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Mastering Linux Shell Scripting Second Edition Mokhtar
Ebrahim Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Mokhtar Ebrahim, Andrew Mallett
ISBN(s): 9781788990554, 1788990552
Edition: 2
File Details: PDF, 13.64 MB
Year: 2018
Language: english
Mastering Linux Shell Scripting
Second Edition

"QSBDUJDBMHVJEFUP-JOVYDPNNBOEMJOF#BTITDSJQUJOHBOE
4IFMMQSPHSBNNJOH

Mokhtar Ebrahim
Andrew Mallett

BIRMINGHAM - MUMBAI
Mastering Linux Shell Scripting
Second Edition
Copyright a 2018 Packt Publishing

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form
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 Contributors

About the authors

Mokhtar Ebrahim started working as a Linux system administrator in 2010. He is
responsible for maintaining, securing, and troubleshooting Linux servers for multiple
clients around the world. He loves writing shell and Python scripts to automate his work.
He writes technical articles on the Like Geeks website about Linux, Python, web
development, and server administration. He is a father to a beautiful girl and a husband to
a faithful wife.

I would like to thank my wife for helping me with all her efforts to finish this book. Thank
you, Doaa, for being a part of that. Also, I would like to thank everyone at Packt for
working with me to make sure the book is released. Last but not least, I'd like to thank
Brian Fox, the author of the bash shell, for creating such an awesome piece of software;
without it, such a book would not exist.

Andrew Mallett is the owner of The Urban Penguin, and he is a comprehensive provider of
professional Linux software development, training, and services. Having always been a
command-line fan, he feels that so much time can be saved through knowing command-line
shortcuts and scripting. TheUrbanPenguin YouTube channel, maintained by Andrew, has
well over 800 videos to support this, and he has authored four other Packt titles.
About the reviewer
Sebastiaan Tammer is a Linux enthusiast from The Netherlands. After attaining his BSc in
Information Sciences, he graduated with MSc in Business Informatics, both from Utrecht
University. His professional career started in Java development before he pivoted into
Linux.

He has worked on number of technologies, such as Puppet, Chef, Docker, and Kubernetes.
He spends a lot of time in and around his terminal of choice: bash. Whether it is creating
complex scripting solutions or just automating simple tasks, there is hardly anything he
hasn't done with bash!

I would like to thank my girlfriend, Sanne, for all the help and support she has given me
throughout the years. She has had to endure the late nights studying, me fixing stuff
(which I had inevitably broken only hours earlier), and my endless storytelling about all
those exciting new technologies. Thanks for the enormous amount of patience and love, I
could not have done it without you!

Packt is searching for authors like you

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 Table of Contents
Preface 1
Chapter 1: The What and Why of Scripting with Bash 6
Technical requirements 7
Types of Linux shells 7
What is bash scripting? 8
The bash command hierarchy 9
Command type 9
Command PATH 10
Preparing text editors for scripting 11
Configuring vim 12
Configuring nano 12
Configuring gedit 12
Creating and executing scripts 14
Hello World! 15
Executing the script 15
Checking the exit status 16
Ensuring a unique name 17
Hello Dolly! 17
Running the script with arguments 18
The importance of correct quotes 19
Printing the script name 21
Declaring variables 22
User-defined variables 22
Environment variables 23
Variable scope 24
Command substitution 25
Debugging your scripts 26
Summary 33
Questions 34
Further reading 34
Chapter 2: Creating Interactive Scripts 35
Technical requirements 35
Using echo with options 36
Basic script using read 37
Script comments 38
Enhancing scripts with read prompts 38
Limiting the number of entered characters 39
 Table of Contents

Controlling the visibility of the entered text 40

Passing options 40
Passing parameters with options 42
Read options values 44
Try to be standard 45
Enhancing learning with simple scripts 46
Backing-up with scripts 46
Connecting to a server 48
Version 1 – ping 48
Version 2 – SSH 48
Version 3 – MySQL/MariaDB 49
Reading files 50
Summary 51
Questions 51
Further reading 52
Chapter 3: Conditions Attached 53
Technical requirements 54
Simple decision paths using command-line lists 54
Verifying user input with lists 56
Using the test shell built-in 56
Testing strings 57
Testing integers 58
Testing file types 59
Creating conditional statements using if 60
Extending if with else 61
Test command with the if command 62
Checking strings 62
Checking files and directories 65
Checking numbers 65
Combining tests 66
More conditions with elif 67
Creating the backup2.sh using elif 67
Using case statements 69
Recipe – building a frontend with grep 71
Summary 72
Questions 73
Further reading 74
Chapter 4: Creating Code Snippets 75
Technical requirements 75
Abbreviations 76
Using code snippets 77
Bringing color to the Terminal 78

[ ii ]
 Table of Contents

Creating snippets using VS Code 80

Summary 85
Questions 85
Further reading 86
Chapter 5: Alternative Syntax 87
Technical requirement 87
Recapping the test command 88
Testing files 88
Adding logic 88
Square brackets as not seen before 88
Providing parameter defaults 90
Variables 90
Special parameters 90
Setting defaults 91
When in doubt – quote! 93
Advanced tests using [[ 95
White space 95
Other advanced features 96
Pattern matching 96
Regular expressions 96
Regular expression script 97
Arithmetic operations using (( 98
Simple math 98
Parameter manipulation 98
Standard arithmetic tests 99
Summary 100
Questions 100
Further reading 101
Chapter 6: Iterating with Loops 102
Technical requirement 103
for loops 103
Advanced for loops 106
The IFS 107
Counting directories and files 108
C-style for loops 109
Nested loops 110
Redirecting loop output 111
Controlling the loop 111
while loops and until loops 113
Reading input from files 114
Creating operator menus 116
Summary 119

