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 C++ Programming:
From Problem Analysis to Program Design

Eighth Edition

D.S. Malik

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Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
 C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Pro- © 2018, 2015, 2013 Cengage Learning®
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 TO
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PREFACE xxxi ii
1. An Overview of Computers and Programming Languages
2. Basic Elements of c++ 27
3. Input/Output 123
4. Control Structures I (Selection) 187
5. Control Structures II (Repetition) 265
6. User-Defined Functions 347
7. User-Defined Simple Data Types, Namespaces,
and the string Type 467
8. Arrays and Strings 521
9. Records (structs) 611
10. Classes and Data Abstraction 651
11. Inheritance and Composition 743
12. Pointers, Classes, Vi rtua I Functions, and Abstract Classes 817
13. Overloading and Templates 893
14. Exception Handling 991
15. Recursion 1035
16. Searching, Sorting, and the vector Type 1069
17. Linked Lists 1115
18. Stacks and Queues 1209
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 viii | C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Eighth Edition

APPENDIX A   Reserved Words 1309

APPENDIX B   Operator Precedence 1311

APPENDIX C   Character Sets 1313

APPENDIX D   Operator Overloading 1317

APPENDIX E    Additional C11 Topics ONLINE

APPENDIX F    Header Files 1319

APPENDIX G    Memory Size on a System 1329

APPENDIX H    Standard Template Library (STL)  1331

APPENDIX I      Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises 1369

INDEX 1413

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Preface xxxiii

II AN OVERVIEW Of COMPUTERS
AND PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES
Introduction
1

A Brief Overview of the History of Computers 2

Elements of a Computer System 4

Hardware 4
Central Processing Unit and Main Memory 4
Input/Output Devices 5
Software 5

The Language of a Computer 6

The Evolution of Programming Languages 7

Processing a c++ Program 9

Programming with the Problem

Analysis-Coding-Execution Cycle 11

Programming Methodologies 20
Structured Programming 20
Object-Oriented Programming 20
ANSI/ISO Standard C++ 22

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 x | C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Eighth Edition

Quick Review 22

Exercises 24

BASIC ELEMENTS OF C11 27

2
A Quick Look at a C11 Program 28

The Basics of a C11 Program 33

Comments 34
Special Symbols 35
Reserved Words (Keywords) 35
Identifiers 36
Whitespaces 37

Data Types 37
Simple Data Types 38
Floating-Point Data Types 40

Data Types, Variables, and Assignment

Statements 42

Arithmetic Operators, Operator Precedence, and Expressions 43

Order of Precedence 45
Expressions 47
Mixed Expressions 48

Type Conversion (Casting) 50

string Type 53

Variables, Assignment Statements,

and Input Statements 54
Allocating Memory with Constants and Variables 54
Putting Data into Variables 57

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 Table of Contents | xi

Assignment Statement 57
Saving and Using the Value of an Expression 60
Declaring and Initializing Variables 61
Input (Read) Statement 62
Variable Initialization 65

Increment and Decrement Operators 69

Output 71

Preprocessor Directives 78
namespace and Using cin and cout in a Program 79
Using the string Data Type in a Program 80

Creating a C11 Program 80

Debugging: Understanding and Fixing

Syntax Errors 84

Program Style and Form 87

Syntax 87
Use of Blanks 88
Use of Semicolons, Brackets, and Commas 88
Semantics 88
Naming Identifiers 89
Prompt Lines 89
Documentation 90
Form and Style 90

More on Assignment Statements 92

Programming Example: Convert Length 94

Programming Example: Make Change 98

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 xii | C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Eighth Edition

Quick Review 102

Exercises 104

Programming Exercises 114

INPUT/OUTPUT 123
3
I/O Streams and Standard I/O Devices 124
cin and the Extraction Operator >> 125

Using Predefined Functions in a Program 130

cin and the get Function 133
cin and the ignore Function 134
The putback and peek Functions 136
The Dot Notation between I/O Stream Variables
and I/O Functions: A Precaution 139

Input Failure 139

The clear Function 142

Output and Formatting Output 143

setprecision Manipulator 144
fixed Manipulator 145
showpoint Manipulator 146
C1114 Digit Separator 149
setw 150

Additional Output Formatting Tools 152

setfill Manipulator 152
left and right Manipulators 154

Input/Output and the string Type 156

Debugging: Understanding Logic Errors

and Debugging with cout Statements 157

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 Table of Contents | xiii

File Input/Output 160

Programming Example: Movie Tickets

Sale and Donation to Charity 164

Programming Example: Student Grade 170

Quick Review 173

Exercises 175

Programming Exercises 181

CONTROL STRUCTURES I
4 (SELECTION) 187
Control Structures 188
SELECTION: if AND if . . . else 189
Relational Operators and Simple Data Types 189
Comparing Characters 190
One-Way Selection 191
Two-Way Selection 194
int Data Type and Logical (Boolean) Expressions 198
bool Data Type and Logical (Boolean) Expressions 198
Logical (Boolean) Operators and Logical Expressions 199
Order of Precedence 201

Relational Operators and the string Type 205

Compound (Block of) Statements 207
Multiple Selections: Nested if 207
Comparing if . . . else Statements with a Series of if Statements 210
Short-Circuit Evaluation 211
Comparing Floating-Point Numbers for Equality: A Precaution 212
Associativity of Relational Operators: A Precaution 213

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 xiv | C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Eighth Edition

Avoiding Bugs by Avoiding Partially Understood

Concepts and Techniques 215
Input Failure and the if Statement 218
Confusion between the Equality Operator (==)
and the Assignment Operator (=) 221
Conditional Operator (?:) 223
Program Style and Form (Revisited): Indentation 224

Using Pseudocode to Develop, Test, and Debug a Program 224

switch Structures 227

Avoiding Bugs by Avoiding Partially Understood
Concepts and Techniques (Revisited) 234

Terminating a Program with the assert Function 236

Programming Example: Cable Company Billing 238

Quick Review 244

Exercises 245

Programming Exercises 257

CONTROL STRUCTURES II (REPETITION) 265

5
Why Is Repetition Needed? 266

while Looping (Repetition) Structure 269

Designing while Loops 273
Case 1: Counter-Controlled while Loops 274
Case 2: Sentinel-Controlled while Loops 277
Case 3: Flag-Controlled while Loops 283
Case 4: EOF-Controlled while Loops 286
eof Function 287
More on Expressions in while Statements 292

