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Process Control: Modeling,
Design, and Simulation

B. Wayne Bequette

Pearson
Contents
Preface
About the Author
Chapter 1: Introduction
Chapter 2: Fundamental Models
Chapter 3: Dynamic Behavior
Chapter 4: Dynamic Behavior: Complex Systems
Chapter 5: Empirical and Discrete-Time Models
Chapter 6: Introduction to Feedback Control
Chapter 7: Model-Based Control
Chapter 8: PID Controller Tuning
Chapter 9: Frequency-Response Analysis
Chapter 10: Cascade and Feedforward Control
Chapter 11: PID Enhancements
Chapter 12: Ratio, Selective, and Split-Range Control
Chapter 13: Control-Loop Interaction
Chapter 14: Multivariable Control
Chapter 15: Plantwide Control
Chapter 16: Model Predictive Control
Chapter 17: Summary

Module 1: Introduction to MATLAB

Module 2: Introduction to SIMULINK
Module 3: Ordinary Differential Equations
Module 4: MATLAB LTI Models
Module 5: Isothermal Chemical Reactor
Module 6: First-Order + Time-Delay Processes
Module 7: Biochemical Reactors
Module 8: CSTR
Module 9: Steam Drum Level
Module 10: Surge Vessel Level Control
Module 11: Batch Reactor
Module 12: Biomedical Systems
Module 13: Distillation Control
Module 14: Case Study Problems
Module 15: Plug Flow Reactor
Module 16: Digital Control
Table of Contents
Preface
About the Author
Chapter 1. Introduction
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Instrumentation
1.3 Process Models and Dynamic Behavior
1.4 Redundancy and Operability
1.5 Industrial IoT and Smart Manufacturing
1.6 Control Textbooks
1.7 A Look Ahead
1.8 Summary
References
Chapter 2. Fundamental Models
2.1 Background
2.2 Balance Equations
2.3 Material Balances
2.4 Constitutive Relationships
2.5 Material and Energy Balances
2.6 Form of Dynamic Models
2.7 Linear Models and Deviation Variables
2.8 Summary
Chapter 3. Dynamic Behavior
3.1 Background
3.2 Linear State-Space Models
3.3 Laplace Transforms
3.4 Transfer Functions
3.5 First-Order Behavior
3.6 Integrating Behavior Purely Integrating Systems
3.7 Second-Order Behavior
3.8 Summary
References

Chapter 4. Dynamic Behavior: Complex Systems

4.1 Introduction
4.2 Poles and Zeros
4.3 Lead-Lag Behavior
4.4 Processes with Deadtime
4.5 Padé Approximation for Deadtime
4.6 Converting State-Space Models to Transfer Functions
4.7 Converting Transfer Functions to State-Space Models
4.8 Matlab and Simulink
4.9 Summary

Chapter 5. Empirical and Discrete-Time Models

5.1 Introduction
5.2 First-Order + Deadtime
5.3 Integrator + Deadtime
5.4 Other Continuous Models
 5.5 Discrete-Time Autoregressive Models
5.6 Parameter Estimation
5.7 Discrete Step and Impulse Response Models
5.8 Converting Continuous Models to Discrete
5.9 Digital Filtering
5.10 Summary
References

Chapter 6. Introduction to Feedback Control

Chapter 7. Model-Based Control

7.1 Introduction
7.2 Direct Synthesis
7.3 Internal Model Control
7.4 IMC-Based PID
7.5 IMC-Based PID Design for Processes with a Time Delay
7.6 IMC-Based PID Controller Design for Unstable
Processes
7.7 Summary
References

Chapter 8. PID Controller Tuning

8.1 Introduction
8.2 Closed-Loop Oscillation-Based Tuning
8.3 Tuning Rules for First-Order + Deadtime Processes
8.4 Digital Control
8.5 Stability of Digital Control Systems
8.6 Performance of Digital Control Systems
 8.7 Summary
References

Chapter 9. Frequency-Response Analysis

9.1 Motivation
9.2 Bode and Nyquist Plots
9.3 Effect of Process Parameters on Bode and Nyquist
Plots
9.4 Closed-Loop Stability
9.5 Bode and Nyquist Stability
9.6 Robustness
9.7 Matlab Control Toolbox: Bode and Nyquist Functions
9.8 Summary
Chapter 10. Cascade and Feedforward Control
10.1 Background
10.2 Introduction to Cascade Control
10.3 Cascade-Control Analysis
10.4 Cascade-Control Design
10.5 Feedforward Control
10.6 Feedforward Controller Design
10.7 Summary of Feedforward Control
10.8 Combined Feedforward and Cascade
10.9 Summary
Chapter 11. PID Enhancements

Chapter 12. Ratio, Selective, and Split-Range Control

12.1 Motivation
 12.2 Ratio Control
12.3 Selective and Override Control
12.4 Split-Range Control
12.5 Simulink Functions
12.6 Summary

Chapter 13. Control-Loop Interaction

13.1 Introduction
13.2 Motivation
13.3 The General Pairing Problem
13.4 The Relative Gain Array
13.5 Properties and Application of the RGA Sum of Rows
and Columns
13.6 Return to the Motivating Example
13.7 RGA and Sensitivity
13.8 Using the RGA to Determine Variable Pairings
13.9 Matlab RGA Function File
13.10 Summary
References
Appendix 13.1: Derivation of the Relative Gain for an n-
Input–n-Output System
Chapter 14. Multivariable Control
Chapter 15. Plantwide Control

Chapter 16. Model Predictive Control

Chapter 17. Summary

Module 1. Introduction to MATLAB

Module 2. Introduction to SIMULINK
Module 3. Ordinary Differential Equations

Module 4. MATLAB LTI Models

Module 5. Isothermal Chemical Reactor

Module 6. First-Order + Time-Delay Processes

Module 7. Biochemical Reactors

Module 8. CSTR
Module 9. Steam Drum Level
Module 10. Surge Vessel Level Control

Module 11. Batch Reactor

Module 12. Biomedical Systems

Module 13. Distillation Control

Module 14. Case Study Problems

Module 15. Plug Flow Reactor

Module 16. Digital Control
Preface
This content is currently in development.
About the Author
This content is currently in development.
Chapter 1. Introduction
The goal of this chapter is to provide a motivation for and an
introduction to process control and instrumentation. After studying this
chapter, the reader, given a process, should be able to
• Determine possible control objectives, input variables (manipulated
and disturbance) and output variables (measured and
unmeasured), and constraints (hard or soft), as well as classify the
process as continuous, batch, or semicontinuous.
• Assess the importance of process control from safety,
environmental, and economic points of view.
• Sketch a process instrumentation and control diagram.
• Draw a simplified control block diagram.
• Understand the basic ideas of feedback and feedforward control.
• Understand basic sensors (measurement devices) and actuators
(manipulated inputs).
• Begin to develop intuition about characteristic timescales of
dynamic behavior.
• Describe simple control loops associated with physiological systems.
The major sections of this chapter are as follows:
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Instrumentation
1.3 Process Models and Dynamic Behavior
1.4 Redundancy and Operability
1.5 Industrial IoT and Smart Manufacturing
1.6 Control Textbooks and Journals
1.7 A Look Ahead
 1.8 Summary

1.1 Introduction
Process engineers are often responsible for the operation of chemical
processes. As these processes become larger in scale and/or more
complex, the role of process automation becomes increasingly
important. The primary objective of this textbook is to teach process
engineers how to design and tune controllers for the automated
operation of chemical processes.
A conceptual process block diagram for a chemical process is shown in
Figure 1–1. Notice that inputs are classified as either manipulated or
disturbance, and the outputs are classified as measured or unmeasured
in Figure 1–1a. To automate the operation of a process, it is important
to use measurements of process outputs or disturbance inputs to make
decisions about the proper values of manipulated inputs. This is the
purpose of the controller shown in Figure 1–1b; the measurement and
control signals are shown as dashed lines. These initial concepts
probably seem very vague or abstract at this point. Do not worry,
because we present a number of examples in this chapter to clarify
these ideas.
The development of a control strategy consists of formulating or
identifying the following:
1. Control objective(s)
2. Input variables
3. Output variables
4. Constraints
5. Operating characteristics
6. Safety, environmental, and economic considerations
7. Control structure
We discuss in more detail the steps in formulating a control problem:
1. The first step of developing a control strategy is to formulate the
control objective(s). A chemical-process operating unit often
consists of several unit operations. The control of an operating unit
is generally reduced to considering the control of each unit
operation separately. Even so, each unit operation may have
multiple, sometimes conflicting objectives, so the development of
control objectives is not a trivial problem.