[ iii ]
 Table of Contents

Questions 119
Further reading 120
Chapter 7: Creating Building Blocks with Functions 121
Technical requirements 121
Introducing functions 122
Passing parameters to functions 125
Passing arrays 128
Variable scope 129
Returning values from functions 130
Recursive functions 132
Using functions in menus 133
Summary 135
Questions 135
Further reading 136
Chapter 8: Introducing the Stream Editor 137
Technical requirements 138
Using grep to display text 138
Displaying received data on an interface 138
Displaying user account data 139
Listing the number of CPUs in a system 140
Parsing CSV files 143
The CSV file 143
Isolating catalog entries 145
Understanding the basics of sed 146
The substitute command 147
Global replacement 148
Limiting substitution 150
Editing the file 150
Other sed commands 151
The delete command 151
The insert and append commands 152
The change command 153
The transform command 153
Multiple sed commands 154
Summary 154
Questions 155
Further reading 156
Chapter 9: Automating Apache Virtual Hosts 157
Technical requirements 158
Apache name-based Virtual Hosts 158
Creating the virtual host template 159
First steps 160

[ iv ]
 Table of Contents

Isolating lines 160

sed script files 162
Automating virtual host creation 164
Prompting for data during site creation 166
Summary 169
Questions 170
Further reading 170
Chapter 10: AWK Fundamentals 171
Technical requirements 171
The history behind AWK 172
Displaying and filtering content from files 173
AWK variables 176
User-defined variables 178
Conditional statements 180
The if command 180
while loops 181
for loops 182
Formatting output 183
Further filtering to display users by UID 185
AWK control files 186
Built-in functions 187
Summary 187
Questions 188
Further reading 189
Chapter 11: Regular Expressions 190
Technical requirements 190
Regular expression engines 191
Defining BRE patterns 192
Anchor characters 193
The dot character 195
The character class 195
Ranges of characters 197
Special character classes 198
The asterisk 199
Defining ERE patterns 201
The question mark 201
The plus sign 203
Curly braces 204
The pipe character 206
Expression grouping 207
Using grep 208
Summary 209

[v]
 Table of Contents

Questions 210
Further reading 210
Chapter 12: Summarizing Logs with AWK 211
Technical requirements 211
The HTTPD log file format 212
Displaying data from web logs 213
Selecting entries by date 213
Summarizing 404 errors 215
Summarizing HTTP access codes 215
Resources hits 217
Identify image hotlinking 218
Displaying the highest ranking IP address 219
Displaying the browser data 220
Working with email logs 221
Summary 221
Questions 222
Further reading 222
Chapter 13: A Better lastlog with AWK 223
Technical requirements 223
Using AWK ranges to exclude data 224
The lastlog command 224
Horizontally filtering rows with AWK 225
Counting matched rows 225
Conditions based on the number of fields 226
Manipulating the AWK record separator to report on XML data 228
Apache Virtual Hosts 228
XML catalog 229
Summary 231
Questions 232
Further reading 232
Chapter 14: Using Python as a Bash Scripting Alternative 233
Technical requirements 233
What is Python? 234
Saying Hello World the Python way 236
Pythonic arguments 236
Supplying arguments 237
Counting arguments 237
Significant whitespace 239
Reading user input 240
Using Python to write to files 241
String manipulation 242

[ vi ]
 Table of Contents

Summary 243
Questions 244
Further reading 244
Assessments 245
Other Books You May Enjoy 252
Index 255

[ vii ]
 Preface
First, you'll learn about Linux shells and why we chose the bash shell. Then, you'll learn
how to write a simple bash script and how to edit your bash script using Linux editors.

Following this, you will learn how to define a variable and the visibility of a variable. After
this, you will learn how to store command execution output into a variable, which is called
command substitution. Also, you will learn how to debug your code using bash options
and Visual Studio Code. You will learn how to make your bash script interactive to the user
by accepting input from the user using the read command. Then, you will learn how to read
options and its values if the user passed them to the script. Following this, you will learn
how to write conditional statements such as if statements and how to use case statements.
After this, you will learn how to create code snippets using vim and Visual Studio Code.
For repetitive tasks, you will see how to write for loops, how to iterate over simple values,
and how to iterate over directory content. Also, you will learn how to write nested loops.
Along with this, you will write while and until loops. Then, we will move on to functions,
the reusable chunks of code. You will learn how to write functions and how to use them.
After this, you will be introduced to one of the best tools in Linux, which is Stream Editor.
As we are still talking about text processing, we will introduce AWK, one of the best text
processing tools in Linux that you will ever see.

After this, you will learn how to empower your text processing skills by writing better
regular expressions. Finally, you will be introduced to Python as an alternative to bash
scripting.

Who this book is for

This book targets system administrators and developers who would like to write a better
shell script to automate their work. Some programming experience is preferable. If you
don't have any background in shell scripting, no problem, the book will discuss everything
from the beginning.
Preface

What this book covers

$IBQUFS, The What and Why of Scripting with Bash, will introduce Linux shells, how to
write your first shell script, how to prepare your editor, how to debug your shell script, and
some basic bash programming, such as declaring variables, variable scope, and command
substitution.