Programming Example: Fibonacci Number 293

for Looping (Repetition) Structure 297

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 Table of Contents | xv

Programming Example: Classifying Numbers 305

do. . .while Looping (Repetition) Structure 309

Divisibility Test by 3 and 9 311
Choosing the Right Looping Structure 313

break and continue Statements 313

Nested Control Structures 315

Avoiding Bugs by Avoiding Patches 321

Debugging Loops 324

Quick Review 324

Exercises326

Programming Exercises 340

USER-DEFINED FUNCTIONS 347

6
Predefined Functions 348

User-Defined Functions 352

Value-Returning Functions 353

Syntax: Value-Returning Function 355
Syntax: Formal Parameter List 355
Function Call 355
Syntax: Actual Parameter List 356
return Statement 356
Syntax: return Statement 356
Function Prototype 360
Syntax: Function Prototype 361
Value-Returning Functions: Some Peculiarities 362
More Examples of Value-Returning Functions 364
Flow of Compilation and Execution 375

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 xvi | C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Eighth Edition

Programming Example: Largest Number 376

Void Functions 378

Value Parameters 384

Reference Variables as Parameters 386

Calculate Grade 387

Value and Reference Parameters and Memory Allocation 390

Reference Parameters and Value-Returning Functions 399

Scope of an Identifier 399

Global Variables, Named Constants,

and Side Effects 403

Static and Automatic Variables 411

Debugging: Using Drivers and Stubs 413

Function Overloading: An Introduction 415

Functions with Default Parameters 417

Programming Example: Classify Numbers 420

Programming Example: Data Comparison 425

Quick Review 435

Exercises 438

Programming Exercises 453

USER-DEFINED SIMPLE DATA TYPES, NAMESPACES,

7 AND THE STRING TYPE 467
Enumeration Type 468
Declaring Variables 470
Assignment 470
Operations on Enumeration Types 471
Relational Operators 471

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 Table of Contents | xvii

Input /Output of Enumeration Types 472

Functions and Enumeration Types 475
Declaring Variables When Defining the Enumeration Type 476
Anonymous Data Types 477
typedef Statement 477

Programming Example: The Game of Rock, Paper, and Scissors 478

Namespaces 487

string Type 492

Additional string Operations 496

Programming Example: Pig Latin Strings 505

Quick Review 510

Exercises 512

Programming Exercises 517

ARRAYS AND STRINGS 521

8
Arrays 523
Accessing Array Components 525
Processing One-Dimensional Arrays 527
Array Index Out of Bounds 531
Array Initialization during Declaration 532
Partial Initialization of Arrays during Declaration 532
Some Restrictions on Array Processing 533
Arrays as Parameters to Functions 534
Constant Arrays as Formal Parameters 535
Base Address of an Array and Array in Computer Memory 537
Functions Cannot Return a Value of the Type Array 540
Integral Data Type and Array Indices 543
Other Ways to Declare Arrays 544

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 xviii | C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Eighth Edition

Searching an Array for a Specific Item 544

Sorting 547

Auto Declaration and Range-Based For Loops 551

C-Strings (Character Arrays) 552

String Comparison 555
Reading and Writing Strings 556
String Input 556
String Output 558
Specifying Input/Output Files at Execution Time 559
string Type and Input/Output Files 559

Parallel Arrays 560

Two- and Multidimensional Arrays 561

Accessing Array Components 563
Two-Dimensional Array Initialization during Declaration 564
Two-Dimensional Arrays and Enumeration Types 564
Initialization 567
Print 568
Input 568
Sum by Row 568
Sum by Column 568
Largest Element in Each Row and Each Column 569
Passing Two-Dimensional Arrays as Parameters to Functions 570
Arrays of Strings 573
Arrays of Strings and the string Type 573
Arrays of Strings and C-Strings (Character Arrays) 573
Another Way to Declare a Two-Dimensional Array 574
Multidimensional Arrays 575

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 CLASS II.
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 FOOTNOTES:
1 This, in its turn, is only a small part of a very extensive
work, the general title of which is, Geschichte der Künst
und Wissenschaften seit der Wiederherstellung derselben
bis an das Ende des achtzenten Jahrhunderts, von einer
Gesellschaft gelehrter männer ausgearbeitet. (History of
Arts and Learning from their restoration to the end of the
eighteenth century, by a society of learned men.) Different
authors have each taken a part in this great literary
enterprize, which may be said to form an Encyclopedia,
though not on the usual plan of a dictionary.

2 There is also a French translation of Bouterwek’s volume

on Spanish literature, which, as far as it goes, is correct
and well executed in point of style; but notwithstanding
that the translator appears to have been capable of doing
justice to the work, it is greatly mutilated. The Portuguese
volume, which is in some respects the more valuable of
the two, is not touched by the French translator.

3 Letters from an English Traveller in Spain, in 1778, on the

Origin and Progress of Poetry in that kingdom, London
1781.—This book was written by Mr. Dillon, author of
“Travels through Spain,” “History of Peter the Cruel,” &c.

4 Fought in the year 712.

5 This remark, from the Indiculo luminoso of Bishop Alvaro

of Cordova, is noticed in the preface to Du Cange’s
 Glossary, and is repeated by Velasquez in his History of
Spanish Poetry, Dieze’s edition, page 33.—See also
Eichhorn’s Allgemeine Geschichte der Cultur und
Litteratur, vol. i. p. 121. The details of the history of
Arabic poetry in Spain cannot be comprehended in a
history of Spanish and Portuguese poetry. The
bibliographic erudition on the subject of Arabic poetry,
which Dieze has displayed in his remarks on Velasquez,
does not belong to the subject of this work.

6 Velasquez, Dieze, and other authors, furnish information

on the history of the Biscayan language and poetry. This
language, with the poetry to which it may have given
birth, has had no influence on literature beyond its own
territory, and appears to have had very little even there.

