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 Machine Intelligence,
Big Data Analytics,
and IoT in Image Processing
 Scrivener Publishing
100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J
Beverly, MA 01915-6106

Advances in Intelligent and Scientific Computing

Series Editors: Dr. Sujata Dash, Dr. Subhendu Kumar Pani and Dr. Milan Tuba

The series provides in-depth coverage of innovations in artificial life, computational intelligence, evolutionary
computing, machine learning and applications. It is the intention for the volumes in the series to be practically
relevant, so that the results will be useful for managers in leadership roles. Therefore, both theoretical and
managerial implications of the research will be considered.

Submission of book proposals to

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or Pani.subhendu@gmail.com

Publishers at Scrivener
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Phillip Carmical (pcarmical@scrivenerpublishing.com)
 Machine Intelligence,
Big Data Analytics,
and IoT in Image Processing
Practical Applications

Edited by
Ashok Kumar
Chitkara University Institute of Engineering & Technology, Chitkara University,
Punjab, India
Megha Bhushan
School of Computing, DIT University, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India
José A. Galindo
Department of Computer Languages and Systems, University of Seville, Spain
Lalit Garg
Computer Information Systems, University of Malta, Malta
and
Yu-Chen Hu
Dept. of Computer Science and Information Management, Providence University,
Tai Chung, Taiwan
This edition first published 2023 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA
and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA
© 2023 Scrivener Publishing LLC
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

ISBN 978-1-119-86504-9

Cover image: Pixabay.Com

Cover design by Russell Richardson

Set in size of 11pt and Minion Pro by Manila Typesetting Company, Makati, Philippines

Printed in the USA

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
 Contents

Preface xv

Part I: Demystifying Smart Healthcare 1

1 Deep Learning Techniques Using Transfer Learning for
Classification of Alzheimer’s Disease 3
Monika Sethi, Sachin Ahuja and Puneet Bawa
1.1 Introduction 4
1.2 Transfer Learning Techniques 6
1.3 AD Classification Using Conventional Training Methods 9
1.4 AD Classification Using Transfer Learning 12
1.5 Conclusion 16
References 16
2 Medical Image Analysis of Lung Cancer CT Scans Using
Deep Learning with Swarm Optimization Techniques 23
Debnath Bhattacharyya, E. Stephen Neal Joshua
and N. Thirupathi Rao
2.1 Introduction 24
2.2 The Major Contributions of the Proposed Model 26
2.3 Related Works 28
2.4 Problem Statement 32
2.5 Proposed Model 33
2.5.1 Swarm Optimization in Lung Cancer Medical
Image Analysis 33
2.5.2 Deep Learning with PSO 34
2.5.3 Proposed CNN Architectures 35
2.6 Dataset Description 37
2.7 Results and Discussions 39
2.7.1 Parameters for Performance Evaluation 39
2.8 Conclusion 47
References 48

v
vi Contents

3 Liver Cancer Classification With Using Gray-Level

Co-Occurrence Matrix Using Deep Learning Techniques 51
Debnath Bhattacharyya, E. Stephen Neal Joshua
and N. Thirupathi Rao
3.1 Introduction 52
3.1.1 Liver Roles in Human Body 53
3.1.2 Liver Diseases 53
3.1.3 Types of Liver Tumors 55
3.1.3.1 Benign Tumors 55
3.1.3.2 Malignant Tumors 57
3.1.4 Characteristics of a Medical Imaging Procedure 58
3.1.5 Problems Related to Liver Cancer Classification 60
3.1.6 Purpose of the Systematic Study 61
3.2 Related Works 62
3.3 Proposed Methodology 66
3.3.1 Gaussian Mixture Model 68
3.3.2 Dataset Description 69
3.3.3 Performance Metrics 70
3.3.3.1 Accuracy Measures 70
3.3.3.2 Key Findings 74
3.3.3.3 Key Issues Addressed 75
3.4 Conclusion 77
References 77
4 Transforming the Technologies for Resilient and Digital
Future During COVID-19 Pandemic 81
Garima Kohli and Kumar Gourav
4.1 Introduction 82
4.2 Digital Technologies Used 84
4.2.1 Artificial Intelligence 85
4.2.2 Internet of Things 85
4.2.3 Telehealth/Telemedicine 87
4.2.4 Cloud Computing 87
4.2.5 Blockchain 88
4.2.6 5G 89
4.3 Challenges in Transforming Digital Technology 90
4.3.1 Increasing Digitalization 91
4.3.2 Work From Home Culture 91
4.3.3 Workplace Monitoring and Techno Stress 91
4.3.4 Online Fraud 92
4.3.5 Accessing Internet 92
 Contents vii