$IBQUFS, Creating Interactive Scripts, covers how to read input from the user using SFBE
command, how to pass options to your script, how to control the visibility of the entered
text, and how to limit the number of entered characters.

$IBQUFS, Conditions Attached, will introduce the JG statement, the DBTF statement, and
other testing command such as FMTF and FMJG.

$IBQUFS, Creating Code Snippets, covers creating and using code snippets using editors,
such as vim and Visual Studio Code.

$IBQUFS, Alternative Syntax, will discuss advanced testing using << and how to perform
arithmetic operations.

$IBQUFS, Iterating with Loops, will teach you how to use GPS loops, XIJMF loops, and
VOUJM loops to iterate over simple values and complex values.

$IBQUFS, Creating Building Blocks with Functions, will introduce functions and explains
how to create a function, list builtin functions, pass parameters to functions, and writing
recursive functions.

$IBQUFS, Introducing the Stream Editor, will introduce the basics of sed tool to manipulate
files, such as adding, replacing deleting, and transforming text.

$IBQUFS, Automating Apache Virtual Hosts, contains a practical example of sed and
explains how to create virtual hosts automatically using sed.

$IBQUFS, AWK Fundamentals, will discuss AWK and how to filter file content using it.
Also, we will discuss some AWK programming basics.

$IBQUFS, Regular Expressions, covers regular expressions, their engines, and how to use
them with sed and AWK to empower your script.

$IBQUFS, Summarizing Logs with AWK, will show how to process the IUUQEDPOG
Apache log file using AWK and extract useful well-formatted data.

[2]
Preface

$IBQUFS, A Better lastlog with AWK, will show you how to use AWK to output beautiful
reports using the lastlog command by filtering and processing the lastlog output.

$IBQUFS, Using Python as a Bash Scripting Alternative, will discuss Python programming
language basics and explains how to write some Python scripts as a bash script alternative.

To get the most out of this book

I assume that you have a little programming background. Even if you don't have a
programming background, the book will start from the beginning.

You should know some Linux basics such as the basic commands such as MT, DE, and
XIJDI.

Download the example code files

You can download the example code files for this book from your account at
XXXQBDLUQVCDPN. If you purchased this book elsewhere, you can visit
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The code bundle for the book is also hosted on GitHub at IUUQTHJUIVCDPN
1BDLU1VCMJTIJOH.BTUFSJOH-JOVY4IFMM4DSJQUJOH4FDPOE&EJUJPO. In case there's an
update to the code, it will be updated on the existing GitHub repository.

We also have other code bundles from our rich catalog of books and videos available
at IUUQTHJUIVCDPN1BDLU1VCMJTIJOH. Check them out!

[3]
Preface

Download the color images

We also provide a PDF file that has color images of the screenshots/diagrams used in this
book. You can download it from IUUQTXXXQBDLUQVCDPNTJUFTEFGBVMUGJMFT
EPXOMPBET.BTUFSJOH-JOVY4IFMM4DSJQUJOH4FDPOE&EJUJPO@$PMPS*NBHFTQEG.

Conventions used
There are a number of text conventions used throughout this book.

$PEF*O5FYU: Indicates code words in text, database table names, folder names, filenames,
file extensions, pathnames, dummy URLs, user input, and Twitter handles. Here is an
example: "Edit your script so that it reads like the following complete code block
for )0.&CJOIFMMPTI"

A block of code is set as follows:

JG<GJMF@DPNQSFTTJPO->UIFO
UBS@PQUUBS@M
FMJG<GJMF@DPNQSFTTJPO.>UIFO
UBS@PQUUBS@N
FMTF
UBS@PQUUBS@I
GJ

Any command-line input or output is written as follows:

$ type ls
ls is aliased to 'ls --color=auto'

Bold: Indicates a new term, an important word, or words that you see onscreen. For
example, words in menus or dialog boxes appear in the text like this. Here is an example:
"Another very useful feature is found on the Preferences | Plugins tab"

Warnings or important notes appear like this.

Tips and tricks appear like this.

[4]
Preface

Get in touch
Feedback from our readers is always welcome.

General feedback: Email GFFECBDL!QBDLUQVCDPN and mention the book title in the
subject of your message. If you have questions about any aspect of this book, please email
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For more information about Packt, please visit QBDLUQVCDPN.

[5]
 1
The What and Why of Scripting
with Bash
Welcome to the what and why of bash scripting. In this chapter, you will discover the types
of shells in Linux and why we chose bash. You will learn what bash is, how to write your
first bash script, and how to run it. Also, you will see how to configure Linux editors, such
as vim and nano, in order to type your code.

Like in any other scripting language, variables are the basic blocks of coding. You will learn
how to declare variables such as integers, strings, and arrays. Furthermore, you will learn
how to export these variables and extend their scope outside the running process.

Finally, you will see how to visually debug your code using Visual Studio Code.

We will cover the following topics in this chapter:

Types of Linux shells

What is bash scripting?
The bash command hierarchy
Preparing text editors for scripting
Creating and executing scripts
Declaring variables
Variable scope
Command substitution
Debugging your scripts
The What and Why of Scripting with Bash Chapter 1

Technical requirements
You'll need a running Linux box. It doesn't matter which distribution you use, since all
Linux distributions are shipped nowadays with the bash shell.

Download and install Visual Studio Code, which is free from Microsoft. You can download
it from here: IUUQTDPEFWJTVBMTUVEJPDPN.