Figure 1–1 Conceptual process input/output block diagram

2. Input variables can be classified as manipulated or disturbance

variables. A manipulated input is one that can be adjusted by the
control system (or process operator). A disturbance input is a
variable that affects the process outputs but that cannot be
adjusted by the control system. Inputs may change continuously or
at discrete intervals of time.
3. Output variables can be classified as measured or unmeasured
variables. Measurements may be made continuously or at discrete
intervals of time.
4. All processes have certain operating constraints, which are
classified as hard or soft. An example of a hard constraint is a
minimum or maximum flow rate—a valve operates between the
extremes of fully closed or fully open. An example of a soft
constraint is a product composition—it may be desirable to specify
a composition between certain values to sell a product, but it is
possible to violate this specification without posing a safety or
environmental hazard.
5. Operating characteristics are usually classified as continuous,
batch, or semi-continuous (semibatch). Continuous processes
operate for long periods of time under relatively constant operating
conditions before being shut down for cleaning, catalyst
regeneration, and so forth. For example, some processes in the oil-
refining industry operate for 18 months between shutdowns. Batch
processes are dynamic in nature—that is, they generally operate
for a short period of time, and the operating conditions may vary
quite a bit during that time. Example batch processes include beer
or wine fermentation, as well as many specialty chemical
processes. For a batch reactor, an initial charge is made to the
reactor, and conditions (temperature, pressure) are varied to
produce a desired product at the end of the batch time. A typical
semibatch process may have an initial charge to the reactor, but
feed components may be added to the reactor during the course of
the batch run.
Another important consideration is the dominant timescale of a
process. For continuous processes, this is very often related to the
residence time of the vessel. For example, a vessel with a liquid
volume of 100 liters and a flow rate of 10 liters/minute would have
a residence time of 10 minutes; that is, on the average, an element
of fluid is retained in the vessel for 10 minutes.
6. Safety, environmental, and economic considerations are all very
important. In a sense, economics is the ultimate driving force—an
 unsafe or environmentally hazardous process will ultimately cost
more to operate because of fines paid, insurance costs, and so
forth. In many industries (petroleum refining, for example), it is
important to minimize energy costs while producing products that
meet certain specifications. Better process automation and control
allows processes to operate closer to optimum conditions and to
produce products where variability specifications are satisfied.
The concept of failsafe is always important in the selection of
instrumentation. For example, a control valve needs an energy
source to move the valve stem and change the flow; most often,
this is a pneumatic signal (usually 3–15 psig). If the signal is lost,
then the valve stem will go to the 3-psig limit. If the valve is air-to-
open, then the loss of instrument air will cause the valve to close;
this is known as a fail-closed valve. If, on the other hand, a valve is
air-to-close, when instrument air is lost, the valve will go to its fully
open state; this is known as a fail-open valve. These concepts are
illustrated in Figure 1–2.
7. The two standard control types are feedforward and feedback. A
feedforward controller measures the disturbance variable and
sends this value to a controller, which adjusts the manipulated
variable. A feedback control system measures the output variable,
compares that value to the desired output value, and uses this
information to adjust the manipulated variable. For the first part of
this book, we emphasize feedback control of single-input
(manipulated) and single-output (measured) systems. Determining
the feedback control structure for these systems consists of
deciding which manipulated variable will be adjusted to control
which measured variable. The desired value of the measured
process output is called the setpoint.
 Figure 1–2 Fail-closed and fail-open valves. The fail-closed valve
(left) has instrument air entering below the actuator, whereas the
fail-open valve (right) has instrument air engineering above the
actuator. In each case, the loss of instrument air will cause the
valve to move in the direction forced by the spring attached to the
actuator. Source: GlobalSpec, s.v. How can we change the action of
a control valve? Response by tonykuphaldt, September 2011,
http://cr4.globalspec.com/thread/75751/How-Can-We-Change-the-
Action-of-a-Control-Valve.

A particularly important concept used in control system design is

process gain. The process gain is the sensitivity of a process output to a
change in the process input. If an increase in a process input leads to
an increase in the process output, it is known as a positive gain.
Conversely, if an increase in the process input leads to a decrease in the
process output, it is known as a negative gain. The magnitude of the
process gain is also important. For example, a change in power (input)
of 0.5 kW to a laboratory-scale heater may lead to a fluid temperature
(output) change of 10°C; this change is a process gain (change in
output/change in input) of 20°C/kW. The same input power change of
0.5 kW to a larger-scale heater may yield an output change of only
0.5°C, corresponding to a process gain of 1°C/kW.
Once the control structure is determined, it is important to decide on
the control algorithm. The control algorithm uses measured output
variable values (along with desired output values) to change the
manipulated input variable. A control algorithm has a number of control
parameters, which must be tuned (adjusted) to have acceptable
performance. Often, the tuning is done on a simulation model before
implementing the control strategy on the actual process. Also, many
advanced strategies use model-based control, that is, controllers with a
built-in model of the process.
This approach is best illustrated by way of example. Because many
important concepts, such as control instrumentation diagrams and
control block diagrams, are introduced in the next examples, it is
important that you study them thoroughly.

Example 1.1: Surge Tank

Surge tanks are often used as intermediate storage for fluid streams
being transferred between process units. Consider the process flow
diagram shown in Figure 1–3, where a fluid stream from process 1 is
fed to the surge tank; the effluent from the surge tank is sent to
process 2.
There are obvious constraints on the height in this tank. If the tank
overflows, it may create safety and environmental hazards, which may
also have economic significance. Let us analyze this system using a
step-by-step procedure.
1. Control objective: The control objective is to maintain the height
within certain bounds. If it is too high, it will overflow, and if it is
too low, problems with the flow to process 2 may occur. Usually, a
specific desired height will be selected. This desired height is
known as the setpoint.
2. Input variables: The input variables are the flow from process 1
and the flow to process 2. Notice that an outlet flow rate is
considered an input to this system. The question is, which input is
manipulated and which is a disturbance? That depends. We discuss
this problem further in a moment.
3. Output variables: The most important output variable is the liquid
level. We assume that it is measured.

Figure 1–3 Tank level problem

4. Constraints: A number of constraints exist in this problem. There is

a maximum liquid level; if it is exceeded, the tank will overflow.
There are minimum and maximum flow rates through the inlet and
outlet valves.
5. Operating characteristics: We assume that this is a continuous
process, that is, that there is a continuous flow in and out of the
tank. It would be a semicontinuous process if, for example, there
was an inlet flow with no outlet flow (if the tank was simply being
filled).
6. Safety, environmental, and economic considerations: These
aspects depend somewhat on the fluid characteristics. If it is a
hazardous chemical, then there is a tremendous incentive from
safety and environmental considerations to not allow the tank to
 overflow. Indeed, this is also an economic consideration, because
injuries to employees or environmental cleanup costs money. Even
if the substance is water, it has likely been treated by an upstream
process unit, so losing water owing to overflow will incur an
economic penalty.
Safety considerations play an important role in the specification of
control valves (fail-open or fail-closed). For this particular problem,
the control-valve specification will depend on which input is
manipulated. This is discussed in detail shortly.
7. Control structure: There are numerous possibilities for control of
this system. We discuss first the feedback strategies, then the
feedforward strategies.

Feedback Control
The measured variable for a feedback control strategy is the tank
height. Which input variable is manipulated depends on what is
happening in process 1 and process 2. Let us consider two different
scenarios. In scenario 1, process 2 regulates the flow rate F2, leaving F1
to be manipulated by a controller. In scenario 2, process 1 regulates the
flow rate F1, leaving F2 to be manipulated by a controller. Here we
further discuss scenario 2; scenario 1 is used as a student exercise
(exercise 5).
Scenario 2 Process 1 regulates flow rate F1. This could happen, for
example, if process 1 is producing a chemical compound that must be
processed by process 2. Perhaps process 1 is set to produce F1 at a
certain rate. F1 is then considered “wild” (a disturbance) by the tank
process. In this case, we would adjust F2 to maintain the tank height.
Notice that the control valve should be specified as fail-open or air-to-
close so that the tank will not overflow on loss of instrument air or
other valve failure.
The control and instrumentation diagram for a feedback control
strategy for this scenario is shown in Figure 1–4a. Notice that the level
transmitter (LT) sends the measured height of liquid in the tank (hm) to
the level controller (LC). The LC compares the measured level with the
desired level (hsp, the height setpoint) and sends a pressure signal (Pv)
to the valve. This valve op pressure moves the valve stem up and
down, changing the flow rate through the valve (F2). If the controller is
designed properly, the flow rate changes to bring the tank height close
to the desired setpoint. In this process and instrumentation diagram,
we use dashed lines to indicate signals between different pieces of
instrumentation.

