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Digital Signal Processing
®
Using MATLAB
Third Edition
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Digital Signal Processing
®
Using MATLAB
Third Edition
Vinay K. Ingle
John G. Proakis
Northeastern University
Australia • Brazil • Japan • Korea • Mexico • Singapore • Spain • United Kingdom • United States
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Digital Signal Processing Using
c 2012, 2007 Cengage Learning
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Contents
PREFACE xi
1 INTRODUCTION 1
v
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vi CONTENTS
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CONTENTS vii
6 IMPLEMENTATION OF DISCRETE-TIME
FILTERS 213
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viii CONTENTS
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CONTENTS ix
BIBLIOGRAPHY 635
INDEX 637
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Preface
xi
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xii PREFACE
The first ten chapters of this book discuss traditional material typically
covered in an introductory course on DSP. The final two chapters are
presented as applications in DSP with emphasis on MATLAB-based
projects. The following is a list of chapters and a brief description of their
contents.
Chapter 1, Introduction: This chapter introduces readers to the discipline
of signal processing and presents several applications of digital signal
processing, including musical sound processing, echo generation, echo
removal, and digital reverberation. A brief introduction to MATLAB
is also provided.
Chapter 2, Discrete-time Signals and Systems: This chapter provides a
brief review of discrete-time signals and systems in the time domain.
Appropriate use of MATLAB functions is demonstrated.
Chapter 3, The Discrete-time Fourier Analysis: This chapter discusses
discrete-time signal and system representation in the frequency domain.
Sampling and reconstruction of analog signals are also presented.
Chapter 4, The z-Transform: This chapter provides signal and system
description in the complex frequency domain. MATLAB techniques
are introduced to analyze z-transforms and to compute inverse z-
transforms. Solutions of difference equations using the z-transform and
MATLAB are provided.
Chapter 5, The Discrete Fourier Transform: This chapter is devoted
to the computation of the Fourier transform and to its efficient
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PREFACE xiii
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xiv PREFACE
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PREFACE xv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Vinay K. Ingle
John G. Proakis
Boston, Massachusetts
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CHAPTER 1
Introduction
During the past several decades the field of digital signal processing (DSP)
has grown to be important, both theoretically and technologically. A ma-
jor reason for its success in industry is the development and use of low-cost
software and hardware. New technologies and applications in various fields
are now taking advantage of DSP algorithms. This will lead to a greater
demand for electrical and computer engineers with background in DSP.
Therefore, it is necessary to make DSP an integral part of any electrical
engineering curriculum.
Two decades ago an introductory course on DSP was given mainly at
the graduate level. It was supplemented by computer exercises on filter
design, spectrum estimation, and related topics using mainframe (or mini)
computers. However, considerable advances in personal computers and
software during the past two decades have made it necessary to introduce
a DSP course to undergraduates. Since DSP applications are primarily
algorithms that are implemented either on a DSP processor [11] or in
software, a fair amount of programming is required. Using interactive
software, such as MATLAB, it is now possible to place more emphasis
on learning new and difficult concepts than on programming algorithms.
Interesting practical examples can be discussed, and useful problems can
be explored.
With this philosophy in mind, we have developed this book as a com-
panion book (to traditional textbooks like [18, 23]) in which MATLAB is
an integral part in the discussion of topics and concepts. We have chosen
MATLAB as the programming tool primarily because of its wide avail-
ability on computing platforms in many universities across the world.
Furthermore, a low-cost student version of MATLAB has been available
for several years, placing it among the least expensive software products
1
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2 Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION
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Overview of Digital Signal Processing 3
Discrete System
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4 Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION
Digital Signal
Signal analysis This task deals with the measurement of signal prop-
erties. It is generally a frequency-domain operation. Some of its applica-
tions are
• spectrum (frequency and/or phase) analysis
• speech recognition
• speaker verification
• target detection
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A Brief Introduction to MATLAB 5
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6 Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION
their use and capabilities are understood. Then one can progress to writ-
ing simple MATLAB scripts and functions to execute a sequence of in-
structions to accomplish an analytical goal.
>> command;
which will provide information on the inputs, outputs, usage, and func-
tionality of the command. A complete listing of commands sorted by
functionality can be obtained by typing help at the prompt.
There are three basic elements in MATLAB: numbers, variables, and
operators. In addition, punctuation marks (,, ;, :, etc.) have special
meanings.
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A Brief Introduction to MATLAB 7
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8 Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION
MATLAB does not distinguish between an array and a matrix except for
operations. The following assignments denote indicated matrix types in
MATLAB:
a = [3] is a scalar,
x = [1,2,3] is a row vector,
y = [1;2;3] is a column vector, and
A = [1,2,3;4,5,6] is a matrix.