You can use VS Code as an editor instead of vim and nano; it's up to you.

We prefer to use VS Code because it has a lot of features such as code completion,
debugging, and many more besides.

Install CBTIEC, which is a required package for the bash debug plugin. If you are using a
Red Hat-based distribution, you can install it like this:
$ sudo yum install bashdb

If you are using a Debian-based distribution, you can install it like this:
$ sudo apt-get install bashdb

Install the plugin for VS Code, called bash debug, from

IUUQTNBSLFUQMBDFWJTVBMTUVEJPDPNJUFNT
JUFN/BNFSPHBMNJDCBTIEFCVH. This
plugin will be used to debug bash scripts.

The source code for this chapter can be downloaded here:

IUUQTHJUIVCDPN1BDLU1VCMJTIJOH.BTUFSJOH-JOVY4IFMM4DSJQUJOH4FDPOE
&EJUJPOUSFFNBTUFS$IBQUFS

Types of Linux shells

As you know, Linux consists of some major parts, such as the kernel, the shell, and the GUI
interface (Gnome, KDE, and so on).

The shell translates your commands and sends them to the system. Most Linux
distributions are shipped with many shells.

[7]
Other documents randomly have
different content
gone some distance farther on in life's journey, while she is in the
very prime and flush of girlhood? These thoughts flash through his
mind, and make him appear nervous and absent as he begins to talk
about last night's party. But his mind is made up.
'We missed you, Miss Grey. Will you pardon us that you had no
invitation? My daughter is not much accustomed to sending them
out.'
'Please, don't mention it, Sir Herbert. I am very glad to go to
Government House when I'm wanted there; but one cannot always
be invited, you know.'
'But I like you always to come. The omission shall not happen again.
We had a wretchedly stupid gathering. Spare me similar
disappointments in future, Miss Grey, by—by taking the right of
arranging these matters into your own hands.'
The girl looks up inquiringly. Nothing can be more unsuspecting and
guileless than the questioning eyes that meet Sir Herbert's.
'Will you take the right, Katie? My life has grown strangely desolate
and lonely of late; will you cheer it with your presence? In short, will
you be my wife?'
The question is asked now, eagerly and impassion'dly, and Miss
Grey's eyes droop under the Admiral's gaze. This vision has been
dazzling her mind so long; she has dreamt of it, thought of it; and
now the offer of marriage has really come! Though the triumph is
making her heart throb, she can hardly tell whether she is glad or
sorry. But she does not draw back. For the treasure of Sir Herbert's
loyal affection, for his true earnest love, she will give in exchange
her youth and beauty. She thinks the bargain a fair one, and
wonders can anything more be required.
When Sir Herbert leaves his affianced wife, he goes down to her
father, to tell him of what he calls his 'good fortune.'
'Yes; and mamma and Helen shall hear all about it from me. Won't
they be surprised!' adds the young lady with a short low laugh, as
the Admiral goes out of the room. She hears him close the library
door, and then says to herself with another little spasmodic laugh:
'Every one will be surprised, as I am myself, to think how quickly it
has all come about. Last evening I was excluded from Government
House, and now I have promised to rule and reign there. Which has
conquered—Laura Best or I?'

CHAPTER VI.—FAMILY COUNSEL.