Figure 1–4 Instrumentation and control block diagrams for the

tank level feedback control problem. The outlet flow rate (F2) is
manipulated, the inlet flow rate (F1) is a disturbance, and the tank
height (h) is measured and controlled.

A simplified block diagram representing this system is shown in Figure

1–4b. Each signal and device (or process) is shown on the block
diagram. We use a slightly different form for block diagrams when we
use transfer function notation for control system analysis in Chapter 5,
“Empirical and Discrete-Time Models.” Note that each block represents a
dynamic element. We expect that the valve and LT dynamics will be
much faster than the process dynamics. We also see clearly from the
block diagram why this is known as a feedback control “loop.” The
controller “decides” on the valve position, which affects the outlet flow
rate (the manipulated input), which affects the level; the inlet flow rate
(the disturbance input) also affects the level. The level is measured,
and that value is fed back to the controller (which compares the
measured level with the desired level [setpoint]).

Feedforward Control
The previous feedback control strategy was based on measuring the
output (tank height) and manipulating an input (the outlet flow rate).
In this case, the manipulated variable is changed after a disturbance
affects the output. The advantage of a feedforward control strategy is
that a disturbance variable is measured and a manipulated variable is
changed before the output is affected. Consider the preceding case
where the inlet flow rate can be changed by the upstream process unit
and is therefore considered a disturbance variable. If we can measure
the inlet flow rate, we can manipulate the outlet flow rate to maintain a
constant tank height. This feedforward control strategy is shown in
Figure 1–5a, where FM is the flow measurement device and FFC is the
feedforward controller. The corresponding control block diagram is
shown in Figure 1–5b. F1 is a disturbance input that directly affects the
tank height; the value of F1 is measured by the FM device, and the
information is used by an FFC to change the manipulated input, F2.
 Figure 1–5 Instrumentation and control block diagrams for the
tank level feedforward control problem. The inlet flow rate is
measured and outlet flow rate is manipulated.

The main disadvantage to this approach is sensitivity to uncertainty. If

the inlet flow rate is not perfectly measured or if the outlet flow rate
cannot be manipulated perfectly, then the tank height will not be
perfectly controlled. With any small disturbance or uncertainty, the tank
will eventually overflow or run dry. In practice, FFC is combined with
feedback control to account for uncertainty. A feedforward/feedback
strategy is shown in Figure 1–6a, and the corresponding block diagram
is shown in Figure 1–6b. Here, the feedforward portion allows
immediate corrective action to be taken before the disturbance (inlet
flow rate) actually affects the output measurement (tank height). The
feedback controller adjusts the outlet flow rate to maintain the desired
tank height, even with errors in the inlet flow-rate measurement.
 Figure 1–6 Feedforward/feedback control of tank level. The inlet
flow rate is the measured disturbance, tank height is the measured
output, and outlet flow rate is the manipulated input.

Discussion of Level Controller Tuning and the

Dominant Timescale
Notice that we have not discussed the actual control algorithms; the
details of control algorithms and tuning are delayed until Chapter 5.
Conceptually, would you prefer to tune level controllers for fast or slow
responses?
When tanks are used as surge vessels, it is usually desirable to tune the
controllers for a slow return to the setpoint. This is particularly true for
scenario 2, where the inlet flow rate is considered a disturbance
variable. The outlet flow rate is manipulated but affects another
process. To avoid upsetting the downstream process, we would like to
change the outlet flow rate slowly yet fast enough that the tank does
not overflow or go dry.
Related to the controller tuning issue is the importance of the dominant
timescale of the process. Consider the case where the maximum tank
volume is 200 gallons and the steady-state operating volume is 100
gallons. If the steady-state flow rate is 100 gallons/minute, the
residence time would be 1 minute. Assume the inlet flow rate is a
disturbance and outlet flow rate is manipulated. If the feed flow rate
increased to 150 gallons/minute and the outlet flow rate did not
change, the tank would overflow in 2 minutes. On the other hand, if the
same vessel had a steady-state flow rate of 10 gallons/minute and the
inlet flow suddenly increased to 15 gallons/minute (with no change in
the outlet flow), it would take 20 minutes for the tank to overflow.
Clearly, controller tuning and concern about controller failure are
different for these two cases.
The first example was fairly easy compared with most control-system
synthesis problems in industry. Even for this simple example, we found
that many issues must be considered and a number of decisions
(specification of a fail-open or fail-closed valve, etc.) must be made.
Often, there are many (and usually conflicting) objectives, many
possible manipulated variables, and numerous possible measured
variables.
It is helpful to think of common, everyday activities in the context of
control to familiarize yourself with the types of control problems that
can arise in practice. Examples include taking a shower (which is
analyzed in the supplemental material) and driving a car. It is suggested
that you work through such examples provided in problem 1 in the
Student Exercises section of this chapter.
Examples of control loops abound in nature, and particularly in
physiological systems. The human body regulates many variables
through homeostasis; examples include temperature, blood pressure,
and blood glucose—which is the topic of the next example.
Example 1.2: Glucose Regulation by the
Pancreas
The primary energy source for the human body is glucose, so it is
important that the human body be able to regulate the blood glucose
concentration. The basic mechanisms for blood glucose regulation are
shown in Figure 1–7. If the blood glucose is high, due to a recently
consumed meal, for example, then the beta cells of the pancreas are
activated to produce insulin. The insulin then stimulates the uptake of
glucose from the blood into the cells for maintenance and growth and
the conversion of glucose into glycogen in the liver, thus lowering the
blood glucose. If the blood glucose is low, the alpha cells of the
pancreas promote the conversion of glycogen back into glucose in the
liver, thus raising the blood glucose.
Here we analyze this glucose regulatory system in the context of a
control problem:
1. Control objective: The control objective is to maintain the desired
glucose level, or setpoint.
2. Input variables: One manipulated input variable is the production
of insulin by the beta cells; another manipulated input is the
production of glucagon by the alpha cells. A number of disturbance
inputs affect blood glucose, including meals (that tend to raise
glucose) and exercise; aerobic exercise decreases glucose, whereas
vigorous anaerobic exercise can briefly increase the glucose level.
3. Output variables: The key output variable is blood glucose
concentration.
4. Constraints: There are possibly a number of constraints in this
problem. The insulin and glucagon values cannot go below zero,
and there are maximum rates on their values (as well as their rates
of change); these are likely hard constraints that may be time-
dependent. Soft constraints include lower and upper bounds on the
blood glucose concentration, as discussed further in the safety
analysis.
Figure 1–7 Blood glucose regulation by the pancreas. Source:
Craig Freudenrich, “How Diabetes Works,”
http://science.howstuffworks.com/life/human-
biology/diabetes1.htm.

5. Operating characteristics: This is a continuous process, with

discrete events such as meals and exercise.
6. Safety, environmental, and economic considerations: Too low of a
blood glucose level (known as hypoglycemia) has short-term
effects, including possible dizziness, while high blood glucose for an
extended period of time has long-term health consequences,
including retinal diseases.
 7. Control structure: In play are numerous control actions because
many hormones have a role in blood glucose regulation. The
diagram primarily describes feedback control because insulin and
glucagon rates are changed once there is a glucose change; as a
side note, this two-input strategy is similar to split-range control,
which is covered in Chapter 12, “Ratio, Selective, and Split-Range
Control.” Not discussed in the diagram are feedforward strategies—
for example, the salivation that occurs when eating is anticipated
may actually prime the beta cells for insulin production before the
blood glucose actually changes.
The glucose regulatory system is disrupted if an individual has diabetes,
of which there are two primary forms: type 1 and type 2. Roughly 5%
to 10% of people with diabetes have type 1, which was formerly known
as juvenile diabetes. In type 1 diabetes, most of the beta cells of the
pancreas cease to produce insulin. Thus, an individual with type 1
diabetes must take insulin subcutaneously—either with multiple daily
injections of insulin or with a continuous insulin infusion pump. As
shown in examples in this textbook, an automated insulin delivery
system (closed-loop artificial pancreas) consists of a glucose sensor,
insulin infusion pump, and control algorithm (usually on a wearable
microprocessor, such as a smartphone) to automatically adjust insulin
delivery rates based on the glucose signal (see Figure 1–8). In an
individual with type 2 diabetes, the pancreas still produces insulin, but
either the amount is insufficient or the individual is insulin resistant
(does not respond effectively to insulin). Usual interventions include
oral medications and changes in diet and exercise, although an
increasing number of people with type 2 diabetes use insulin and check
their blood glucose.
This chapter covered the important first step of control system
development, identifying seven basic steps in analyzing a process
control problem. We used simple examples with which you are familiar.
As you learn about more chemical, biological, and environmental
processes, you should get in the habit of thinking about them from a
process systems point of view, just as you have with these simple
systems.
 Figure 1–8 An automated insulin delivery system. The glucose
sensor sends a signal to the smartphone, which calculates the next
insulin delivery rate and sends a signal to the insulin pump, leading
to changes in the blood glucose concentration. In addition, the
smart watch provides feedforward information about exercise to
the smart phone.
(Photo: Carlo Prearo/Shutterstock; smart phone monitor:
Andrey_Popov/Shutterstock; smart watch: WakoPako/Shutterstock; wifi icon:
iconmonstr/Shutterstock)

1.2 Instrumentation
The example level-control problem had three critical pieces of
instrumentation: a sensor (measurement device), actuator
(manipulated input device), and controller. The sensor measured the
tank level, the actuator changed the flow rate, and the controller
determined, on the basis of the sensor signal, how much to vary the
actuator.
There are many common sensors used for chemical processes. These
include temperature, level, pressure, flow, composition, and pH. The
most common manipulated input is the valve actuator signal (usually
pneumatic).
Each device in a control loop must supply or receive a signal from
another device. When these signals are continuous, such as electrical
current or voltage, we use the term analog. If the signals are
communicated at discrete intervals of time, we use the term digital.