7 How sensibly the neglect of the Catalonian or Valencian

tongue, after the union of the kingdoms of Arragon and
Castile, was felt in the provinces which belonged to the
former, may be seen from the passage quoted by
Eichhorn, in his Allg. Gesch. der Cul. u. Litt. vol. i. page
129, from Scuolano’s History of Valencia. But the pleasing
language of the Troubadours was doubtless very
defective. It would otherwise have been difficult to have
made the Catalonian poets so soon proselytes to the
Castilian dialect, especially as, besides the difference of
language, the natural jealousy between the Arragonian
and Castilian provinces was strong enough to manifest
itself by political effects even in the eighteenth century.
The imperfection of the Troubadour phraseology may have
been partly owing to its fluctuations, and the various
forms it assumed, in the several dialects. The difference of
the dialects appears particularly evident on comparing the
real Provençal of the French Troubadours with the
Valencian, called Lengua Vallenciana. The dialect of the
Provençal Troubadours may, without much difficulty, be
 translated by conjecture, if the reader be acquainted with
French and Italian; but the meaning of the Valencian
cannot be so easily guessed at, even with the additional
knowledge of Castilian. As a proof of this, it will be
sufficient to peruse a passage of the Libre de los Dones,
of Mosen, [that is, Monsieur, instead of the Castilian Don]
Jaume [James] Roig, reprinted in Valencia, 1735, in 4to.
The author is one of the last poets who wrote in the
Valencian dialect, and the whole didactic poem, if so it
may be called, is composed in short verses of the
following description:

Yo com absent
Del mon vivint,
Aquell linquint
Aconortat,
Del apartat
Dant hi del peu,
Vell jubileu
Mort civilment,
Ja per la gent
Desconegut,
Per tots tengut
Con hom selvatge
Tenint ostatge, &c. &c.

Owing to the difference of the dialects, a foreigner might,

by a short residence in Madrid, learn to express himself in
Castilian with more fluency than it is spoken by a great
part of the inhabitants of the Arragonian provinces.

8 At least such is the opinion of Gregorio Mayans y Ziscar,

given in his work, known under the title of Origenes de la
Lengua Española, part i. page 8.
 9 An old prejudice attributes the forcible aspiration which the
Spanish shares in common with the German and Arabic,
solely to the mixture of the latter with the Castilian. This
prejudice is pardonable in the Spaniards, who are not
aware of the influence which the German guttural must
have had over their language; but the Germans, who
know the nature of their mother tongue, ought to recollect
that the same Arabic words which are strongly aspirated
by the Spaniards, are pronounced by the Portuguese,
though equally naturalized among them, with a hissing
sound. Besides, how does it happen that the G before E
and I, which is a guttural with the Germans, has nearly
the same sound with the Castilians, though it is never so
pronounced by any other people whose language appears
to have risen on the ruins of that of ancient Rome? The
Germanic pronunciation of the Visigoths, which was
doubtless preserved in the mountains of Castile, would
afterwards be easily confounded with the Arabic. The
Castilian conversion of O into UE, also resembles the
change which takes place in German of O into OE. Let, for
instance, the Spanish Cuerpo and Pueblo be compared with
the German Körper and Pöbel.

10 The Portuguese language would perhaps be less

depreciated by the Spaniards, if it did not remind them of
the vulgar idiom spoken by the Galician water-carriers in
Madrid. On the contrary, the Portuguese think the
Castilian language inflated, and at the same time rough
and also affected. Both nations are as little disposed to
come to an agreement on the merits of their respective
languages as the Danes and Swedes are regarding theirs;
for the Castilian and Portuguese are, like the Danish and
Swedish, only two conflicting dialects of the same tongue.
The Swedes admit that the Danish language exceeds their
own in softness, though they consider that softness
disagreeable, and the harsher Swedish more sonorous on
 account of the greater abundance and fulness of its vowel
sounds; thus, precisely in the same manner, do the
Spaniards condemn the softness of the Portuguese
tongue. The elision of the letter L in a great number of
Portuguese words, as in COR, PAÇO, for color, palacio, and
the remarkable change of L into R, as in branco, brando,
for blanco, blando, are peculiarities of that language to
which foreigners do not easily reconcile themselves.

11 The first essay towards a history of the Portuguese

language, and an introduction to Portuguese orthography,
were published in Lisbon at the time when Portugal was a
Spanish province.—Duarte Nunez de Liaõ, the author of
both works, was a statesman and magistrate.
(Desembargador da Camara da Supplicaçaõ.) The former
is entitled Origem da Lingoa Portugueza, Lisb. 1606, in
8vo. It is dedicated to Philip III. king of Spain, who is,
however, on this occasion merely addressed as Dom
Phelipe II. de Portugal. In the preface the author states
his other, but older work, (Orthographia da Lingoa
Portugueza, Lisb. 1576, in 8vo.) to be the first of the kind.
The Portuguese have, however, for two centuries laboured
with as little success as the Germans, to introduce
uniformity of orthography into their language. The
convertible M and AÕ appear to have been so early
selected to denote the French nasal tone which occurs in
numerous final syllables, that Nunez de Liaõ found it
necessary to acquiesce in the custom, according to which
the same word might be very differently written, as naçaõ
or naçam, naõ or nam, pronounced nearly as nassaong
and naong, with the French sound of on, bon. But it surely
could not have been very difficult to dispossess the totally
unnecessary and barbarous H in hum and huma (from the
latin unus and una) of the place it had assumed, as it is
now banished from elegant Portuguese orthography.
Trifles of this kind present more materials for reflection
 than a first view gives reason to expect. When the
orthography of a country continues to be an object of
reform, that nation is deficient in a certain degree of
refinement, the attainment of which has either been
missed, or the right pursuit of which is but just
commenced. Indeed what necessity is there for the
French, Italians, Spaniards and Portuguese, writing the
same sound, occurring in the same word, in four different
ways, as for example, bataille, battaglia, batalla, batalha?

12 Nothing could be more improper than to follow Du Cange,

(Glossar. praef. § 34, sq.) in dividing the vulgare idioma of
the present inhabitants of the Pyrenean Peninsula into the
Castellanum, Limosinum, and Vasconicum.