Mr Grey's library is a curious little room, fitted up quite in his own
way. Maps cover the sides of the walls, and a large bookcase holds
the books, which are mostly nautical. Models of ships and steamers
are on various shelves, there is an astrolabe near the window, and a
sextant and some pattern guns on the table. Mr Grey is busy at the
moment with official papers; his nimble fingers are copying a
'General Memo.' with wonderful rapidity. Hearing the stately step of
his chief coming along the passage, he naturally supposes the
Admiral has returned to give further directions about some orders
ere long to be circulated amongst the ships. So he glances up over
his spectacles pen in hand. Great is his surprise at seeing evident
signs of agitation in Sir Herbert's face, as he says in a low tone: 'Put
aside your papers for an instant, Grey. I want to consult you on quite
another subject. I have come to ask your consent to my marriage
with your daughter Katie.'
'Your marriage with my daughter, Sir Herbert!' and Mr Grey lets a
huge drop of ink splash on his 'General Memo.' in his surprise.
'You seem astonished, Grey. Have you any objection to accept me as
your son-in-law?'
'Pardon me, Sir Herbert, pardon my hesitation; but you startled me
for the moment. I am conscious of the honour you are doing us; but
have you considered how young and inexperienced Katie is? A mere
girl, in fact. She is but little used to the ways of the world; hardly
wise enough to hold the high position you offer her.'
The Admiral smiles. 'I will take the risk of all that. Katie is willing,
and I am ready to marry her just as she is.'
'Then I give my full sanction.'
'Wish me joy, Grey. You don't say a word about that.'
'I will wish you something better and deeper than mere joy, Sir
Herbert. I pray you may have true and unmixed happiness with my
daughter. May she prove a wife worthy of you, and may you never
regret your choice.'
There is a tremble in Mr Grey's voice as he grasps the Admiral's
hand and ratifies the new bond sprung up so suddenly between
them; and he looks thoughtfully after Sir Herbert as he leaves the
room. Surely women are fickle, and his daughter Katie the most
fickle of her sex!
Only two months ago, Walter Reeves had come into that very same
room on the very same kind of mission. The same, but with a
difference. He has not actually proposed for Katie, but had asked
permission to visit at the house with that intention, in the event of
his love being reciprocated. And Katie knows all this, and up to the
present has received Walter's attentions, and seemed to take them
as her right. But now all this is set aside, and a man nearly as old as
her father himself has stepped in and won the girl as a willing prize.
Well may the old sailor marvel! Things have changed since the days
'long ago,' when he wooed his wife, and waited nine long years for
her because he could not afford to marry sooner. His true old-
fashioned love has but intensified as years have sped on; the trials
of life have but drawn the wedded pair closer to each other. Will this
be the experience of Katie and the Admiral?'
Worthy Mr Grey cannot settle that point; so he goes up-stairs to
hear what Katie herself has to say on the subject.
Miss Grey lingers in the drawing-room after the Admiral has gone.
There seems something strangely sad and vague and solemn in the
whole affair, now it has gone so far; and when her mother comes
into the room with Helen leaning on her arm, she exclaims at once,
with glowing cheeks and flashing eyes and defiant tone: 'Wish me
joy, mother, and Helen! I am going to be married!'
'I'm glad it is settled at last, Katie; and I hope you will be very
happy. Walter has had plenty of patience, I'm sure,' says Mrs Grey in
her quiet voice, as she settles Helen comfortably on the sofa and
turns round to give Katie a kiss of congratulation.
But her daughter draws back with a look of annoyance.
'Why do you talk of Walter? I am not going to marry him. My
intended husband's name stands far higher in the Navy List. I'm
going to be married to Admiral Sir Herbert Dillworth!'
'Sir Herbert!' exclaim Helen and her mother together.
'Yes. Why are you surprised?'
'I'm sure we've good reason for surprise, considering all that has
gone on about Walter. Katie, Katie! what new fancy has hold of you
now?' The voice is Mrs Grey's, the tone one of reproach.
Katie is growing angry. 'The fancy is no new one, mother. Had you
not all been very blind, you might have guessed what was coming
long ago.'
'Do you really love Sir Herbert?' asks Helen, with that deep-seeing
look of hers, that somehow always makes her elder sister a little in
awe of her.
'I like him; the rest will come by-and-by; and I'm glad and proud of
my lot.'
There is a ring in Katie's voice, as though she has flung down the
gauntlet of self-approval, and challenges any one to take it up and
contradict her. Her father is not the one to do this. He comes into
the room at the moment, hears Katie's asseveration, and feels as if a
world of doubt had rolled away from his mind. Considering his own
word 'his bond,' he judges his daughter by the same standard.
'That's right, Katie, and sounds earnest. You may well be proud of
your lot, and of Sir Herbert too: there isn't a better, braver, more
honourable man alive; he's unselfish and high-principled to his
heart's core. I've served three commissions under him, and ought to
know him well; and I'd rather see a child of mine lying in her grave,
than that she should bring discredit on his name. Kiss me, my girl! I
wish you happiness. Well may you be proud of our Admiral!'
Katie receives the kiss just a little impatiently; she believes she has
won 'high stakes,' and does not relish any doubts on the subject.
 THE CROCODILE AND GAVIAL.
Two species of crocodile inhabit our Indian rivers, and both are
especially numerous in such streams as the Ganges and its
tributaries, the Berhampooter, and many others. Sir Emerson
Tennent, in his Natural History of Ceylon, points out an error which
Anglo-Indians and others are often given to—namely, of applying the
term alligator to animals which are in reality crocodiles. There are no
alligators in the Indian peninsula. The true alligator is the hideous
cayman of South America, and differs in one or two important
respects from the crocodile of the Nile and Ganges.
The first and by far the most widely distributed of the two saurians
inhabiting our Indian rivers is the common crocodile, exactly similar
to the animal frequenting the Nile and other streams of Northern
Africa, and known throughout Bengal by its Hindustani title of
'Mugger.' The second species is the Gavial or Gurryal (Gavialis
Gangeticus). This reptile is, I believe, only found in Hindustan, and is
indigenous to the Ganges; hence its specific title.
The habits of the two creatures are in general very similar, but yet
differ in one or two important points. The mugger often grows to an