MATLAB provides many useful functions to create special matrices.
These include zeros(M,N) for creating a matrix of all zeros, ones(M,N)
for creating matrix of all ones, eye(N) for creating an N × N identity
matrix, etc. Consult MATLAB’s help manual for a complete list.
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A Brief Introduction to MATLAB 9
ab ⇒ a*b (scalar)
aX ⇒ a*X (matrix)
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10 Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION
is an (N × 1) array, whereas
x
a 11 ax12 ··· ax1M
ax21 ax22 ··· ax2M
a.ˆX ≡
.. .. .. ..
. . . .
axN 1 axN 2 ··· axN M
is an (N × M ) array.
• Array transposition: As explained, the operation A. produces trans-
position of real- or complex-valued array A.
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A Brief Introduction to MATLAB 11
if condition1
command1
elseif condition2
command2
else
command3
end
Although for..end loops are useful for processing data inside of arrays by
using the iteration variable as an index into the array, whenever possible
the user should try to use MATLAB’s whole array mathematics. This will
result in shorter programs and more efficient code. In some situations the
use of the for..end loop is unavoidable. The following example illustrates
these concepts.
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12 Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION
Approach 1 Here we will consider a typical C or Fortran approach, that is, we will use two
for..end loops, one each on t and k. This is the most inefficient approach in
MATLAB, but possible.
Approach 2 In this approach, we will compute each sinusoidal component in one step as a
vector, using the time vector t = 0:0.01:1 and then add all components using
one for..end loop.
Clearly, this is a better approach with fewer lines of code than the first one.
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A Brief Introduction to MATLAB 13
Note the use of the array division (1./k) to generate a row vector and ma-
trix multiplications to implement all other operations. This is the most compact
code and the most efficient execution in MATLAB, especially when the number
of sinusoidal terms is very large.
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14 Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION
function xt = sinsum(t,ck)
% Computes sum of sinusoidal terms of the form in (1.1)
% x = sinsum(t,ck)
%
K = length(ck); k = 1:K;
ck = ck(:)’; t = t(:)’;
xt = ck * sin(2*pi*k’*t);
1.2.4 PLOTTING
One of the most powerful features of MATLAB for signal and data analysis
is its graphical data plotting. MATLAB provides several types of plots,
starting with simple two-dimensional (2D) graphs to complex, higher-
dimensional plots with full-color capability. We will examine only the 2D
plotting, which is the plotting of one vector versus another in a 2D coor-
dinate system. The basic plotting command is the plot(t,x) command,
which generates a plot of x values versus t values in a separate figure
window. The arrays t and x should be the same length and orientation.
Optionally, some additional formatting keywords can also be provided in
the plot function. The commands xlabel and ylabel are used to add
text to the axis, and the command title is used to provide a title on
the top of the graph. When plotting data, one should get into the habit
of always labeling the axis and providing a title. Almost all aspects of
a plot (style, size, color, etc.) can be changed by appropriate commands
embedded in the program or directly through the GUI.
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A Brief Introduction to MATLAB 15
Plot of sin(2π t)
1
0.5
x(t)
–0.5
–1
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
t in sec
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16 Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION
0.5
x(n)
0
–0.5
–1
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
n
displays graphs in Figures 1.1 and 1.2 as one plot, depicting a “sampling”
operation that we will study later.
. . .
>> subplot(2,1,1); % Two rows, one column, first plot
>> plot(t,x,’b’); % Create plot with blue line
. . .
>> subplot(2,1,2); % Two rows, one column, second plot
>> Hs = stem(n,x,’b’,’filled’); % Stem-plot with handle Hs
. . .
0.5
x(t) and x(n)
–0.5
–1
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
t in sec
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Applications of Digital Signal Processing 17
Plot of sin(2π t)
1
0.5
x(t)
0
–0.5
–1
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
t in sec
Stem Plot of sin(0.2π n)
1
0.5
x(n)
–0.5
–1
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
n
The field of DSP has matured considerably over the last several decades
and now is at the core of many diverse applications and products. These
include
• speech/audio (speech recognition/synthesis, digital audio, equalization,
etc.),
• image/video (enhancement, coding for storage and transmission,
robotic vision, animation, etc.),
• military/space (radar processing, secure communication, missile guid-
ance, sonar processing, etc.),
• biomedical/health care (scanners, ECG analysis, X-ray analysis, EEG
brain mappers, etc.)
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18 Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION
Echo Generation The most basic of all audio effects is that of time
delay, or echoes. It is used as the building block of more complicated effects
such as reverb or flanging. In a listening space such as a room, sound
waves arriving at our ears consist of direct sound from the source as well
as reflected off the walls, arriving with different amounts of attenuation
and delays.