13 A particular account of the Limosin poetry, even in its last

period, which is late enough to come into the division of
time called the latter ages, does not belong to the history
of modern poetry. It ought to be treated as the last part
of the chivalrous poetry of the middle ages.—See the
notices in Velasquez and Dieze, p. 45, and the still more
instructive sketch of the history of Limosin poetry, in
Eichhorn’s Gesch. der Cult. u. Litt. vol. i. p. 123.

14 That the Portuguese and the Galician were originally not to

be distinguished from each other, is expressly stated by
that attentive observer of the forms of his native
language, Nunez de Liaõ, who says, As quaes ambas,
(namely, the Portuguese and the Galician tongues) eraõ
antigamente quasi huma mesma nas palavras, e
diphthongos, e pronunciação, que as outras partes de
Hespanha naõ tem. Origem da Lingoa Portugueza, cap. VI.

15 Velasquez, who felt this, thought fit when he read the

Lusiade de Camões, to pay a particular compliment to the
author, at the expense of the Portuguese language; for,
 after delivering the same opinion on that language, which
is entertained by most Spaniards, he very elegantly adds:
“the muses thought otherwise when they spoke through
the mouth of Camoens.”

16 Cada fuente de Portugal y cada monte son Hippocrenes y

Parnassos, says Manuel de Faria y Sousa, in his Epitome
de las Historias Portugueses. Father Sarmiento, a Spanish
author, whom national prejudice does not prevent from
doing justice to the Portuguese, mentions this observation
in his instructive Memorias para la Poesia Española.

17 The word is used in this extensive sense by Sarmiento in

his Memorias, or as the book is sometimes called, Obras
posthumas, parte i. p. 168. Authors are far from being
agreed respecting the origin of the term redondillas,
(according to the Portuguese orthography redondilhas.)
But is not the word more naturally derived from redondo
(round), than from a small town called Redondo? Instead
of redondillas, these compositions are sometimes named
redondillos, the word versos being understood. In German
they might be called ringelverse (circular verses.)

18 Shall it be said that there is, in the German language, no

kind of verse which unites to so much grace, a character
so truly popular! Let Burger’s Nachtfeier der Venus be
considered, before this be determined. Even the Esthonian
Serfs, on the coast of the Baltic, chaunt their simple
ballads in the same measure. Proof of this may be seen
on reference to Petri’s Nachrichten von den Esthen, vol. ii.
p. 69.

19 Among others, Sarmiento, who in support of this opinion,

quotes some verses from Virgil, for example: Inter viburna
cupressi—Tondenti barba cadebat, &c. These verses have,
it is true, eight syllables, but not four trochaic feet.
20 How does it happen that none of the Spanish authors have
taken notice of the ancient songs sung by the Roman
soldiers, though they are evidently redondillas? Suetonius
has preserved some remarkable examples of these songs;
and the same measure occurs after the decline of latin
poetry, particularly in some pious verses of Prudentius,
which are quoted by Sarmiento.
21 After examining Arabic verses, written in the European
manner, it cannot be difficult, even for persons
unacquainted with the language, to form a sufficient idea
of the influence which the monotonic rhymes of the Moors
had on the old Castilian romances. See, for example, the
following passage of the Koran:

Va sciamsi, va dhohàha,
Val Kamari eda talàha,
Van nahari, eda giallàha,
Val Laïli eda jagsciàha.

But the Spanish ear required some variety, and

accordingly preferred a predominant to a single
unchanging rhyme. Thus in the romance:—

Media noche era por hilo;

Los gallos querian cantar
Donde Claros con amores
No podia reposar,
Quanto muy grandes sospiros
Que el amor se hazia dar, &c. &c.

22 Such rimas asonantes as occur in the words noble and

pone, dolor and corazon, are easily recognized. But from
some old Spanish romances, it appears that the return of
the same consonants sometimes supplies the place of an
assonant rhyme; for example, when the words baxo,
crucifixo, enojo, &c. follow each other at short intervals.
23 See what is stated by Sarmiento, p. 191, from an old letter
of the Marquis of Santillana, of which more particular
notice must soon be taken in this work.
24 The Spanish and Portuguese versos de arte mayor very
much resemble some of the English popular ballads, with
regard to their measure. There is, however, in the rudest
of the Spanish and Portuguese strophes of this kind, more
real rhythmus, than even in the modern popular songs of
the English. An old political song, by Juan de Mena,
commences thus:—

Como, el, que duerme con la pesada,

Que quiere y no puede jamas acordar,
Mas si lo puede á la fin desechar,
Queda la mente con el desvelada, &c.

25 Sarmiento has written at sufficient length on the origin of

the Castilian romances, but the information he gives is
more copious than satisfactory. It would require the most
laborious investigation, joined to the highest critical
sagacity, to penetrate the obscurity in which this part of
the history of literature is involved. How indeed can it be
ascertained to what age a ballad belongs, the author of
which is unknown, and which, in the progressive
improvement of the language and the national taste, has
been, without scruple, altered by the singers?

26 These monuments of old Castilian rhyme were little known

until rescued from oblivion in 1775 by the publication of D.
Thomas Antonio Sanchez’s Coleccion de Poesias
Castellanas Anteriores al siglo XV. a work which in respect
to philology is certainly very meritorious. The collection,
however, appears to terminate with the third volume,
(Madrid, 1782), which contains the Poema de Alexandra
Magno. The first volume contains the celebrated letter of
the Marquis de Santillana on the ancient Spanish poetry,
 which, for the first time, is printed in that volume, with a
commentary by the publisher, full of philological learning.

27 For example, in the following passage which Sarmiento

has also quoted; the language, too, differs less from the
present Spanish in this, than in many other parts of the
work.

De los sus ojos tan fuertemente llorando,

Tornaba la cabeça, e estavalos catando.
Vio puertas abiertas, e uzos sin canados,
Alcandaras vacìas sin pieles e sin mantos
E sin falcones, e sin azores, mudados.
Sospirò mio Zid; ca mucho aviè grandes cuidados.
Fablò mio Zid bien, e tan mejorado:
Grado á ti, Señor Padre, que estas en alto.
Esto me han envuelto mìs enemigos malos, &c.

