 258; Cornish, 139; May, 40, 185, 196, 198, 226,
247, 258.
 Fires, at various seasons, 30, 32, 39, 183, 184, 189, 194, 204;
Druidical, 181; in cromlechs, 317; in hollowed stones, 323; pagan, 191;
Roman Catholic and Protestant, 182; sacred, 195, 248, 256; customs,
190, 199; festivals, 194; rites, 192; signals, 21; wheels, 193.
Flints, 79.
Florence, fire customs, 193.
Folklore, 179; Babylonian and Indian, 242; Semitic and British, 246.
Fosseway, the Great, 147.
Fougou, 192, 267.
Fountains, 246.
France, place names derived from wells, 234.
Frazer, Dr., 26, 28, 40, 189, 209.
Friar’s Heel, the (Stonehenge), 53, 60, 68, 90, 93.
“Furry Dance,” the, 206.

G.
Gaillard, 96, 104.
“Galgal,” description of, 38.
Games, 319.
Garments, offerings of, 318.
Gauls, 323.
Gavr Innis, 38, 255.
Gemini, 15.
Geminorum, α, β and γ, 117.
Geoffrey of Monmouth, 52.
Glamorgan, rites at holy wells, 223.
Globe, celestial, 8; precessional, 114.
Goidels, 237.
Gomme, Mr., 195, 213, 216, 221, 222, 227, 236, 238.
“Goon-Rith,” 266.
Gould, Baring-, see Baring-Gould.
Gowland, Prof., 3, 45, 69, 72, 74, 75, 76, 80, 82, 87, 91, 321.
Greece, astronomical observations in, 34, 298, 311; divisions of year
in, 20, 304; temples in, 34, 306, 311, 313, 315; temple building in, 299.
Grimm, 26, 211.
Grovely Castle, 66.
Groves, Biblical reference to, 245; sacred, 27, 258.
Giraldus Cambrensis, 52.
Gudea (2500 b.c.), 242.
Guest, Dr., 95.

H.
Hall, Mr., 237.
Halley, 54.
Hallowe’en, 125, 143, 201, 311.
Hallowmass, 187.
Hameldon, 147.
Hammerstones, and axes, 74.
Harrison, Mr., 50.
Har-Tor, 158.
Harvest, season of, 139, 304.
“Hautville’s Quoit,” 167, 168.
Hawthorn, 201, 202, 221.
Hawk’s Tor, 291.
Hazlitt, 183, 197, 239.
Hecatæus, of Abdera, 51.
Hecatompedon, the, 31, 108, 154.
Helios, 29.
Hellard, Colonel, 270.
Helston, May-day at, 205.
Henderson, Capt., 140, 270, 274.
Henry of Huntingdon, 52.
Hermes, 259.
Hieroglyphics, 38.
Higgins, Mr., 62.
Hills, actual and angular heights, 112; effects of, 120, 264, 291.
Hoare, Sir R. C., 61, 149.
Holed stones, see stones.
Hollantide, 188.
Holne (Dartmoor), 195.
Holy of Holies, 16, 55.
Holy Thursday, 185.
Honeysuckle, 207.
Hook Lake, 158.
Hope, 213, 228, 231, 233.
Horizon, angular elevation of, 112; early employment of, 2, 5, 250.
 Horses, at May-day festivals, 319.
Horus, 32, 195.
Huc, 236.
“Hurlers, The” (Cornwall), 36, 133, 134, 135; alignments at, 137;
change of warning star at, 311; dates of construction, 139; May-year
at, 309; solstices at, 314.
Hyperboreans, 51.

I.
Ihering, 241.
Illuminations, collimation-mark, 317; May-day, 204.
Implements, flint, 74.
Inverness, type of circle at, 36.
Ireland, division of the year in, 30; festivals in, 187, 197, 309.
Isis, 32.
Isle-of-Man, festivals in the, 187, 207; wells and circles in the, 219.