Analog
Analog or continuous signals provide the foundation for control theory
and design and analysis. A common measurement device might supply
either a 4- to 20-mA or 0- to 5-V signal as a function of time. Pneumatic
analog controllers (developed primarily in the 1930s, but used in some
plants today) use instrument air, as well as a bellows-and-springs
arrangement, to “calculate” a controller output based on an input from
a measurement device (typically supplied as a 3- to 15-psig pneumatic
signal). The controller output of 3 to 15 psig is sent to an actuator,
typically a control valve where the pneumatic signal moves the valve
stem. For large valves, the 3- to 15-psig signal might be amplified to
supply enough pressure to move the valve stem.
Electronic analog controllers typically receive a 4- to 20-mA or 0- to 5-V
signal from a measurement device and use an electronic circuit to
determine the controller output, which is usually a 4- to 20-mA or 0- to
5-V signal. Again, the controller output is often sent to a control valve
that may require a 3- to 15-psig signal for valve stem actuation. In this
case, the 4- to 20-mA current signal is converted to the 3- to 15-psig
signal using an I/P (current-to-pneumatic) converter.
Digital
Most devices and controllers are now based on digital communication
technology. A sensor may send a digital signal to a controller, which
then does a discrete computation and sends a digital output to the
actuator. Very often, the actuator is a valve, so there is usually a D/I
(digital-to-electronic analog) converter involved. If the valve stem is
moved by a pneumatic rather than electronic actuator, then an I/P
converter may also be used.
Digital control-system design techniques explicitly account for the
discrete (rather than continuous) nature of the control computations. If
small sample times are used, the tuning and performance of the digital
controllers is nearly equal to that of analog controllers, as shown in
Chapter 7, “Model-Based Control.”

Wireless
The cost to run wiring between sensors, controllers, and actuators can
be substantial. For noncritical applications, particularly for monitoring
and infrequent actions, it can be desirable to use wireless systems. This
has been done in household systems for years, with remote operation
of garage doors and, more recently, lighting systems. A biomedical
application that is studied several times in this text is automated insulin
delivery for people with type 1 diabetes. Bluetooth is used to send
signals from a glucose sensor to smart-phone or other control device
and to an insulin pump. Similar methods are likely to be used on select
chemical processes in the future.

Techniques Used in This Textbook

Most of the techniques used in this book are based on analog
(continuous) control. Although many of the control computations
performed on industrial processes are digital, the discrete sample time
is usually small enough that virtually identical performance to analog
control is obtained. Our understanding of chemical processes is based
on ordinary differential equations, so it makes sense to continue to
think of control in a continuous fashion. We find that controller tuning is
much more intuitive in a continuous, rather than discrete, framework.
In Chapter 17, “Summary,” we spend some time discussing techniques
that are specific to digital control systems, namely model predictive
control (MPC).

1.3 Process Models and Dynamic

Behavior
Thus far we have mentioned the term model a number of times, and
you probably have a vague notion of what we mean. The following
definition of a model is from the McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and
Technical Terms:
A mathematical or physical system, obeying
certain specified conditions, whose behavior is
used to understand a physical, biological, or
social system to which it is analogous in some
way.
In this textbook, model is taken to mean mathematical model. More
specifically, we develop process models. A working definition of process
model is
A set of equations (including the necessary input
data to solve the equations) that allows us to
predict the behavior of a chemical process.
Models play a very important role in control-system design. Models can
be used to simulate expected process behavior with a proposed control
system. Also, models are often embedded in the controller itself; in
effect, the controller can use a process model to anticipate the effect of
a control action. We can see from Example 1.1 that we at least need to
know whether an increase in the flow rate will increase or decrease the
tank level. For example, an increase in the inlet flow rate increases the
tank level (positive gain), whereas an increase in the outlet flow rate
decreases the tank level (negative gain). In order to design a controller,
then, we need to know whether an increase in the manipulated input
increases or decreases the process output variable; that is, we need to
know whether the process gain is positive or negative.
An example of a process model is shown next. A number of other
examples are developed in Chapter 2, “Fundamental Models.”

Example 1.3: Liquid Surge Vessel Model

In the development of a dynamic model, simplifying assumptions are
often made. Also, the model requirements are a function of the end-use
of the model. In this case, we are ultimately interested in designing a
controller and in simulating control-system behavior. Because we have
not covered control algorithms in depth, our objective here is to
develop a model that relates the inputs (manipulated and disturbance)
to measured outputs that we wish to regulate.
For this process, we first assume that the density is constant. The
model we develop should allow us to determine how the volume of
liquid in the vessel varies as a function of the inlet and outlet flow rates.
We list the state variables, parameters, and the input and output
variables. We must also specify the required information to solve this
problem (see Figure 1–2). The system is the liquid in the tank, and the
liquid surface is the top boundary of the system. The following notation
is used in the modeling equations:
F1 = inlet volumetric flow rate (volume/time)
F2 = outlet volumetric flow rate
V = volume of liquid in vessel
h = height of liquid in vessel
ρ = liquid density (mass/volume)
A = cross-sectional area of vessel
Here we write the balance equations based on an instantaneous rate of
change,
where the total mass of fluid in the vessel is Vρ, the rate of change is
dVρ/dt, and the density of the outlet stream is equal to the density of
the vessel contents:

Notice the implicit assumption that the density of fluid in the vessel
does not depend on position (the perfect mixing assumption). This
assumption allows an ordinary differential equation (ODE) formulation.
We refer to any system that can be modeled by ODEs as lumped
parameter systems. Also notice that the outlet stream density was
assumed to be equal to the density of fluid in the tank. Assuming that
the density of the inlet stream and fluid in the vessel are equal, this
equation is then reduced to1
1
It might be tempting to begin to directly write a “volume balance”
expression, which looks similar to Equation (1.3). We wish to make it
clear that there is no such thing as a volume balance, and Equation
(1.3) is only correct because of the constant density assumption. It is a
good idea to always write a mass balance expression, such as Equation
(1.2), before making assumptions about the fluid density, which may
lead to Equation (1.3).

In Equation (1.3), we refer to V as a state variable and to F1 and F2 as

input variables (even though F2 is an outlet stream flow rate). If density
remained in the equation, we would refer to it as a parameter.
To solve this problem, we must specify the inputs F1(t) and F2(t) and
the initial condition V(0). Direct integration of Equation (1.3) yields

If, for example, the initial volume is 500 liters, the inlet flow rate is 5
liters/second and the outlet flow rate is 4.5 liters/second, we find
 V(t) = 500 + 0.5 · t
Example 1.3 provides an introduction to the notion of states, inputs,
and parameters. Consider now the notion of an output. We may
consider fluid volume to be a desired output that we wish to control, for
example. In that case, volume would not only be a state, it would also
be considered an output. On the other hand, we may be concerned
about fluid height rather than volume. Volume and height are related
through the constant cross- sectional area, A:

Then we have the following modeling equations:

where V is a state, F1 and F2 are inputs, h is an output, and A is a

parameter. We could also rewrite the state variable equation to find

or

where fluid height is now the state variable. It should also be noted
that inputs can be classified as either manipulated inputs (that we may
regulate with a control valve, for example) or disturbance inputs. If we
wanted to measure fluid height and manipulate the flow rate of stream
1, for example, then F1 would be a manipulated input, while F2 would
be a disturbance input.
We have found that a single process can have different modeling
equations and variables, depending on assumptions and the objectives
used when developing the model.
The liquid level process is an example of an integrating process. If the
process is initially at steady state, the inlet and outlet flow rates are
equal (see Equation 1.3 or 1.7). If the inlet flow rate is suddenly
increased while the outlet flow rate remains constant, the liquid level
(volume) will increase until the vessel overflows. Similarly, if the outlet
flow rate is increased while the inlet flow rate remains constant, the
tank level will decrease until the vessel is empty.
In this book, we first develop process models based on fundamental or
first- principles analysis, that is, models that are based on known
physical-chemical relationships, such as material and energy balances,
as well as reaction kinetics, transport phenomena, and thermodynamic
relationships. We then develop empirical models. An empirical model is
usually developed on the basis of applying input changes to a process
and observing the response of measured outputs. Model parameters
are adjusted so that the model outputs match the observed process
outputs. This technique is particularly useful for developing models that
can be used for controller design.