28 He states at the beginning of the work the importance he

placed on the labour of the rhyme, which he seems to
have particularly valued, because he made four lines
always rhyme together in succession:—

Mester trago fremoso, no es de juglaria,

Mester es sen pecado, ca es de clerecia.
Fablar curso rimado por la quaderna via
Per silabas cantadas, ca es grant maestria.

29

El padre a vii. años metiole a leer,

Diole a maestros ornados de seso e de saber,
 Los megores que pudo in Grecia escoger,
Que lo sopiessen en las vii. artes emponer
Aprend de las vii. artes cada dia licion
De todas cada dia facia disputacion, &c.

30 Sarmiento and Sanchez may be consulted respecting those

enquiries. Some notices on the same topics are also to be
found in Velasquez. Had Berceo composed verses on
temporal subjects, it is probable that the Spanish writers
would not have disputed with so much zeal on the merits
of his life. It is curious, that the pious author himself calls
his verse prose. The passage runs thus:—

Quiero far una prosa in Roman paladino,

En qual suele el pueblo fablar a su vecino,
Ca non so tan letrado a far otro latino.
Bien valdra, como ereo, un vaso de bon vino.

31 Having stated that he learnt his art from an Egyptian,

whom he invited from Alexandria, Alphonso adds:—

La piedra que llaman philosophal

Sabia facer, e me la enseñó,
Fizimoslo juntos, despues solo yo;
Con que muchas veces creció mi caudal.

The chemical prescriptions have a very quaint effect, as

delivered in the dancing measure of these verses, viz.

Tomad el mercurio assi como sale

De minas de tierra con limpia pureza.
Purgadlo con cueros par la su maleza,
 Porque mas limpieza en esto mi cale.
E porque su peso tan solo se iguale,
Con doze onzas del dicho compuesto,
En vaso de vidro despues de ser puesto.
Otra materia en esto non vale.

This extract may also serve as an example of the

rhythmical facility displayed in the verses of Alphonso.

32 Histoire générale des Troubadours, tom. ii. pag. 255, tom.

iii. pag. 329, &c.

33 Sarmiento refers the oldest Castilian romances to the

thirteenth century, but only hypothetically, and with the
explicit declaration, that certainly none were to be found
in the form in which they then existed. Respecting the
Nicolas and the Antonio de los Romances, see the notes of
Dieze on Velasquez, p. 146.

34 See the Bibliotheca Hispana Vetus of Nicolas Antonio,

under the head of Alphonso XI. and Sarmiento, p. 305.

35 A sensible and well digested biography of this prince, by

Gonzalo de Argote y Molina, a writer of the sixteenth
century, is prefixed to El Conde Lucanor, the first edition
of which Argote superintended. The work is not easily
procured even in Spain. No es de los mas communes, says
Sarmiento. In the library of the university of Göttingen
there is a copy of the edition: Madrid, 1642, 4to.

36

Si algun bien fizieres, que chico assaz fuere,

Fazlo granado; que el bien nunca muere.
37

Quien te conseja encobrir de tus amigos,

Engañar te quiere assaz, y sin testigos.

38

No aventures mucho tu riqueza

Por consejo de ome que ha pobreza.

39

Quien bien see, non se lieve.

40

Quien te alabare con lo que non has en ti,

Sabe, que quiere relever lo que has de ti.

41 As this work is as scarce as it is curious, to extract the

whole of the first tale will perhaps be agreeable to the
reader. Fablava un dia el Conde Lucanor con Patronio su
Consejero, en esta manera. Patronio, vos sabedes que yo
soy muy caçador, y he fecho muchas caças nuevas, que
nunca fizo otro ome, y aun he fecho y añadido en los
capillos y en las piguelas algunas cosas muy
aprovechosas, que nunca fueron fechas, y aora los que
quieren dezir mal de mi fablan en escarnio en alguna
manera, y quando loan al Cid Ruydias, o al Conde Ferrand
Gonzalez, de quantas lides que fizieron, o al santo y
bienaventurado Rey don Ferrando, quantas buenas
conquistas fizo, loan a mi, diziendo que fiz muy buen
fecho, porque añadi aquello en los capillos y en las
piguelas. Y porque yo entiendo, que este alabamiento mas
se me torna en denuesto, que en alabamiento, ruego vos
que me a consejedes en que manera faré, porque no me
escarnezcan por la buena obra que fiz. Señor Conde, dixo
Patronio, para que vos sepades lo que vos cumple de
fazer en esto, plazeme ya que sopiessedes lo que
contescio a un moro, que fue Rey de Cordova. El Conde la
preguntó como fuera aquello; Patronio le dixo assi.