Echoes are delayed signals, and as such are generated using delay
units. For example, the combination of the direct sound represented by
discrete signal y[n] and a single echo appearing D samples later (which is
related to delay in seconds) can be generated by the equation of the form
(called a difference equation)
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Applications of Digital Signal Processing 19
where x[n] is the resulting signal and α models attenuation of the di-
rect sound. Difference equations are implemented in MATLAB using the
filter function. Available in MATLAB is a short snippet of Handel’s
hallelujah chorus, which is a digital sound about 9 seconds long, sampled
at 8192 sam/sec. To experience the sound with echo in (1.2), execute
the following fragment at the command window. The echo is delayed by
D = 4196 samples, which amount to 0.5 sec of delay.
You should be able to hear the distinct echo of the chorus in about a
half second.
w = filter(1,b,x);
sound(w,Fs)
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20 Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION
given by
The first part of this book, which comprises Chapters 2 through 5, deals
with the signal-analysis aspect of DSP. Chapter 2 begins with basic de-
scriptions of discrete-time signals and systems. These signals and systems
are analyzed in the frequency domain in Chapter 3. A generalization of
the frequency-domain description, called the z-transform, is introduced in
Chapter 4. The practical algorithms for computing the Fourier transform
are discussed in Chapter 5 in the form of the discrete Fourier transform
and the fast Fourier transform.
Chapters 6 through 8 constitute the second part of this book, which is
devoted to the signal-filtering aspect of DSP. Chapter 6 describes various
implementations and structures of digital filters. It also introduces finite-
precision number representation, filter coefficient quantization, and its
effect on filter performance. Chapter 7 introduces design techniques and
algorithms for designing one type of digital filter called finite-duration
impulse response (FIR) filters, and Chapter 8 provides a similar treatment
for another type of filter called infinite-duration impulse response (IIR)
filters. In both chapters only the simpler but practically useful techniques
of filter design are discussed. More advanced techniques are not covered.
Finally, the last part, which consists of the remaining four chapters,
provides important topics and applications in DSP. Chapter 9 deals with
the useful topic of the sampling-rate conversion and applies FIR filter de-
signs from Chapter 7 to design practical sample-rate converters. Chapter
10 extends the treatment of finite-precision numerical representation to
signal quantization and the effect of finite-precision arithmetic on filter
performance. The last two chapters provide some practical applications
in the form of projects that can be done using material presented in the
first 10 chapters. In Chapter 11, concepts in adaptive filtering are intro-
duced, and simple projects in system identification, interference suppres-
sion, adaptive line enhancement, and so forth are discussed. In Chapter 12
a brief introduction to digital communications is presented with projects
involving such topics as PCM, DPCM, and LPC being outlined.
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Brief Overview of the Book 21
In all these chapters, the central theme is the generous use and ad-
equate demonstration of MATLAB, which can be used as an effective
teaching as well as learning tool. Most of the existing MATLAB functions
for DSP are described in detail, and their correct use is demonstrated in
many examples. Furthermore, many new MATLAB functions are devel-
oped to provide insights into the working of many algorithms. The authors
believe that this hand-holding approach enables students to dispel fears
about DSP and provides an enriching learning experience.
Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
CHAPTER 2
Discrete-time
Signals and
Systems
Signals are broadly classified into analog and discrete signals. An analog
signal will be denoted by xa (t), in which the variable t can represent any
physical quantity, but we will assume that it represents time in seconds. A
discrete signal will be denoted by x(n), in which the variable n is integer-
valued and represents discrete instances in time. Therefore it is also called
a discrete-time signal, which is a number sequence and will be denoted by
one of the following notations:
x(n) = {x(n)} = {. . . , x(−1), x(0), x(1), . . .}
↑
where the up-arrow indicates the sample at n = 0.
22
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Discrete-time Signals 23
Generally, we will use the x-vector representation alone when the sample
position information is not required or when such information is trivial
(e.g. when the sequence begins at n = 0). An arbitrary infinite-duration
sequence cannot be represented in MATLAB due to the finite memory
limitations.
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
24 Chapter 2 DISCRETE-TIME SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS
x(n) = an , ∀n; a ∈ R
x(n) = e(σ+jω0 )n , ∀n
5. Sinusoidal sequence:
x(n) = A cos(ω0 n + θ0 ), ∀n
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Discrete-time Signals 25
Note that the last two lines can be combined into one for compact
coding. This is shown in Example 2.1.
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
26 Chapter 2 DISCRETE-TIME SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
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II.
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