1.4 Redundancy and Operability

While the focus of this book is on modeling and control system design,
it should be understood that processes need to be designed to ensure
safe operation even when components fail. For processes that operate
continuously for long periods of time, it is important to have redundant
pumps placed in parallel. Then, if one pump fails, the other can be
immediately switched on. On the other hand, due to high capital costs,
it is less common to have redundant compressors except in the case of
instrument air systems. Usually, when a process compressor fails, the
process must be shut down while the compressor is being repaired or
replaced.
In Example 1.1 and in most of the examples given in this textbook, we
use a simplified representation for the main components in a control
loop. A classic piping and instrumentation diagram (P&ID) would also
include pipe sizes and additional equipment for redundancy and safety.
Figure 1–9 is a characteristic process and instrumentation diagram
(P&ID without piping specifications) that shows redundant pumps,
check valves to assure flow through pumps occurs in one direction, a
pressure relief valve, and a bypass line around the control valve. When
the control valve fails, the adjacent block valves can be closed; the
control valve can then be removed and replaced. During the interim,
the bypass valve can be adjusted manually to maintain the desired flow
rate. Generally, these control valve “stations” are placed at ground level
for easy access, even if the pipeline is in a pipe rack far above the
ground. Pictures of redundant pumps and control valve with bypass are
shown in Figure 1–10.

1.5 Industrial IoT and Smart

Manufacturing
The terms Industry 4.0 and smart manufacturing are frequently used to
describe efforts in the manufacturing industries to make better use of
data and mathematical models to make manufacturing operations more
efficient. As the Internet has had a tremendous impact on our ability to
access data and communicate for personal applications, industry is
benefiting from a similar industrial internet of things (IIoT).
Manufacturers can now keep better track of the status of raw materials
being delivered to their facilities as well as products being shipped to
warehouses or directly to consumers. Industry 4.0 and smart
manufacturing techniques seek to make it easier to use data to improve
manufacturing performance. For example, a chemical process engineer
might wish to download data from a plant historian (database of plant
data), use the data to develop a model, and perform an optimization to
determine better operating conditions. In the past, this process required
a significant effort because each part of the system used different data
formats, and the software packages did not “talk” to each other. A goal
of smart manufacturing is to have a transparent framework to better
integrate each of these components.
 Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
 All this while Pincher's foot was growing no better. Aunt Louise
said you could almost see the poor dog 'dwindle, peak, and pine.'
"But it's only his hurt," said Grace; "'tisn't a sickness."
"I reckon," returned Horace sadly, "it isn't a wellness, neither."
"Why not send for Mrs. Duffy?" suggested Aunt Madge. "If
anyone can help the poor creature, it is she."
Mrs. Duffy was the village washerwoman, and a capital nurse. It
was an anxious moment for little Horace when she unwrapped the
crushed paw, Pincher moaning all the while in a way that went to
the heart.
"Wull," said Mrs. Duffy, who spoke with a brogue, "it's a bad-
looking fut; but I've some intment here that'll do no harrum, and it
may hulp the poor craycher."
She put the salve on some clean linen cloths, and bound up the
wound, bidding them all be very careful that the dog "didn't stir his
fut."
"O, but he don't want to stir!" said Horace. "He just lies down
by the stove all day."
Mrs. Duffy shook her head, and said, "He was a pooty craycher;
'twas more the pities that he ever went off in the wuds."
Horace hung his head. O, if he could have blotted out that day
of disobedience!
"Wasn't it a real rebel, heathen man," cried Prudy, "to put the
trap where Pincher sticked his foot in it?"
Pincher grew worse and worse. He refused his food, and lay in a
basket with a cushion in it, by the kitchen stove, where he might
have been a little in the way, though not even Aunt Louise ever said
so.
 If Grace, or Susie, or Prudy went up to him, he made no sign. It
was only when he saw his little master that he would wag his tail for
joy; but even that effort seemed to tire him, and he liked better to
lick Horace's hand, and look up at his face with eyes brimful of love
and agony.
Horace would sit by the half hour coaxing him to eat a bit of
broiled steak or the wing of a chicken; but though the poor dog
would gladly have pleased his young master, he could hardly force
himself to swallow a mouthful.
These were sad days. Grace put down now and then a "B.W." in
the blue book; but as for disobedience, Horace had just now no
temptation to that. He could hardly think of anything but his dog.
Pincher was about his age. He could not remember the time
when he first knew him. "O, what jolly times they had had together!
How often Pincher had trotted along to school, carrying the satchel
with the schoolbooks in his teeth. Why, the boys all loved him, just
loved him so."
"No, sir," said Horace, talking to himself, and laying the dog's
head gently on his knee: "there wasn't one of them but just wished
they had him. But, poh! I wouldn't have sold him for all the cannons
and firecrackers in the United States. No, not for a real drum, either;
would I, Pincher?"
Horace really believed the dog understood him, and many were
the secrets he had poured into his faithful ears. Pincher would listen,
and wink, and wag his tail, but was sure to keep everything to
himself.
"I tell you what it is, Pincher," Horace burst forth, "I'm not going
to have you die! My own pa gave you to me, and you're the best
dog that ever lived in this world. O, I didn't mean to catch your foot
in that trap! Eat the chicken, there's a good fellow, and we'll cure
you all up."
But Pincher couldn't eat the chicken, and couldn't be cured. His
eyes grew larger and sadder, but there was the same patient look in
them always. He fixed them on Horace to the last, with a dying gaze
which made the boy's heart swell with bitter sorrow.
"He wanted to speak, he wanted to ask me a question," said
Horace, with sobs he did not try to control.
O, it was sad to close those beautiful eyes forever, those
beseeching eyes, which could almost speak.
Mrs. Clifford came and knelt on the stone hearth beside the
basket, and wept freely for the first time since her husband's death.
"Dear little Pincher," said she, "you have died a cruel death; but
your dear little master closed your eyes. It was very hard, poor
doggie, but not so hard as the battlefield. You shall have a quiet
grave, good Pincher; but where have they buried our brave soldier?"
 CHAPTER X
TRYING TO GET RICH