Huvo en Cordova un Rey Moro, que huvo nombre

Alhaquime, y como quier que mantenia bien assaz su
Reyno, no se trabajó de fazer otra cosa honrada, nin de
gran fama, de las que suelen y deven fazer los Reyes. Ca
non tan solamente son los Reyes tenudos de guardar sus
Reynos, mas los que buenos quieren ser, conviene que
tales obras fagan, porque con derecho acrecienten sus
Reynos, y fagan en guisa, que en su vida sean muy mas
loados de las gentes, y despues de su muerte finqueen
buenas fazañas de las obras que ellos ovieren fecho. E
este Rey non se trabajava de esto, si non de comer, y de
folgar, y de estar en su casa vicioso; y acaescio, que
estando un dia que tañian ante el un estormento de que
se pagavan mucho los moros, que há nombre Albogon, e
el Rey paró mientes, y entendio que non fazia tan buen
son como era menester, y tomó el Albogon, y añadio en el
un forado a la parte de yuso, en derecho de los otros
forados, y dende en adelante fazia el Albogon muy mejor
son que fasta entonces fazia. E comoquiera que aquello
era bien fecho para en aquella cosa, pero que non era tan
gran fecho como convenia de fazer al Rey. E las gentes en
manera de escarnio començaron a loar aquel fecho, y
dezian quando llamavan a alguno en Arabigo, Vahedezut
Alhaquime, que quiere dezir: este es el añadimiento del
Rey Alhaquime. Esta palabra fue sonada tanto por la
tierra, fasta que lo ovo de oir el Rey, y preguntó, porque
dezian las gentes aqueste palabra. E conaquier que ge lo
quisieran negar y encubrir, tanto los afincó, que ge lo
ovieron a dezir. E desque esto oyó tomó ende gran peçar,
pero como era muy buen Rey, non quiso fazer mal a los
que dezian aquesta palabra, mas puso en su coraçon de
facer otro añadimiento, de que por fuerza oviessen las
gentes a loar el su fecho. E entonce porque la su mezquita
de Cordova non era acabada, añadio en ella aquel Rey
toda la labor que hi menguava, y acabóla. Y esto fue la
mejor, y mas complida, y mas noble mesquita que los
moros avian en España. E loado Dios es aora Iglesia, y
llamanla Santa Maria de Cordova, y ofresciola el santo Rey
don Fernando a Santa Maria quando ganó a Cordova de
los Moros. E desque aquel Rey ovo acabado la mesquita, y
fecho aquel tan buen añadimiento, dixo, que pues fasta
entonces lo avian a escarnio, retrayendole del añadimiento
que fiziera en el Albogon, que tenia que de alli adelante le
avrian a loar con razon del añadimiento que fiziera en la
mezquita de Cordova, y fue despues muy loado: y el
loamiento que fasta entonces le fazian escarnesciendole,
fincò despues por loa, y oy dia dizen los Moros quando
quieren loar algun buen hecho:—Este es el añadimiento
del Rey Alhaquime. E vos, Señor Conde, si tomades pesar,
o cuidades que vos loan por escarnescer del añadimiento,
que fezistes en los capillos, y en las piguelas, y en las
otras cosas de caça que vos fezistes, guisad de fazer
algunos fechos granados e nobles que les pertenesce de
facer a los grandes omes. E por fuerça las gentes avran
de loar los vuestros buenos fechos, assi como loan aora
por escarnio en el añadimiento que fezistes de la caça. E
el Conde tovo este por buen consejo y fizolo assí, e fallose
dello muy bien. E porque don Juan entendio que esta era
buen exemplo, fizolo escrivir en este libro, y fizo estos
versos, que dizen assi:
 Si algun bien fizieres, que chico asaz fuere,
Fazlo granado, que el bien nunca muere.

42 Thus in the first stories the old word ome stands for
hombre; but in those towards the end of the collection it
is changed to hombre.

43 Argote y Molina enumerates the prose works of this prince

in the before-mentioned biography. He notices the poems
in an appendix to his edition of El Conde Lucanor, entitled
Discurso sobre la poesia Española. Though the appendix
occupies only a few pages, it contains many interesting
observations.

44 The following romance, which is inserted without

interpunctuation, as it appears in the original, may serve
for a specimen of those to which the name of Don Juan
Manuel is attached. It is certainly not the worst of its kind;
and must have found its way by some lucky accident into
the Cancionero general, which contains scarcely any
narrative romances. It is also found in another Cancionero
de Romances, under the title of Romance de Don Juan
Manuel.

Gritando va el cavallero
publicando su gran mal
vestidas ropas de luto
aforrados en sayal
por los montes sin camino
con dolor y sospirar
llorando a pie descalço
jurando de no tornar
adonde viesse mugeres
por nunca se consolar
con otro nuevo cuydado
que le hiziesse olividar
la memoria de sua amiga
que murio sin la gozar
va buscar las tierras solas
para en ellas habitar
en una montaña espesa
no cercana de lugar
hizo casa de tristura
qu’es dolor de la nombrar
d’una madera amarilla
que llaman desesperar
paredes de canto negro
y tambien negra la cal
las tejas puso leonadas
sobre tablas de besar
el suelo hizo de plomo
porque es pardillo metal
las puertas chapadas dello
por su trabajo mostrar
y sembro por cima el suelo
secas hojas deparral
cado no se esperan bienes
esperança no ha destar
en aquesta casa escura
que hizo para penar
haze mas estrecha vida
que los frayles del paular
que duermen sobre sarmientos
y aquellos son su maniar
lo que llora es lo que beve
aquello torna a llorar
no mas d’una vez al dia
por mas se debilitar
del color de la madera
mando una pared pintar
un dosel de blanca seda
en ella mando parar
y de muy blanco alabastro
hizo labrar un altar
con canfora betumado
de raso blanco el frontal
puso el bulto de su amiga
en el para le adorar
el cuerpo de plata fina
el rostro era de cristal
un brial vestido blanco
de damasco singular
mongil de blanco brocado
forrado en blanco cendal
sembrado de lunas llenas
señal de casta final
en la cabeça le puso
una corona real
guarnecida de castañas
cogidas del castañal
lo que dize la castaña
es cosa muy de notar
las cinco letras primeras
el nombre de la sin par
murio de veynte y dos años
por mas lastima dexar
la su gentil hermosura
quien quel sepa loar
qu’es mayor que la tristura
del que la mando pintar
en lo qu’ el passa su vida
es en la siempre mirar
cerro la puerta al plazer
abrio la puerta al pesar
abrio la para quedarse
pero no para tornar.
 All the songs attributed to Don Juan Manuel in the
Cancionera have a form and structure, which render it
probable that they belong to the age in which El Conde
Lucanor was written; one, for example, begins thus:

Quien por bien servir alcanza

Vivir triste y desamado,
Este tal
Deve tener confianza,
Que le traera este cuydado
A mayor mal.

Another which belongs to the class, called Villancios

possesses more poetical merit. It commences thus:—

Muerto es ya, muerto, Señora,

El triste que en ley de Amor
Era vuestro servitor.
La muerte pudo matalle,
Pues le distes ocasion,
Pero no pudo quitalle
De teneros aficion.
O pena sin redemcion,
Que pena el triste amador
En los infiernos de Amor.

45 Sarmiento only briefly notices this arch-priest, and Nicolas

Antonio has entirely overlooked him. But Velasquez pays
particular attention to him, and gives a long extract from
his work.
46 As a specimen by which justice will be done the author, it
is sufficient to quote the following passage, which is
printed by Velasquez. Don Amor says:—

Entrada de quaresma viume para Toledo;

Cuidé estar vicioso, plasentero e ledo.
Fallé y gran santiadad, e fisome estar quedo.
Pocos me recibieron, niu me ficieron del dedo.
Estaba en un palacio pintado de Almagra.
Vino a me mucho Dueña de mucho aguno magra
Con muchos paternostres e con oracion agra, &c.