enormous size, not unfrequently reaching twenty feet in length, and
is thick built in proportion. The limbs are short, feet palmated, the
fore-feet furnished with five, the hind with four toes. The head
(which in aspect is extremely hideous) is broad and wedge-shaped,
the muzzle rather narrow, the eyes small, deep set, and of a
villainous glassy green hue. The jaws when shut lock as closely and
firmly together as a vice. The teeth are of a formidable description,
varying much in size and length. When the mouth is closed, the
tusks in the extremity of the lower jaw pass completely through and
often project above the tip of the upper. The body is incased with
scaly armour-plates, very thick and massive on the back, but to a
less extent on the sides of the body. The reptile breathes through its
nostrils, which are situated near the tip of the snout. By this
wonderful provision of nature, the crocodile is enabled to lie in wait
for its prey with the whole of its body, except the nostrils, concealed
beneath the surface of the water.
The gavial much resembles the mugger in general structure (though
the body is not usually so thickly built), with one notable exception,
and that is the totally different shape and character of the snout.
The jaws of the gavial are long, straight, and narrow; the teeth,
which are regular, wide apart from one another, and even, are of a
far less formidable description than those of the common crocodile.
They much resemble in general appearance the rows of jagged teeth
which garnish the edges of the upper jaw of the saw-fish. The snout
is often several feet in length, and there is a peculiar knob or
protuberance at the tip; and the nostrils, as in the other species, are
situated near the extremity.
The gavial has been described by some writers as 'the scourge of
the Ganges' and a 'ferocious animal;' but I venture to say that this is
a highly exaggerated if not an altogether erroneous statement. It is
possible that occasionally—though I am convinced very rarely—the
gavial may seize a human being; but the reptile is essentially a fish-
eater, and unlike the mugger, is little to be dreaded by the swimmer
or bather. I have frequently, when strolling along the banks of our
Indian rivers, observed the head of a gavial momentarily raised
above the surface of the water in the act of swallowing some large
fish held transversely across its jaws, the long beak and rows of
sharp teeth with which nature has furnished it, greatly assisting the
creature in snapping up such slippery prey.
Crocodiles frequent the wide open channels and reaches of our large
Indian rivers, especially in the neighbourhood of large towns, such
as Dinapore, Allahabad, or Benares. In such resorts, whole families
of both gavials and muggers may be seen lying together side by side
on points of sand or low mud islands left dry by the current of the
stream; they delight to bask in the scorching rays of the mid-day
sun.
The animals always lie asleep close to the margin, and generally
with their heads pointing away from the water. They are extremely
watchful; and on being alarmed by the near approach of some boat
gliding past or human beings walking along the bank, after
contemplating the objects of their suspicion for a short space of
time, they one after another awkwardly wheel round, and with a
splash and a flounder speedily vanish beneath the surface of the
water, to reappear again so soon as the cause of their alarm has
passed.
Though hideous and repulsive in appearance, these reptiles
nevertheless fulfil a most useful office as scavengers. In the
neighbourhood of large towns on the banks of the Ganges, hundreds
of dead bodies are daily cast into the holy river by the Hindus; and
in a tropical climate like India, were it not for crocodiles, turtles, and
vultures assembling and devouring the corpses, speedily some
dreadful plague would break out and spread death around.
Judging from the accounts of travellers, the crocodiles inhabiting the
African continent must be far more dangerous than their confrères
of Asia; for though we sometimes hear of muggers taking to man-
eating, especially in Lower Bengal and parts of Assam, yet such
practices are not the rule, as is generally supposed.
I have, however, seen patches of water near the foot of ghats or
flights of steps fenced round with a close and strong hedge of
bamboo stakes, driven firmly into the river-bed, for the purpose of
protecting bathers or women drawing water from the assaults of
man-eating crocodiles; and it is a dangerous practice at all times to
bathe in pools frequented by such monsters. Cows, horses, sheep,
goats, and dogs, besides the numerous wild inhabitants of the
jungle, all form a prey of the mugger. The cunning animal, well
acquainted with some spot where, towards sunset, flocks and herds,
after the heat of the day has passed, are in the habit of drinking,
there lies in wait concealed amid the sedge bordering the margin.
Presently some unlucky victim in the shape of a poor bullock
parched with thirst, comes hurrying down the bank and eagerly
approaches the water; but hardly has its mouth reached the surface,
when the blood-thirsty crocodile seizes it by the nose; and if once
successful in securing a firm grip, the chances are, that unless the
herdsman is at hand to render assistance, the unfortunate bullock, in
spite of struggling desperately to free itself, is soon dragged down
on to its knees, and later beneath the surface of the pool.
It has been asserted that tigers ere now have been seized, and after
a hard fight, overpowered by the crocodile. Possibly this may
occasionally happen; but I imagine such an occurrence to be
extremely rare; and my impression is, that such redoubtable
champions, each capable of inflicting severe punishment on his
opponent, would avoid rather than risk coming to blows.
It is generally imagined that the plated coat of mail covering the
crocodile's body renders the animal invulnerable to bullets. Such may
have been the case in the days of brown-bess; but a spinning
conical ball fired from a Martini-Henry or other grooved weapon of
the present day, will not only readily pierce, but even pass
completely through the body of the largest crocodile.
It is the extraordinary tenacity of life with which all the lizard family
are endowed, that has in a great measure given rise to this notion of
their invulnerability; for unless shot through the head, neck, heart,
or such-like vital part, the crocodile, even when desperately
wounded by a bullet through the body, will almost invariably gain the
water, only shortly afterwards to sink dead to the bottom, to be
devoured by some of its cannibal relations.
Near a station where I happened to be quartered for many years in
Central India, there was a large lake where crocodiles were known
yearly to breed. After some trouble, I procured two mugger's eggs