With his own hands, and the help of Grasshopper, who did little but
hold the nails and look on, Horace made a box for Pincher, while
Abner dug his grave under a tree in the grove.
It was evening when they all followed Pincher to his last resting-
place.
"He was a sugar-plum of a dog," said Prudy, "and I can't help
crying."
"I don't want to help it," said Grace: "we ought to cry."
"What makes me feel the worst," said sober little Susie, "he
won't go to heaven."
"Not forever'n ever amen?" gasped Prudy, in a low voice.
"Wouldn't he if he had a nice casket, and a plate on it neither?"
The sky and earth were very lovely that evening, and it seemed
as if everybody ought to be heart-glad. I doubt if Horace had ever
thought before what a beautiful world he lived in, and how glorious
a thing it is to be alive! He could run about and do what he pleased
with himself; but alas, poor Pincher!
The sun was setting, and the river looked uncommonly full of
little sparkles. The soft sky and the twinkling water seemed to be
smiling at each other, while a great way off you could see the dim
blue mountains rising up like clouds. Such a lovely world! Ah! poor
Pincher.
 It looked very much as if Horace were really turning over a new
leaf. He was still quite trying sometimes, leaving the milk-room door
open when puss was watching for the cream-pot, or slamming the
kitchen door with a bang when everybody needed fresh air. He still
kept his chamber in a state of confusion,—"muss," Grace called it,—
pulling the drawers out of the bureau, and scattering the contents
over the floor; dropping his clothes anywhere it happened, and
carrying quantities of gravel upstairs in his shoes.
Aunt Louise still scolded about him; but even she could not help
seeing that on the whole he was improving. He "cared" more and
"forgot" less. He could always learn easily, and now he really tried to
learn. His lessons, instead of going through his head "threading my
grandmother's needle," went in and stayed there. The blue book got
a few marks, it is true, but not so many as at first.
You may be sure there was not a good thing said or done by
Horace which did not give pleasure to his mother. She felt now as if
she lived only for her children; if God would bless her by making
them good, she had nothing more to desire. Grace had always been
a womanly, thoughtful little girl, but at this time she was a greater
comfort than ever; and Horace had grown so tender and affectionate
that it gratified her very much. He was not content now with "canary
kisses;" but threw his arms around her neck very often, saying, with
his lips close to her cheek,—:
"Don't feel bad, ma; I'm going to take care of you."
For his mother's grief called forth his manliness.
She meant to be cheerful; but Horace knew she did not look or
seem like herself: he thought he ought to try to make her happy.
 Whenever he asked for money, as he too often did, she told him
that now his father was gone, there was no one to earn anything,
and it was best to be rather prudent. He wanted a drum; but she
thought he must wait a while for that.
They were far from being poor, and Mrs. Clifford had no idea of
deceiving her little son. Yet he was deceived, for he supposed that
his mother's pretty little porte-monnaie held all the bank-bills and all
the silver she had in the world.
"O, Grace!" said Horace, coming downstairs with a very grave
face, "I wish I was grown a man: then I'd earn money like sixty."
Grace stopped her singing long enough to ask what he meant to
do, and then continued in a high key,—
"Where, O where are the Hebrew children?"
"O, I'm going as a soldier," replied Horace: "I thought everybody
knew that! The colonels make a heap of money!"
"But, Horace, you might get shot—just think!"
"Then I'd dodge when they fired, for I don't know what you and
ma would do if I was killed."
"Well, please step out of the way, Horace; don't you see I'm
sweeping the piazza?"
"I can't tell," pursued he, taking a seat on one of the stairs in
the hall: "I can't tell certain sure; but I may be a minister."
This was such a funny idea that Grace made a dash with her
broom, and sent the dirt flying the wrong way.
"Why, Horace, you'll never be good enough for a minister!"
"What'll you bet?" replied he, looking a little mortified.
"You're getting to be a dear, good little boy, Horace," said Grace,
soothingly; "but I don't think you'll ever be a minister."
 "Perhaps I'd as soon be a shoemaker," continued Horace,
thoughtfully; "they get a great deal for tappin' boots."
His sister made no reply.
"See here, now, Grace: perhaps you'd rather I'd be a tin-
peddler; then I'd always keep a horse, and you could ride."
"Ride in a cart!" cried Grace, laughing. "Can't you think of
anything else? Have you forgotten papa?"
"O, now I know," exclaimed Horace, with shining eyes: "it's a
lawyer I'll be, just like father was. I'll have a 'sleepy partner,' the way
Judge Ingle has, and by and by I'll be a judge."
"I know that would please ma, Horace," replied Grace, looking
at her little brother with a good deal of pride.
Who knew but he might yet be a judge? She liked to order him
about, and have him yield to her: still she had great faith in Horace.
"But, Grace, after all that I'll go to war and turn out a general;
now you see if I don't."
"That'll be a great while yet," said Grace, sighing.
"So it will," replied Horace, sadly; "and ma needs the money
now. I wish I could earn something right off while I'm a little boy."
It was not two days before he thought he had found out how to
get rich; in what way you shall see.