47 The celebrated letter of the Marquis de Santillana, which

must be more particularly noticed hereafter, contributes its
part in illustrating the history of this period. Much however
is not to be learned from the letter itself. The commentary
on it by Sanchez, in the first volume of the before-
mentioned Coleccion, is far more instructive.

48 Whoever wishes to become acquainted with the

controversies on the early literature of knight-errantry,
should resort to Nicolas Antonio, and compare what he
says with Eichhorn’s learned view of the subject, including
the necessary references, in his Allg. Gesch. der Cult. u.
Litt. Theil I. p. 136, &c. Nunez de Liaõ, in his Origem de
Lingoa Portugueza, also mentions Lobeira as the author of
Amadis de Gaul.

49 The merit of the Amadis was not overlooked by Cervantes.

In the judgment passed on Don Quixote’s library, the
Curate wishes to condemn this work first of all to the
flames, because, being the parent of all the books of
knight-errantry in Spain, it was therefore the great cause
of Don Quixote’s malady; but the Barber, or rather
Cervantes, speaking in that character, says, “No, friend;
 for I have heard it remarked that the Amadis is the best
book of the kind ever written; it ought therefore to be
spared as a peculiar specimen of art.” Whoever may be
desirous of making the Amadis re-appear in a state
capable of being relished in the present times, must,
above all things, take care to preserve the ingenuous
simplicity of the stile, or the work will be wholly disfigured.

50 The titles of all the collections of romances need not be

given here. A considerable part of them may be found in
Velasquez, with additions by Dieze, (p. 442, &c.) and
Blankenburg’s Zusätzen zu Sulzer’s Wörterbuche. I have
before me several collections, which contain some of the
oldest romances I am acquainted with. The best of these
collections is entitled: Cancionero de Romances, en que
estan recopilados la mayor parte de los Romances
Castellanos, que hasta agora se han compuesto.
Nuevamento corregido y añadido en muchos partes.
Anvers 1555, 8vo. In the well known Romancero general
none of the pieces which derive their materials from
knight-errantry romances are to be found.

51 The following romance, derived from that work, gives an

artless description of the sufferings of Amadis on the
barren rock.

En la selva esta Amadis

el leal enamorado
tal vida estava haziendo
qual nunca hizo Christiano
cilicio trae vestido
a sus carnes apretado
con diciplinas destruye
su cuerpo muy delicado
llagado de las heridas
 y en su señora pensando
no ce canoce en su gesto
segun lo trae delgado
de ayunos y d’abstinencias
andava debilitado
la barva trae crecida
deste mundo se ha apartado
las rodillas tiene en tierra
y en su coraçon echado
con gran humildad os pide
perdon si avia errado
al alto dios poderoso
por testigo ha publicado
y acordado se le avia
del amor suyo passado
que assi le derribo
de su sentido y estado
con estas grandes passiones
amortecido ha quedado
el mas leal amador
que en el mundo fue hallado.

52 According to Sarmiento (p. 228,) it is usual to say, Este no

vale las coplas de Calainos. But it is not therefore to be
inferred, that the ancient romance of that name is the
worst of the kind.

53 It will be sufficient to cite, in support of this opinion, the

romance of the Conde Alarcos, which is, besides,
distinguished from most of the other romances by greater
richness of composition. It opens in a very simple manner
with a description of the sorrow of the Infante Solesa,
who, after being secretly betrothed to Count Alarcos, has
been abandoned by him.
 Retraida està la Infanta
Bien assi como salia,
Viviendo muy descontenta
De la vida que tenia,
Vienda ya que se pasava
Toda la flor de su vida.

The fair Infanta midst the court

A look of sorrow wears,
Told by an aching heart how she
Is doom’d to pass her years;
For far from her is ever flown
The early bloom of life——

At length, after Count Alarcos has been long married, the

forsaken princess discloses her seduction to her father.
This scene is strongly painted, but not overcharged: the
king is transported by rage and indignation; his honour
appears to him so wounded, that nothing but the death of
the Countess can be a sufficient satisfaction. He has an
interview with the Count, addresses him courteously,
represents the case to him with chivalrous dignity as a
point of justice and honour, and concludes by categorically
demanding the death of his lady. Thus the developement
of the story commences in a manner, which, though most
singular, is perhaps not unnatural, when the ideas of the
age to which the composition belongs are considered. The
Count conceives himself bound as a man of honour to
give the king the satisfaction he desires. He promises to
comply with his demand, and proceeds on his way home.
There is a touching simplicity in the picture which is here
drawn.

Llorando se parte el Conde,

 Llorando, sin alegria,
Llorando a la Condessa,
Que mas que a sì la queria.
Lloraba tambien el Conde
Por tres hijos que tenia,
El una era de teta,
Que la Condessa lo cria,
Que no queria mamar
De tres amas, que tenia,
Sino era de su madre.

Weeping he homeward wends his way,

His grief nought can remove,
Because his tears are shed for her
He more than life doth love.
He weepeth too for his three sons,
In youth and beauty dear;
The youngest boy a suckling still,
The Countess’ self doth rear.
For, save his mother, none he lov’d,
Though he had nurses three,
Nor by the milk of other breasts
Would alimented be.

The pathetic interest now rises gradually to the highest

pitch of tragic horror. The Countess, who receives her
husband with the wonted marks of affection, in vain
enquires the cause of his melancholy. He sits down to
supper with his family, and again we have a situation
painted with genuine feeling, though with little art.

Sentose el Conde a la mesa,

No cenava, ni podia,
Con sus hijos al costado,
 Que muy mucho los queria.
Echo se sobre los hombros,
Hizo, como se dormia,
De lagrimas de sus ojos
Toda la mesa cubria.

The board is laid, he takes his place,

Where viands tempt in vain,
For near him his lov’d children are,
Now lov’d, alas! with pain.
In seeming sleep with head reclin’d,
He tries to hide his woe;
But from his eyes the big tears roll,
And o’er the table flow.

The apparent fatigue of the Count induces the Countess

to accompany him to his apartment. When they enter, the
Count fastens the door, relates what has passed, and
desires his lady to prepare for death.