J.
James, Sir Henry, 219.
Japan, 3, 84.
Jews, equinoctial festivals among the, 258.
Johnston, Colonel, 111, 129, 135, 152, 166.
Jones, Inigo, 53.
Jones, Prof. J. M., 250.
Josephus, 32.
Judd, Prof., 80, 91.
June-Year, 93, 251.

K.
Karnak, temples at, 55, 297.
Kenidjack, Carn, 278.
Kerenneur, 105.
Kerlescant, 39.
Kerloas, 105.
Keswick, 35, 111.
King’s Teignton, 196.
Kingstone, The, at Roll-Rich (Oxon.), 36.
 Kit’s Coity House, 37.
Knightlow Hill (Coventry), 188.
Knut (a.d. 1018), 233.
Kouyunjik, 308, 322.

L.
“Lammas,” 186.
Lanyon, 273.
Lanyon Quoit, 280.
Latitude, results of, 291.
Layard, Sir H., 241, 307, 308.
Lent, origin and customs of, 183, 184.
Leslie, Colonel, 218, 235, 255.
Lewis, Mr. A. L., 35, 123, 176.
Lockyer, Dr., 111.
Longstones, found in barrows, 268.
Longstone, The (Tregeseal), 278, 280, 309, 314.
“Lug,” the Irish Sun-God, 186.
Lugnassad, Irish feast, 186.
Lukis, Dr., 37, 133, 144, 150, 253, 265, 287, 291, 292.
Luxor, 297.
Lyrae, α (Vega), 297, 315.

M.
MacRitchie, Mr., 192, 317.
Madron (Cornwall), 225.
Maeshowe (Orkney), 35, 123, 125, 253, 254; date of, 129; use of,
192.
Markab, see Pegasi α.
Marriage, customs, 285, 319.
Martin, St., in Germany, 187.
Martinmas, old, 188.
Maudslay, Mr., 32, 308.
Mauls, 75.
May-day, 108, 201, 204.
May-eve, 95, 207.
May-festivals, 40, 185, 196, 198, 226, 247, 258.
Maypole, 205, 227.
 May-sun, 36, 151, 262, 263.
May-thorn, 202, 212, 320.
May-year, the, 19, 181, 232, 304, 320; divisions of, 263, 304;
provided for, 18, 35, 64, 93, 98, 104, 105, 127, 174, 241, 247, 271,
280, 284, 286, 290, 304, 306, 307, 308, 309, 321; relation to June-year,
106, 230, 251, 261; warning-stars, 117, 142; worship, 95, 96, 109.
Mecca, 245.
Meinrethydd (May-eve), 95.
Melon, island of, 102.
Memphis, Capella at, 304; May-worship, 18; temples at, 297, 298.
Mên-an-tol, 284, 286.
Ménec (Le), 39, 98, 159.
Menhirs, 37, 105; ceremonies at, 256; in Brittany, 96; near holy
wells, 225; various, 39, 101, 102, 103, 152, 157.
Men-Peru, 269.
Menu or Min, temple of, 29, 31, 108, 142, 297, 298, 305; associated
with Spica, 299.
Mercury, 259.
Merrivale, avenues at, 147, 153, 154; May-year at, 309.
Merry Maidens, 265; alignments at, 271, 276; clock-stars at, 302;
May-year at, 309.
Midsummer, ceremonies at, 231, 285.
Midsummer eve, mistletoe on, 210.
Mihr, Armenian fire-god, 191.
Mistletoe, 26, 27, 201, 210, 320; as a medicine, 210; “Oil of St.
John,” 210; Swedish notions concerning, 209.
Mitchell’s Egyptian Calendar, 28.
Molech, 248.
Molene Island, 103.
Monoliths, 81, 216, 244.
Montelius, 76.
Moon, employment of the, 18; worship of the, 249.
Morbihan, alignments at, 100.
Morgan, Lloyd, Prof., 167, 170, 176.
Morgan, Mr., 53.
Morrow, Mr., 171, 174.
Mountain-ash, 206.
Mungo-Park, 235.
Murray, Mr. George, 27.
Murray, Mr. John, 308.
Mut, temple of, 297.
Mythology, origin of, 19.