CHAPTER XI
THE LITTLE INDIAN
Prudy came into the house one day in a great fright, and said they'd
"better hide the baby, for there was a very wicked woman round."
"Her hair looks like a horse's tail," said she, "and she's got a
black man's hat on her head, and a table-cloth over her."
Aunt Madge took Prudy in her lap, and told her it was only an
Indian woman, who had no idea of harming anyone.
"What are Nindians?" asked the child.
Her aunt said they were sometimes called "red men." The
country had once been filled by them; but the English came, a great
many years ago, and shook off the red men just as a high wind
shakes the red leaves off a tree; and they were scattered about, and
only a few were left alive. Sometimes the Oldtown Indians came
round making baskets; but they were quiet and peaceable people.
Horace and his friend "Grasshopper," as they were strolling up
the river, came upon a tent made of canvas, and at the door of the
tent sat a little boy about their own age, with a bow and arrow in his
hand, in the act of firing.
Grasshopper, who was always a coward, ran with all his might;
but as Horace happened to notice that the arrow was pointed at
something across the river, he was not alarmed, but stopped to look
at the odd little stranger, who turned partly round and returned his
gaze. His eyes were keen and black, with a good-natured
expression, something like the eyes of an intelligent dog.
"What's your name, boy?" said Horace.
"Me no understand."
"I asked what your name is," continued Horace, who was sure
the boy understood, in spite of his blank looks.
"Me no hurt white folks; me bunkum Indian."
 "Well, what's your name, then? What do they call you?"
No answer, but a shake of the head.
"I reckon they call you John, don't they?"
Here the boy's mother appeared at the door.
"His name no John! Eshy-ishy-oshy-neeshy-George-Wampum-
Shoony-Katoo! short name, speak um quick!—Jaw-awn. Great long
name!" drawled she, stretching it out as if it were made of India
rubber, and scowling with an air of disgust.
"What does she mean by calling 'John' long?" thought Horace.
The woman wore a calico dress, short enough to reveal her
brown, stockingless feet and gay moccasins.
Her hair was crow-black, and strayed over her shoulders and
into her eyes. Horace concluded she must have lost her back-comb.
While he was looking at her with curious eyes, her daughter
came to the door, feeling a little cross at the stranger, whoever it
might be; but when she saw only an innocent little boy, she smiled
pleasantly, showing a row of white teeth. Horace thought her rather
handsome, for she was very straight and slender, and her eyes
shone like glass beads. Her hair he considered a great deal blacker
than black, and it was braided and tied with gay ribbons. She was
dressed in a bright, large-figured calico, and from her ears were
suspended the longest, yellowest, queerest ear-rings. Horace
thought they were shaped like boat-paddles, and would be pretty for
Prudy to use when she rowed her little red boat in the bathing-tub.
If they only "scooped" a little more they would answer for
teaspoons. "Plenty big as I should want for teaspoons," he decided,
after another gaze at them.
 The young girl was used to being admired by her own people,
and was not at all displeased with Horace for staring at her.
"Me think you nice white child," said she: "you get me sticks,
me make you basket, pretty basket for put apples in."
"What kind of sticks do you mean?" said Horace, forgetting that
they pretended not to understand English. But it appeared that they
knew very well what he meant this time, and the Indian boy offered
to go with him to point out the place where the wood was to be
found. Grasshopper, who had only hidden behind the trees, now
came out and joined the boys.
"Wampum," as he chose to be called, led them back to Mr.
Parlin's grounds, to the lower end of the garden, where stood some
tall silver poplars, on which the Indians had looked with longing
eyes.
"Me shin them trees," said Wampum; "me make you basket."
"Would you let him, Grasshopper?"
"Yes, indeed; your grandfather won't care."
"Perhaps he might; you don't know," said Horace, who, after he
had asked advice, was far from feeling obliged to take it. He ran in
great haste to the field where his grandfather was hoeing potatoes,
thinking, "If I ask, then I shan't get marked in the blue book
anyhow."
In this case Horace acted very properly. He had no right to cut
the trees, or allow anyone else to cut them, without leave. To his
great delight, his grandfather said he did not care if they clipped off
a few branches where they would not show much.
When Horace got back and reported the words of his
grandfather, Wampum did not even smile, but shot a glance at him
as keen as an arrow.
"Me no hurt trees," said he gravely; and he did not: he only cut
off a few limbs from each one, leaving the trees as handsome as
ever.
"Bully for you!" cried Horace, forgetting the blue book.
"He's as spry as a squirrel," said Grasshopper, in admiration;
"how many boughs has he got? One, two, three."
"Me say 'em quickest," cried little Wampum. "Een, teen, teddery,
peddery, bimp, satter, latter, doe, dommy, dick."
"That's ten," put in Horace, who was keeping 'count.
"Een-dick," continued the little Indian, "teen-dick, teddery-dick,
peddery-dick, bumpin, een-bumpin, teen-bumpin, teddery-bumpin,
peddery-bumpin, jiggets."
"Hollo!" cried Grasshopper; "that's twenty; jiggets is twenty;"
and he rolled over on the ground, laughing as if he had made a
great discovery.
Little by little they made Wampum tell how he lived at home,
what sort of boys he played with, and what they had to eat. The
young Indian assured them that at Oldtown "he lived in a house
good as white folks; he ate moose-meat, ate sheep-meat, ate cow-
meat."
"Cook out doors, I s'pose," said Grasshopper.
Wampum looked very severe. "When me lives in wigwam, me
has fires in wigwam: when me lives in tent, me puts fires on grass;
—keep off them things," he added, pointing at a mosquito in the air;
"keep smoke out tent," pointing upward to show the motion of the
smoke.
 Horace felt so much pleased with his new companion that he
resolved to treat him to a watermelon. So, without saying a word to
the hoys, he ran into the house to ask his grandmother.
"What! a whole watermelon, Horace?"
"Yes, grandma, we three; me, and Grasshopper, and Wampum."
Mrs. Parlin could not help smiling to see how suddenly Horace
had adopted a new friend.
"You may have a melon, but I think your mother would not like
to have you play much with a strange boy."
"He's going to make me a splendid basket; and besides, aren't
Indians and negroes as good as white folks? 'Specially tame
Indians," said Horace, not very respectfully, as he ran back,
shoeknife in hand, to cut the watermelon.
This was the beginning of a hasty friendship between himself
and Wampum. For a few days there was nothing so charming to
Horace as the wild life of this Indian family. He was made welcome
at their tent, and often went in to see them make baskets.
"I trust you," said Mrs. Clifford; "you will not deceive me,
Horace. If you ever find that little Wampum says bad words, tells
falsehoods, or steals, I shall not be willing for you to play with him.
You are very young, and might be greatly injured by a bad
playmate."
The tent was rude enough. In one corner were skins laid one
over another: these were the beds which were spread out at night
for the family. Instead of closets and presses, all the wearing apparel
was hung on a long rope, which was stretched from stake to stake,
in various directions, like a clothesline.
 It was curious to watch the brown fingers moving so easily over
the white strips, out of which they wove baskets. It was such pretty
work! It brought so much money. Horace thought it was just the
business for him, and Wampum promised to teach him. In return for
this favor, Horace was to instruct the little Indian in spelling.
For one or two evenings he appointed meetings in the summer-
house, and really went without his own slice of cake, that he might
give it to poor Wampum after a lesson in "baker."
He received the basket in due time, a beautiful one—red, white,
and blue. Just as he was carrying it home on his arm, he met Billy
Green, the hostler, who stopped him, and asked if he remembered
going into "the Pines" one day with Peter Grant? Horace had no
reason to forget it, surely.
"Seems to me you ran away with my horse-basket," said Billy;
"but I never knew till yesterday what had 'come of it."
"There, now," replied Horace, quite crestfallen; "Peter Grant
took that! I forgot all about it."
What should be done? It would never do to ask his mother for
the money, since, as he believed, she had none to spare. Billy was
fond of joking with little boys.
"Look here, my fine fellow," said he, "give us that painted
concern you've got on your arm, and we'll call it square."
"No, no, Billy," cried Horace, drawing away; "this is a present,
and I couldn't. But I'm learning to weave baskets, and I'll make you
one—see if I don't!"
Billy laughed, and went away whistling. He had no idea that
Horace would ever think of the matter again; but in truth the first
article the boy tried to make was a horse-basket.
 "Me tell you somethin'," said little Wampum, next morning, as
he and Horace were crossing the field together. "Very much me want
um,—um,—um,"—putting his fingers up to his mouth in a manner
which signified that he meant something to eat.
"Don't understand," said Horace: "say it in English."
"Very much me want um," continued Wampum, in a beseeching
tone. "No tell what you call um. E'enamost water, no quite water;
e'enamost punkin, no quite punkin."
"Poh! you mean watermelon," laughed Horace: "should think
you'd remember that as easy as pumpkin."
"Very much me want um," repeated Wampum, delighted at
being understood, "me like um."
"Well," replied Horace, "they aren't mine."
"O, yes. Ugh! you've got 'em. Melon-water good! Me have
melon-waters, me give you moc-suns."
"I'll ask my grandpa, Wampum."
Hereupon the crafty little Indian shook his head.
"You ask ole man, me no give you moc-suns! Me no want een—
me want bimp—bumpin—jiggets."
Horace's stout little heart wavered for a moment. He fancied
moccasins very much. In his mind's eye he saw a pair shining with
all the colors of the rainbow, and as Wampum had said of the
melons, "very much he wanted them." How handsome they'd be
with his Zouave suit!
But the wavering did not last long. He remembered the blue
book which his mother was to see next week; for then the month
would be out.
 "It wouldn't be a 'D.,'" thought he, "for nobody told me not to
give the watermelons."
"No," said Conscience; "'twould be a black S.; that stands for
stealing! What, a boy with a dead father, a dead soldier-father, steal!
A boy called Horace Clifford! The boy whose father had said,
'Remember God sees all you do'!"
"Wampum," said Horace, firmly, "you just stop that kind of talk!
Moccasins are right pretty; but I wouldn't steal, no, not if you gave
me a bushel of 'em."
After this Horace was disgusted with his little friend, not
remembering that there are a great many excuses to be made for a
half civilized child. They had a serious quarrel, and Wampum's
temper proved to be very bad. If the little savage had not struck
him, I hope Horace would have dropped his society all the same;
because after Wampum proved to be a thief, it would have been
sheer disobedience on Horace's part to play with him any longer.
Of course the plan of basket-making was given up; but our little
Horace did one thing which was noble in a boy of his age: perhaps
he remembered what his father had said long ago in regard to the
injured watch; but, at any rate, he went to Billy Green of his own
accord, and offered him the beautiful present which he had received
from the Indians.
"It's not a horse-basket, Billy: I didn't get to make one,"
stammered he, in a choked voice; "but you said you'd call it square."
"Whew!" cried Billy, very much astonished: "now look here, bub;
that's a little too bad! The old thing you lugged off was about worn
out, anyhow. Don't want any of your fancy baskets: so just carry it
back, my fine little shaver."
 To say that Horace was very happy would not half express the
delight he felt as he ran home with the beautiful basket on his arm,
his "ownest own," beyond the right of dispute.
The Indians disappeared quite suddenly; and perhaps it was
nothing surprising that, the very next morning after they left,
Grandpa Parlin should find his beautiful melon-patch stripped nearly
bare, with nothing left on the vines but a few miserable green little
melons.