De morir aveis, Condessa,

Antes que amenesca el dia.

O Countess, thou art doom’d to die,

Before the morning’s dawn.

She begs him to spare her only for her children’s sake.
The Count desires her to embrace for the last time the
youngest, whom she has brought with her into the room
asleep in her arms.

Abrazad este chiquito,

Que aquesto es el que os perdia.
 Peso me de vos, Condessa,
Quanta pesar me podia.

Give to that babe one parting kiss,

That babe for whom thou’rt lost;
Beshrew me—but I pity thee—
I who need pity most.

She submits to her hard fate, and only asks for time to
say an ave maria. The Count desires her to be quick. She
falls on her knees, and pours forth a brief but fervent
prayer; she then requests a few moments more delay,
that she may once more give suck to her infant son. What
modern poet would have thought of introducing so
exquisite a touch of nature? The Count forbids her to
wake the child. The unfortunate lady forgives her
husband, but predicts that, within thirty days, the king
and his daughter will be summoned before the tribunal of
the Almighty. The Count strangles her.

Echole por la garganta

Una toca que tenia,
Apreto con los dos manos,
Con la fuerza que podia.
No le afloxo la garganta,
Mentre que vida tenia.

In the conclusion, the fulfilment of the unfortunate

Countess’s prophecy is briefly related. On the twelfth day
the princess died, on the twentieth the king, and on the
thirtieth the Count himself expired.

54 Those in the Cancionero de Romances are of this kind.

(See the remark, p. 35.)
55 Sarmiento counted one hundred and two romances
relative to the Cid, in one collection. Only some of them
are inserted in the Romancero general, interspersed
among others.

56 In the following romance, for instance, the assonance is

very skilfully managed.

Fizo hazer al Rey Alfonso

el Cid un solene juro,
delante de muchos Grandes,
que se hallaron en Burgos.
Mandò que con el viniessen
doze cavalleros juntos,
para que con el jurassen,
cada qual uno por uno.
Por la muerte de su Rey,
que le mataron seguro,
en el cerco de Zamora,
a traycion junto del muro.
Y quando en el templo santo
estuvieron todos juntos
levantose de su escaño,
y el Cid aquesto propuso.
Por aquesta santa casa
donde estamos en de ayuso,
que fabledes la verdad,
de aquesto que aqui os pregunto.
Si fuystes vos Rey la causa,
o de los vuestros alguno,
en la muerte de don Sancho
tengays la muerto que tuvo!
Todos responden Amen,
mas el Rey quedò confuso,
pero por cumplir el voto,
 respondio, la mismo juro.
Y con la rodilla en tierra
por fazer su cortes uso,
el Cid delante del Rey,
assi le fablò sañudo.
Si ayer no os besa la mano,
sabed Rey que non me plugo,
y si aora os la besare
será de mí grado, y gusto.
Aquesto que aqui he fablado
no ha fecho agravio a ninguno,
porque lo devo a don Sancho
como buen vassallo suyo.
Pero sino lo fiziera
que dara yo por injusto,
y no por buen cavallero,
me tuvieran en el mundo.
Y si ha parecido mal
a los de vuesso consulto,
en el campo los aguardo,
con mi espada, y lança en puño.

57 Of this kind is the following romance, in which the Cid

takes leave of Ximena. It is obviously one of the more
modern.

Al arma, al arma sonavan

los pifaros y atambores,
guerra, fuego, sangre dizen
sus espantosos clamores:
el Cid apresta su gente,
todos se ponen en orden
quando llorosa y humilde,
le dize Ximena Gomez:
 Rey de mi alma, y desta tierra Conde,
porque me dexas? donde vas, a donde?

Que sì eres marte en la guerra,

eres Apolo en la Corte,
donde matas bellas damas,
como alla Moros feroces.
Ante tus ojos se postran,
y de rodillas se ponen
los Reyes Moros, y hijas,
de Reyes Christianos nobles,
Rey de mi alma, &c.

Ya truecan todos los guerras,

por luzidos morriones,
por arneses de Milan,
los blandos pechos de Londres,
las calças por duras grevas,
por mallas guantas de flores:
mas nos otros trocaremos
las almas y coraçones.
Rey de mi alma, &c.

Viendo las duras querellas,

de su querida consorte,
no puede sufrir el Cid,
que no la consuele y llore.
Enxugad señora, dize,
los ojos hasta que torne:
ella mirando los suyos,
supena publica a vozes.
Rey de mi alma, &c.

58 A zealous orthodox author speaks with much warmth on

this subject in a romance which commences, “Tanta
 Zayda, y Adalifa.” Among other things he says:

Renegaron a su ley
Los romancistes de España,
Y ofrecieron a Mahoma
Los primicios de sus gracias.

59

Cabelleros Granadinos,
Aunque moros, hijos d’álgo.

60

Las huestes de don Rodrigo

desmayavan y huyan,
quando en la octava batalla
sus enemigos vencian,
Rodrigo dexa sus tierras
y del real se salia,
solo va el desventurado
que non lleva compañia
el cavallo de cansado
ya mudar no se podia,
camina por donde quiere
que no le estorva la via
el rey va tan desmayado
que sentido no tenía,
muerto va de sed y hambre
que de vella era manzilla
yva tan tinto de sangre
que una brasa parecia
las armas lleva abolladas
que eran de gran pedreria,
la espada lleva hecha sierra
de los golpos que tenia.
el almete de abollado
en la cabeça se hundia
la cara llevava hinchada
del trabajo que sufria,
subiose encima de un cerro
al mas alto que veya,
dende alli mira su gente
como yva de vencida
d’alli mira sus vanderas
y estandartes que tenia,
como estan todos pisados
que la tierra los cubria,
mira por los capitanes
que ninguno parescia,
mira el campo tinto en sangre
la qual arroyos corria
el triste de ver aquesto
gran manzilla en si tenia
llorando de los sus ojos
desta manera dezia,
Ayer era Rey d’España
oy no lo soy de una villa,
ayer villas y castillos
oy ninguno posseya,
ayer tenia criados
y gente que me servia
oy no tengo una almena
que pueda dezir que es mia,
desdichada fue la hora
desdichado fue aquel dia
en que naci y herede
la tan grande señoria
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