from some fishermen who frequented the spot. They were of an oval
shape, dirty white colour and rough surface. The female crocodile
about the month of May, having scraped a hole with her feet in the
sand or mud of some dry island, deposits her eggs therein, and
carefully covers them up, leaving the heat of the sun to hatch out
her progeny. Meanwhile she hovers about the spot, till at length the
thin layer of sand covering the eggs upheaves, the young issue
forth, and escorted by the mother, take to their natural element, the
water.
J. H. B.
 SHAMROCK LEAVES.
A WEDDING.
At Irish country weddings of the lower orders, the priest is paid by
voluntary contributions of the wedding guests. The marriage is
generally celebrated in the evening, and is followed, especially
among the farming classes, by a grand festivity, to which his
"Riverince" is always invited. After supper, when the hearts of the
company are merry with corned beef and greens, roast goose, ham,
and whisky-punch, the hat goes round.
Honor Malone was the prettiest girl in the barony; and a lucky boy
on his marriage day was the bridegroom; albeit on the occasion he
looked very ill at ease in a stiff, shiny, brand-new, tight-fitting suit of
wedding clothes. Lucky, for in addition to her good looks, the bride
had fifty pounds to her fortune and three fine cows.
Very pretty and modest she looked seated beside the priest, blushing
a great deal, and wincing not a little at his Reverence's somewhat
broad jokes. And most becoming was the 'white frock' in which she
was attired; a many-skirted garment, resplendent with 'bow-knots'
and trimmings of white satin ribbons.
'As good as new,' my lady's-maid at the Castle, from whom she had
bought it, had assured her. 'Made by the grandest French
dressmaker in all London, and worn at only a couple of balls; her
young ladies were so cruel particular, and couldn't abide the
suspicion of a crush or a soil on their gowns.'
In the midst of his jokes and his jollity (and with an eye to future
dues, nowhere is a priest half so good-humoured as at a wedding),
while apparently absorbed in attention to the pretty bride, whose
health had just been drunk in a steaming tumbler, Father Murphy
perceived with his business eye that preparations were being made
for sending round the plate in his behalf.
The stir began at the end of the table where the 'sthrong farmers'
mustered thickest. A goodly set they were, in their large heavy
greatcoats of substantial frieze, corduroy knee-breeches, and bright
blue stockings; their comely dames wearing the capacious blue or
scarlet cloth cloak with silk-lined hood, which, like the greatcoat of
the men, is an indispensable article in the gala toilet of their class,
even in the dog-days.
In the midst of the group was Jim Ryan. Now this Jim Ryan was the
sworn friend and adherent of Father Murphy; he would have gone
through fire and water to serve his Reverence. He was rather a small
man in the parish as regarded worldly goods, having neither snug
holding nor dairy farm; but he was highly popular, being considered
a 'dhroll boy' and good company.
When the proceedings of this devoted follower met the priest's
business eye before alluded to, they caused considerable surprise to
that intelligent organ, insomuch as greatly to damage a very pretty
compliment his Reverence was in the act of making to the bride.
First Jim Ryan took hold of the collecting plate, and seemed about to
carry it round. Then, as if suddenly recollecting himself, he stopped
short, and dashed it down on the table with a clatter and a bang
that made Mrs Malone wince, for it was one of her best china set.
Jim's next proceeding was to try all his pockets. He dived into his
waistcoat, breeches, and swallow-tailed coat receptacles, one after
another, but without finding what he wanted. At last, after much
hunting and shaking, and many grimaces of disappointment, he
pounced on the object of his search, and drew carefully from some
unknown depths a large tattered leather pocket-book.
By this time every one's attention was fixed upon him. Deliberately
he opened the book, and peering inside—having first ascertained by
a covert glance around that the company were observing—he
extracted from it a bank-note. This, when unfolded, he spread out
and flattened ostentatiously on the table, so that all who looked
might read 'Ten Pounds' inscribed upon it!
A flutter of astonishment ran through the guests, not unmixed with
signs of dismay among the richer portion. Fat pocket-books that a
few moments before were being pompously produced by their
owners, were stealthily thrust back again. A sudden pause was
followed by a great whispering and consulting among the farmers.
Anxious and meaning looks were bestowed on the latter by their
wives, to say nothing of expressive nudges, and digs into conjugal
ribs where practicable. For there was always much rivalry in these
offerings. Misther Hennessy, who drove his family to mass every
Sunday in his own jaunting car, would scorn to give less than Misther
Welsh; though he too was a 'warm' man, and always got top price
for his butter at Limerick market. And now to be outdone by Jim
Ryan! To proffer his Reverence five pounds, when the likes of him
was giving ten! It was not to be thought of! So the result, after Jim
had deposited his note with a complacent flourish on the plate, and
had gone his rounds with the latter, was the largest collection that
had ever gladdened the heart or filled the pockets of Father Murphy.
As the priest was leaving the place, Jim came up to him and laid his
hand on the horse's bridle: 'A good turn I done yer Riverince this
night, didn't I? Such a mort of notes an' silver an' coppers I niver
laid eyes on! I thought the plate would be bruk in two halves with
the weight. An' now'—in a whisper, and looking round to see there
was no one listening—'where's my tin pound note back for me?'
'Your ten pound note, man! What do you mean by asking for it? Is it
to give you back part of my dues, you want?
'Ah then now, Father Murphy dear, sure an' sure you niver was so
innocent as to think that blessed note was mine! Where upon the
face of the living earth would a poor boy like me get such a sight of
money as that? Tin pounds! I borryed it, yer Riverince, for a
schame; an' a mighty good an' profitable schame it's turned out.
Sure I knew the sight of it would draw the coin out of all their
pockets; an' by the powers! so it did.' A fact his Reverence could not
deny, while—not without interest—he refunded Jim's ingenious
decoy-duck.
 THE ITALIAN GRIST-TAX.
In our own favoured realms millers have their troubles, no doubt, as
well as other folk, but at anyrate they are not tormented with a
grist-tax; and indeed in these enlightened days we should have
thought that such an impost was unknown in all countries claiming
to have attained a high degree of civilisation. Mr Edward Herries,