4.3.6 Internet Shutdowns 92

4.3.7 Digital Payments 92
4.3.8 Privacy and Surveillance 93
4.4 Implications for Research 93
4.5 Conclusion 94
References 95

Part II: Plant Pathology 101

5 Plant Pathology Detection Using Deep Learning 103
Sangeeta V., Appala S. Muttipati and Brahmaji Godi
5.1 Introduction 104
5.2 Plant Leaf Disease 105
5.3 Background Knowledge 109
5.4 Architecture of ResNet 512 V2 111
5.4.1 Working of Residual Network 112
5.5 Methodology 113
5.5.1 Image Resizing 113
5.5.2 Data Augmentation 113
5.5.2.1 Types of Data Augmentation 114
5.5.3 Data Normalization 114
5.5.4 Data Splitting 116
5.6 Result Analysis 116
5.6.1 Data Collection 117
5.6.2 Feature Extractions 117
5.6.3 Plant Leaf Disease Detection 117
5.7 Conclusion 119
References 120
6 Smart Irrigation and Cultivation Recommendation System
for Precision Agriculture Driven by IoT 123
N. Marline Joys Kumari, N. Thirupathi Rao
and Debnath Bhattacharyya
6.1 Introduction 124
6.1.1 Background of the Problem 127
6.1.1.1 Need of Water Management 127
6.1.1.2 Importance of Precision Agriculture 127
6.1.1.3 Internet of Things 128
6.1.1.4 Application of IoT in Machine Learning
and Deep Learning 129
6.2 Related Works 131
6.3 Challenges of IoT in Smart Irrigation 133
viii Contents

6.4 Farmers’ Challenges in the Current Situation 135

6.5 Data Collection in Precision Agriculture 136
6.5.1 Algorithm 136
6.5.1.1 Environmental Consideration on Stage
Production of Crop 140
6.5.2 Implementation Measures 141
6.5.2.1 Analysis of Relevant Vectors 141
6.5.2.2 Mean Square Error 141
6.5.2.3 Potential of IoT in Precision Agriculture 141
6.5.3 Architecture of the Proposed Model 143
6.6 Conclusion 147
References 147
7 Machine Learning-Based Hybrid Model for Wheat Yield
Prediction 151
Haneet Kour, Vaishali Pandith, Jatinder Manhas
and Vinod Sharma
7.1 Introduction 152
7.2 Related Work 153
7.3 Materials and Methods 155
7.3.1 Methodology for the Current Work 155
7.3.1.1 Data Collection for Wheat Crop 155
7.3.1.2 Data Pre-Processing 156
7.3.1.3 Implementation of the Proposed
Hybrid Model 157
7.3.2 Techniques Used for Feature Selection 159
7.3.2.1 ReliefF Algorithm 159
7.3.2.2 Genetic Algorithm 161
7.3.3 Implementation of Machine Learning Techniques
for Wheat Yield Prediction 162
7.3.3.1 K-Nearest Neighbor 162
7.3.3.2 Artificial Neural Network 163
7.3.3.3 Logistic Regression 164
7.3.3.4 Naïve Bayes 164
7.3.3.5 Support Vector Machine 165
7.3.3.6 Linear Discriminant Analysis 166
7.4 Experimental Result and Analysis 167
7.5 Conclusion 173
Acknowledgment 173
References 174
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 Contents ix

8 A Status Quo of Machine Learning Algorithms in Smart

Agricultural Systems Employing IoT-Based WSN: Trends,
Challenges and Futuristic Competences 177
Abhishek Bhola, Suraj Srivastava, Ajit Noonia,
Bhisham Sharma and Sushil Kumar Narang
8.1 Introduction 178
8.2 Types of Wireless Sensor for Smart Agriculture 179
8.3 Application of Machine Learning Algorithms
for Smart Decision Making in Smart Agriculture 179
8.4 ML and WSN-Based Techniques for Smart Agriculture 185
8.5 Future Scope in Smart Agriculture 188
8.6 Conclusion 190
References 190