CHAPTER XII
A PLEASANT SURPRISE

"It's too bad," said Horace to his sister, "that I didn't get to make
baskets; I'd have grown rich so soon. What would you try to do
next?"
"Pick berries," suggested Grace.
And that very afternoon they both went blackberrying with
Susie and Aunt Madge. They had a delightful time. Horace could not
help missing Pincher very much: still, in spite of the regret, it was a
happier day than the one he and Peter Grant had spent "in the
Pines." He was beginning to find, as all children do, how hard it is to
get up "a good time" when you are pricked by a guilty conscience,
and how easy it is to be happy when you are doing right.
They did not leave the woods till the sun began to sink, and
reached home quite tired, but as merry as larks, with baskets nearly
full of berries.
 When Horace timidly told Aunt Madge that he and Grace wanted
to sell all they had gathered, his aunt laughed, and said she would
buy the fruit if they wished, but wondered what they wanted to do
with the money: she supposed it was for the soldiers.
"I want to give it to ma," replied Horace, in a low voice; for he
did not wish his Aunt Louise to overhear. "She hasn't more than
three bills in her pocket-book, and it's time for me to begin to take
care of her."
"Ah," said Aunt Madge, with one of her bright smiles, "there is a
secret drawer in her writing-desk, dear, that has ever so much
money in it. She isn't poor, my child, and she didn't mean to make
you think so, for your mother wouldn't deceive you."
"Not poor?" cried Horace, his face brightening suddenly; and he
turned half a somersault, stopping in the midst of it to ask how
much a drum would cost.
The month being now out, it was time to show the blue book to
Mrs. Clifford. Horace looked it over with some anxiety. On each page
were the letters "D.," "B.W.," "B.G.P.," and "F.," on separate lines,
one above another. But there were no figures before the letters but
the "B.W.'s;" and even those figures had been growing rather
smaller, as you could see by looking carefully.
"Now, Grace," said her little brother, "you'll tell ma that the bad
words aren't swearin' words! I never did say such, though some of
the fellows do, and those that go to Sabbath School too."
"Yes, I'll tell her," said Grace; "but she knows well enough that
you never talk anything worse than lingo."
"I haven't disobeyed, nor blown powder, nor told lies."
 "No, indeed," said Grace, delighted. "To be sure, you've
forgotten, and slammed doors, and lots of things; but you know I
didn't set that down."
I wish all little girls felt as much interest in their younger
brothers as this sister felt in Horace. Grace had her faults, of which I
might have told you if I had been writing the book about her; but
she loved Horace dearly, kept his little secrets whenever she
promised to do so, and was always glad to have him do right.
Mrs. Clifford was pleased with the idea of the blue book, and
kissed Horace and Grace, saying they grew dearer to her every day
of their lives.
One night, not long after this, Horace went to the post-office for
the mail. This was nothing new, for he had often gone before. A
crowd of men were sitting in chairs and on the door-stone and
counter, listening to the news, which someone was reading in a loud,
clear voice.
Without speaking, the postmaster gave Horace three letters and
a newspaper. After tucking the letters into his raglan pocket, Horace
rolled the paper into a hollow tube, peeping through it at the large
tree standing opposite the post-office, and at the patient horses
hitched to the posts, waiting for their masters to come out.
He listened for some time to the dreadful account of a late
battle, thinking of his dear father, as he always did when he heard
war news. But at last remembering that his grandfather would be
anxious to have the daily paper, he started for home, though rather
against his will.
"I never did see such a fuss as they make," thought he, "if
anybody's more'n a minute going to the office and back."
 "Is this all?" said Aunt Madge, as Horace gave a letter to
grandma, one to Aunt Louise, and the paper to his grandfather.
"Why, yes, ma'am, that's all," replied Horace, faintly. It did
seem, to be sure, as if Mr. Pope had given him three letters, but as
he could not find another in his pocket, he supposed he must be
mistaken, and said nothing about it. He little knew what a careless
thing he had done, and soon went to bed, forgetting post-offices
and letters in a strange dream of little Wampum, who had a bridle
on and was hitched to a post; and of the Indian girl's ear-rings,
which seemed to have grown into a pair of shining gold muskets.
A few mornings after the mistake about the letter, Mrs. Clifford
sat mending Horace's raglan. She emptied the pockets of twine, fish-
hooks, jack-knife, pebbles, coppers, and nails; but still something
rattled when she touched the jacket; it seemed to be paper. She
thrust in her finger, and there, between the outside and lining, was a
crumpled, worn letter, addressed to "Miss Margaret Parlin."
"What does this mean?" thought Mrs. Clifford. "Horace must
have carried the letter all summer."
But upon looking at it again, she saw that it was mailed at
Washington about two weeks before—"a soldier's letter." She carried
it down to Margaret, who was busy making cream-cakes.
"Let me see," said Aunt Louise, peeping over Mrs. Clifford's
shoulder, and laughing. "No, it's not Mr. Augustus Allen's writing; but
how do you know somebody hasn't written it to tell you he is sick?"
Aunt Madge grew quite pale, dropped the egg-beater, and
carried the letter into the nursery to read it by herself. She opened it
with trembling fingers; but before she had read two lines her fingers
trembled worse than ever, her heart throbbed fast, the room seemed
to reel about.
There was no bad news in the letter, you may be sure of that.
She sat reading it over and over again, while the tears ran down her
cheeks, and the sunshine in her eyes dried them again. Then she
folded her hands together, and humbly thanked God for his loving
kindness.
When she was sure her sister Maria had gone upstairs, she ran
out to the kitchen, whispering,—
"O, mother! O, Louise!" but broke down by laughing.
"What does ail the child?" said Mrs. Parlin, laughing too.
Margaret tried again to speak, but this time burst into tears.
"There, it's of no use," she sobbed: "I'm so happy that it's really
dreadful. I'm afraid somebody may die of joy."
"I'm more afraid somebody'll die of curiosity," said Aunt Louise:
"do speak quick."
"Well, Henry Clifford is alive," said Margaret: "that's the blessed
truth! Now hush! We must be careful how we tell Maria!"
Mrs. Parlin caught Margaret by the shoulder, and gasped for
breath. Louise dropped into a chair.
"What do you mean? What have you heard?" they both cried at
once.
"He was taken off the field for dead; but life was not quite gone.
He lay for weeks just breathing, and that was all."
"But why did no one let us know it?" said Louise. "Of course
Maria would have gone to him at once."
"There was no one to write; and when Henry came to himself
there was no hope of him, except by amputation of his left arm; and
after that operation he was very low again."
"O, why don't you give us the letter," said Louise, "so we can
see for ourselves?"
But she was too excited to read it; and while she was trying to
collect her ideas, Aunt Madge had to hunt for grandma's spectacles;
and then the three looked over the surgeon's letter together,
sometimes all talking at once.
Captain Clifford would be in Maine as soon as possible: so the
letter said. A young man was to come with him to take care of him,
and they were to travel very slowly indeed; might be at home in a
fortnight.
"They may be here to-night," said Mrs. Parlin.
This letter had been written to prepare the family for Captain
Clifford's arrival. It was expected that Aunt Madge would break the
news to his wife.
"It's a pity that little flyaway of a Horace didn't give you the
letter in time," said Louise; "and then we might have had some days
to get used to it."
"Wait a minute, dear," said Aunt Madge, as Susie came in for a
drink of water: "please run up and ask Aunt Maria to come
downstairs. Now, mother," she added, "you are the one to tell the
story, if you please."
"We can all break it to her by degrees," said Mrs. Parlin, twisting
her checked apron nervously.
When Mrs. Clifford entered the kitchen, she saw at once that
something had happened. Her mother with a flushed face was
opening and shutting the stove door. Margaret was polishing a pie-
plate, with tears in her eyes, and Louise had seized a sieve, and
appeared to be breaking eggs into it. Nobody wanted to speak first.
"What do you say to hearing a story?" faltered Louise.
"O, you poor woman," exclaimed Margaret, seizing Mrs. Clifford
by both hands: "you look so sorrowful, dear, as if nothing would ever
make you happy again. Can you believe we have a piece of good
news for you?"
"For me?" Mrs. Clifford looked bewildered.
"Good news for you," said Louise, dropping the sieve to the
floor: "yes, indeed! O, Maria, we thought Henry was killed; but he
isn't; it's a mistake of the papers. He's alive, and coming home to-
night."
All this as fast as she could speak. No wonder Mrs. Clifford was
shocked! First she stood quiet and amazed, gazing at her sister with
fixed eyes: then she screamed, and would have fallen if her mother
and Margaret had not caught her in their arms.
"O, I have killed her," cried Louise: "I didn't mean to speak so
quick! Henry is almost dead, Maria: he is nearly dead, I mean! He's
just alive!"
"Louise, bring some water at once," said Mrs. Parlin, sternly.
"O, mother," sobbed Louise, returning with the water, "I didn't
mean to be so hasty; but you might have known I would: you should
have sent me out of the room."
This was very much the way Prudy talked when she did wrong:
she had a funny way of blaming other people.
It is always unsafe to tell even joyful news too suddenly; but
Louise's thoughtlessness had not done so much harm as they all
feared. Mrs. Clifford recovered from the shock, and in an hour or two
was wonderfully calm, looking so perfectly happy that it was
delightful just to gaze at her face.
She wanted the pleasure of telling the children the story with
her own lips. Grace was fairly wild with joy, kissing everybody, and
declaring it was "too good for anything." She was too happy to keep
still, while as for Horace, he was too happy to talk.
"Then Uncle Henry wasn't gone to heaven," cried little Prudy.
"Hasn't he been to heaven at all?"
"No, of course not," said Susie: "didn't you hear 'em say he'd be
here to-night?—Now you've got on the nicest kind of a dress, and if
you spot it up 'twill be awful."
"I guess," pursued Prudy, "the man that shooted found 'twas
Uncle Henry, and so he didn't want to kill him down dead."
How the family found time to do so many things that day I do
not know, especially as each one was in somebody's way, and the
children under everybody's feet. But before night the pantry was full
of nice things, the whole house was as fresh as a rose, and the
parlors were adorned with autumn flowers and green garlands.
Not only the kerosene lamps, but all the old oil lamps, were
filled, and every candlestick, whether brass, iron, or glass, was used
to hold a sperm candle; so that in the evening the house at every
window was all ablaze with light. The front door stood wide open,
and the piazza and part of the lawn were as bright as day. The
double gate had been unlatched for hours, and everybody waiting
for the carriage to drive up.
The hard, uncomfortable stage, which Horace had said was like
a baby-jumper, would never do for a sick man to ride in: so Billy
Green had driven to the cars in his easiest carriage, and Aunt Madge
had gone with him, for she was afraid neither Billy nor the
gentleman who was with Captain Clifford would know how to wrap
the shawls about him carefully enough.
I could never describe the joyful meeting which took place in
those brilliantly lighted parlors. It is very rarely that such wonderful
happiness falls to anyone's lot in this world.
While the smiles are yet bright on their faces, while Grace is
clinging to her father's neck, and Horace hugs his new "real drum" in
one arm, embracing his dear papa with the other, let us take leave
of them and the whole family for the present, with many kind good-
bys.

THE END

* * * * * * * *

FICTION FOR BOYS

LITTLE RHODY

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