C.B., late Her Majesty's Secretary of Legation at Rome, in the course
of his elaborate Report on the Financial System of Italy, has,
however, shewn us our mistake; and in tracing the history and
present position of the tax, he furnishes us with some curious
particulars respecting it.
As our readers will doubtless be struck with the anomaly of a
powerful government having recourse nowadays to indirect taxation
to augment its revenue, it may be well at the outset to cite a brief
paragraph from Mr Herries' Report, in order to shew how it
happened that the grist-tax came to be reimposed upon the people
of Italy.
Towards the close of the year 1865, he writes, M. Sella, then
Minister of Finance, having to meet a deficit estimated for 1866 at
upwards of two hundred and sixty-one million lire (say ten million
four hundred and fifty thousand pounds), and being compelled, he
said, to have recourse to indirect taxation for a large increase of
revenue, urged upon the Chamber of Deputies the revival of the
grist-tax, which he considered as fulfilling more completely than any
other new impost that could be found the essential conditions of
great productiveness, wide diffusion, and equal pressure on all parts
of the kingdom.
The impost seems to have made its first appearance in Sicily, where
it was a source of revenue during the Norman period, and there, no
one was allowed to carry corn to be ground without first obtaining,
after much delay, a permit, for which he had to pay the duty
chargeable on the grinding of the corn. The attestation of the officer
in charge of the mill was requisite for the removal of the flour, for
which a certain route was prescribed, and which was always to be
accompanied by the permit. The miller was not even allowed to keep
the key of his own mill, and was prohibited from grinding corn
between sunset and sunrise. The wants of the population, however,
sometimes made it necessary to relax this rule; and in such cases
the miller (whose family was never to remain in the mill with him)
was securely locked and barred in for the night, without any means
of communicating with the outer world, whatever might happen.
This treatment, however, was at length seen to be cruel; and
permission was granted to any miller exposed to imminent peril from
fire, flood, or other calamity, to free himself from nocturnal
incarceration by breaking (if he could) through the door, window, or
roof. It does not seem to have been foreseen, Mr Herries aptly
remarks, that such a gracious concession might be rendered
nugatory by the strength of the barriers or the feebleness of the
miller!
Up to 1842, the millers themselves were considered as responsible
fiscal agents; but after that time, the supervision of every mill was
intrusted to an official called a 'weigher' (custode pesatore); but not
being usually a very faithful guardian, bribery soon became rampant.
In the Ecclesiastical State, where the tax was farmed out to
contractors, the mode of its exaction was in many respects similar to
that existing in Sicily. By an edict of 1801, which deserves notice as
a legislative curiosity, a miller was liable to be sent to the galleys,
besides paying a heavy fine, for a variety of offences—such as that
of grinding corn not regularly consigned to him in the manner
prescribed; of receiving corn or sending out flour at night; and
others of similar enormity. In the district of the Agro Romano, all
bread had to be stamped; and the absence of the proper stamp
exposed the guilty baker to a fine of one hundred scudi and corporal
punishment, or even to slavery in the galleys. The inhabitants of this
district were only allowed to use bread baked within it, and they
might be compelled to declare where they got their bread.
Though the tax was temporarily abolished in its last strongholds in
the year 1860, it was subsequently revived, until all the statutes
relating to the subject were finally consolidated in 1874. The tax,
which must now be paid to the miller at the time of grinding, is
charged at the rate of two lire (of about tenpence each) per hundred
kilograms on wheat; and one lira on maize, rye, oats, and barley.
The miller pays periodically to the collector of taxes a corresponding
fixed charge for every hundred revolutions of the millstone, to be
ascertained by an instrument called contatore, which is affixed to the
shaft at the cost of the government. The amount of this charge is
determined for every mill according to the quality and force of the
machinery and the mode of grinding. The miller may refuse the rate
as first calculated; in which case the revenue authorities have the
power to employ an instrument which will record the weight or
volume of the corn ground; or of collecting the tax directly by their
own officers, or of farming the tax. Should they not think fit to
exercise such powers, the rate is determined by experts. The impost,
it is perhaps hardly necessary to say, is an eminently unpopular one,
and was only consented to under the pressure of extreme necessity.
The great difficulty in the way of the smooth working of the grist-tax
was the impossibility of procuring the mechanical means of control
contemplated by the law; and in point of fact, when it came into
operation no effective instrument was in existence. By the end of
August 1871, however, matters had changed, and no fewer than
78,250 registering instruments were supplied, and by 1874 the
greater number of these contatori were in active operation. The
contatore, however, does not give universal satisfaction; and Mr
Herries thinks that what is wanted to remove doubts as to fair
treatment, is some instrument capable of recording the weight or
the quantity of wheat ground. Best of all would be the abolition of
the grist-tax; but in a country where the mass of the people
consume no articles of luxury which can be taxed by revenue
officers, and also from whom no direct impost could be exacted, the
continuation of the grist-tax seems to be an absolute necessity.
 SWEET LOVE AND I.
Sweet Love and I have strangers been
These many years,
So many years.
He came to me when Life was green
And free from fears,
These present fears.

He came, and for a little space

My life was gladdened by his grace;
But soon he fled, and joy gave place
To grief and tears.

'O Love, come to me once again!'

My lone heart sighs,
So sadly sighs.
'Recall thy fearless nature, then,
Sweet Love replies,
Softly replies.

'Thou canst not? Then I cannot be

The same that once I was to thee.
There's no room in the heart for me,
Where fears arise.'

A. C. S.

Printed and Published by W. & R. Chambers, 47 Paternoster Row,

London, and 339 High Street, Edinburgh.
All Rights Reserved.
 *** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHAMBERS'S
JOURNAL OF POPULAR LITERATURE, SCIENCE, AND ART, NO. 720,
OCTOBER 13, 1877 ***

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