N.
Nantwich, 221.
Naos, The, at Stonehenge, 16, 41, 63, 95.
Need fires, 190.
Neolithic-age, 75, 76.
New-Grange (Meath), 38.
Newton’s herbal, 212.
New-year, change of date, 194.
Night-dial, use of, 302.
Nile, 3, 18, 312.
Nimrood, temples at, 241, 308.
“Nine Maidens” (The), 292, 293.
Nineveh, May temple at, 307.
Norwich, sun-wheel at, 193.
Nos Galan-galaf, 187.
Nos Glamau, 207.
November, festival, 186, 195, 290, 311.

O.
Oak, contiguous to sacred wells, 216.
Obliquity of the Ecliptic, change of the, 15, 43.
Observations, astronomical and religious, 125, 322.
O’Connor, Dr., 216.
Odin stone, Stenness, 127, 218, 283, 285.
Offerings, at holy places, 222, 318.
Onston, 132.
Ordeals, 247.
Ordnance Survey, 111, 253.
Orientation, first use of, 18.
Orionis, α (Betelgeuse), 117, 144, 314.
Orkney, 125, 259.
Otley, Mr. Jonathan, 35, 111.
Ouseley, Sir William, 234.
 P.
Palenque, 32, 308.
Palæolithic age, 75.
Palm, at vernal equinox, 211.
Palm Sunday, 184, 211.
Panathenæa, 31.
Parallelithons, 148.
“Pardons,” in Brittany, 198.
Parthenon, 298.
Payn, Mr. Howard, 66, 94.
Pegasi, α and β, 117.
Pennant, tour of Scotland, 206.
Penrose, Mr., 31, 34, 38, 42, 51, 62, 78, 89, 93, 94, 109, 142, 154,
298, 306, 310, 312, 313, 315.
Pentecost, feast of, 32, 185.
Pepi, 295.
Percy’s Northumberland Notes, 184.
Perrott, Mr., 148.
Persia, rag-offerings in, 234.
Petrie, Flinders, Prof., 62.
Pet-ser, 2.
Philpot, Mrs., 257.
Picks, of deer’s-horn, 78.
“Pierre du Conseil” (Lagatjar), 104.
Piers’ Survey of S. Ireland, 182, 229.
Pins, as offerings at sacred wells, 222, 227, 258, 318.
“Pipers, The,” 266, 271.
Pitt-Rivers, General, 235, 236.
Plato, 7.
Pleiades, at British monuments, 153, 273, 274, 280, 290; employed
by Semites, 247; elsewhere, 108, 117, 151, 155, 162, 310, 311.
Ploudalmezeau, monuments at, 100.
Ploy-field, the, at Holne, 196.
Pole, apparent path of stars at the north, 6; elevation of the, 9;
motion of stars, round, 300, 303.
Pollux, see Geminorum.
Pompeii, 312.
Pomponius Mela, 322, 324.
Pont l’Abbé, menhirs at, 105.
 Portugal, place-names from wells, 234.
Pratt’s flowering plants, 202, 206.
Precession, effects of, 64, 295.
Prestwich, Prof., 79.
Priests, 316, 317.
Processions, sacred, 319.
Ptah, 29, 31, 298, 304.
Pylons, use of, 55.
Pyramids, building of, 18; worship at, 29.
Pyrenees, genii at holy-wells, 234.
Pyrus aucuparia, 201.

Q.
Quicken-tree, 206, 208.
Quiller-Couch, holy wells, 213, 216, 223, 226, 228.
Quoit, definition of, 38.

R.
Racing, at festivals, 319.
Rags, as offerings in sacred places, 216, 222, 223, 225.
Ram Feast, at Holne (Dartmoor), 196.
Read, Mr. C. H., 237.
Refraction, effect of, 112, 120.
Rent-day, date of, in Ireland, 30.
Rhys, Prof., 26, 30, 186, 188, 202, 206, 207, 208, 213, 215, 219,
220, 223, 250, 260, 319.
Roddon, = Rowan, 206.
Roll-Rich, Oxon., 36.
Rolston, Sir. W. E., 120, 122, 290.
Rorrington, Chirbury, 227.
Rowan-tree, 201, 211, 318, 320; and witchcraft, 206, 208; near
sacred wells, 220.
Rowe’s perambulation of Dartmoor, 147, 148, 152, 158, 287.
Rūz Kāsim, 29.
Rūs Khidr, 29.

S.
 Sacred-fires, see fires.
Sacrifices, 197, 205, 319.
Sagittarius, 15.
Sainhain, feast of, 187.
Sanctuary, at Stonehenge, 55.
St. Aelian, Derbyshire, 216.
St. Blaze (“Blayse,” “Blazeus”), anniversary of, 184.
St. Burian, Cornwall, 267, 271.
St. Claire, 140.
St. Cleer, holy well at, 229.
St. Cuthbert, Cornwall, 228.
St. Herbot, sacrifices to, 199.
St. John’s Day, festivals on, 230.
St. John’s Eve, fire customs, 192.
St. Just, Cornwall, stone circle at, 277.
St. Justin, 140.
St. Martin, feast of, 186.
St. Medan, holy well at Kirkmaiden, 229.
St. Michael’s Mount, 40.
St. Nicodemus, sacrifices to, 199.
St. Peter’s, Rome, 32.
St. Renan, monuments at, 100.
Salisbury, position of cathedral, 65; solstitial custom at, 43.
Saracens, star-worship among the, 249.
Sardonyx, employment of, 32.
Sarsens, stones, 15, 45, 79, 91.
Scandinavia, temples in, 63.
Schübeler, Prof., 202.
Scorpionis α (Antares), 117, 142, 273, 310, 311.
Scotland, May-year in, 109, 186, 321; types of stone circles in, 36.
Scott, Sir Walter, 40.
Seasons, astronomical and vegetational, 212.
Semites, beliefs concerning the stars, 249; in Britain, 243, 246;
temple practices among the, 240, 248, 256.
Sennacherib, May temple of, 308.
Sergi, Prof., 237.
Serpentis α, 117.
Sesheta, 2.
Set, British equivalent of, 195.
 Shakspeare, 204.
Sheat, see Pegasi β.
Shenn Laa Boaldyn (Manx May-day), 204.
Shinto, cult of, 3.
Shovel Down, Devon, 158, 160, 314.
Shrines, trilithons as, 37.
Shrove Tuesday, 182.
Sight-lines, 316; different methods of marking, 107; methods of
using, 41.
Silbury (or Sidbury), 66.
Sirius, see Canis Majoris α.
Skins, offerings of, 318.
“Slaughter Stone,” the, 90, 93.
Smith, Colonel Hamilton, 148.
Smith, Dr. J., 52.
Smith, Robertson, Prof., 243, 245, 248, 255, 257.
Society of Antiquaries, 69.
Solstices, the, 13, 108, 120; azimuths of sunrise at, 43, 291; at
Palenque and Chichén Itza, 308; celebration of, 40, 193; date of
introduction into Britain, 313; determination of, 16; in Egypt, 3, 13; in
France, 99, 103, 104; in Morocco and Britain, 243; provided for at
British monuments, 93, 129, 176, 274, 280, 290, 312, 314; sunrise at,
36; warning stars for, 117, 314; worship at, 259, 320.
Spence, Mr., 35, 123, 128, 254, 285.
Spica, see Virginis α.
Stalldon Moor, 150, 163.
Standen (near Hungerford), 79.
Stanton Drew, 166, 167, 170, 173; cove at, 37; dates of, 174;
dimensions of circles at, 171; May-year at, 309; solstitial worship at,
314.
Stars, changes in declination of, 42, 109; northern, 114; heliacal
risings of, 108; reason for observations of, 42; worship of, 139, 249.
See clock-stars.
Stenness, 35, 123, 218; azimuths of sunrise at, 120; observations
required at, 129; seasons provided for at, 127, 131, 309, 314.
Sterility, 239, 256.
Stirling, festivals at, 238.
Stockwell, 67, 111, 129, 176.
Stone-age, 75.
 Stonehenge, 41, 50, 51, 52, 58, 88, 91; amplitudes of stars at, 11;
apparent paths of stars at, 7; architecture of, 83; avenue, 63, 65; axis,
55, 60; azimuth of sunrise at, 120; the “Cursus” at, 319; custom at, 43;
date of, 62, 67, 93; desecration of, 47; erection of, 84; “Leaning Stone”
at, 69, 84; May-year at, 109; origin of stones, 90; position of, 65;
rededication of, 109; solstitial temple, 108, 314; “Stanenges,” 52; tools
found at, 74.
Stones, as azimuth marks, 110; anointing of, 255; cresset-, 190,
256; holed, 37, 128, 282, 285, 286, 316, 318; hollowed, 192, 248, 323;
Semitic, sacred, 244; unhewn and worked, 321.
Stone-worship, proscribed, 271.
Stripple Stones, Cornwall, 36, 292.
Stukeley, Dr., 37, 53, 134, 289.
Sunrise, apparent, 120; azimuth of, 64; determination of, 118;
observation of, 63, 66, 99; November, 93.
Sunset, determination of, 118; the May-, 93.
Sycamore, 204.

T.
“Tan Heol,” 40.
“Tan St. Jean,” 40.
Tanta Fair, 28, 29.
Tara, perpetual fire at temple of, 191.
Tauri α, Aldebaran, 315.
Tavistock, 147.
Temenos mound, at Stonehenge, 47, 93.
Temple-axis, fixing of, 1.
Temples, associated, 297; Egyptian, 55; solstitial, 313.
Thebes (Egypt), 8, 108; amplitudes at, 11; stars used at, 299, 304;
May-year at, 247, 305.
Thebes (Greece), 299.
Theodolite, adjustments of, 172, 329.
Thomas, Mr., 277, 282.
Thorn-trees, associated with holy wells, 221.
Thoth, 259.
Thurnham, Dr., 63.
Tigris, rise of the, 30.
Tirehan, 214.
 Tissington, Derbyshire, 228.
Tlachtaga, the fire of, 187.
Tombs, dolmens not intended for, 254.
Torches, 317.
Toutates, 260.
Track-lines, 149.
Tradition, 179.
“Treachery of the Long Knives,” 95.
Trees, sacred, 200, 220, 257; Arabian worship of, 245; Semitic, 244,
246.
Tregaseal, 277, 278, 280, 309, 314.
Trilithons, 81; at Stonehenge, 58; functions of, 37, 41; in Japan, 3.
Trippet stones, 36.
Tristis rock, 158.
Trowlesworthy, 158, 161, 162.
Truthwall Common, 277.
Tubberpatrick, well at, 225.
Tumuli, 93, 102, 254; at Stenness, 131.
Turkey, calendar in, 29.

U.
Ursae Majoris α, 295, 298.

V.
Vallum, 47, 291.
Vega, see Lyrae α.
“Via Sacra,” 60, 155, 163.
Via, stones of, 128.
Virginis α, (Spica), 108, 142, 299, 305, 315.

W.
Wales, wells near churches, 229.
Warning-stars, 108; in Britain, 310; in Greece, 311.
Water, near holy places, 246, 317.
Wells, associated with trees, 219, 220; curative powers, 235; sacred
associations, 206, 214, 216, 217, 218, 219, 228, 229, 234, 257, 273;
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