Part III: Smart City and Villages 197

9 Impact of Data Pre-Processing in Information Retrieval
for Data Analytics 199
Huma Naz, Sachin Ahuja, Rahul Nijhawan
and Neelu Jyothi Ahuja
9.1 Introduction 200
9.1.1 Tasks Involved in Data Pre-Processing 200
9.2 Related Work 202
9.3 Experimental Setup and Methodology 205
9.3.1 Methodology 205
9.3.2 Application of Various Data Pre-Processing
Tasks on Datasets 206
9.3.3 Applied Techniques 207
9.3.3.1 Decision Tree 207
9.3.3.2 Naive Bayes 207
9.3.3.3 Artificial Neural Network 208
9.3.4 Proposed Work 208
9.3.4.1 PIMA Diabetes Dataset (PID) 208
9.3.5 Cleveland Heart Disease Dataset 211
9.3.6 Framingham Heart Study 215
9.3.7 Diabetic Dataset 217
9.4 Experimental Result and Discussion 220
9.5 Conclusion and Future Work 222
References 222
x Contents

10 Cloud Computing Security, Risk, and Challenges: A Detailed

Analysis of Preventive Measures and Applications 225
Anurag Sinha, N. K. Singh, Ayushman Srivastava,
Sagorika Sen and Samarth Sinha
10.1 Introduction 226
10.2 Background 228
10.2.1 History of Cloud Computing 228
10.2.1.1 Software-as-a-Service Model 230
10.2.1.2 Infrastructure-as-a-Service Model 230
10.2.1.3 Platform-as-a-Service Model 232
10.2.2 Types of Cloud Computing 232
10.2.3 Cloud Service Model 232
10.2.4 Characteristics of Cloud Computing 234
10.2.5 Advantages of Cloud Computing 234
10.2.6 Challenges in Cloud Computing 235
10.2.7 Cloud Security 236
10.2.7.1 Foundation Security 236
10.2.7.2 SaaS and PaaS Host Security 237
10.2.7.3 Virtual Server Security 237
10.2.7.4 Foundation Security: The Application
Level 238
10.2.7.5 Supplier Data and Its Security 238
10.2.7.6 Need of Security in Cloud 239
10.2.8 Cloud Computing Applications 239
10.3 Literature Review 241
10.4 Cloud Computing Challenges and Its Solution 242
10.4.1 Solution and Practices for Cloud Challenges 246
10.5 Cloud Computing Security Issues
and Its Preventive Measures 248
10.5.1 General Security Threats in Cloud 249
10.5.2 Preventive Measures 254
10.6 Cloud Data Protection and Security
Using Steganography 258
10.6.1 Types of Steganography 259
10.6.2 Data Steganography in Cloud Environment 260
10.6.3 Pixel Value Differencing Method 261
10.7 Related Study 263
10.8 Conclusion 263
References 264
 Contents xi

11 Internet of Drone Things: A New Age Invention 269

Prachi Dahiya
11.1 Introduction 269
11.2 Unmanned Aerial Vehicles 271
11.2.1 UAV Features and Working 274
11.2.2 IoDT Architecture 275
11.3 Application Areas 280
11.3.1 Other Application Areas 284
11.4 IoDT Attacks 285
11.4.1 Counter Measures 291
11.5 Fusion of IoDT With Other Technologies 296
11.6 Recent Advancements in IoDT 299
11.7 Conclusion 302
References 303
12 Computer Vision-Oriented Gesture Recognition System
for Real-Time ISL Prediction 305
Mukul Joshi, Gayatri Valluri, Jyoti Rawat and Kriti
12.1 Introduction 305
12.2 Literature Review 307
12.3 System Architecture 309
12.3.1 Model Development Phase 309
12.3.2 Development Environment Phase 311
12.4 Methodology 312
12.4.1 Image Pre-Processing Phase 312
12.4.2 Model Building Phase 313
12.5 Implementation and Results 314
12.5.1 Performance 314
12.5.2 Confusion Matrix 318
12.6 Conclusion and Future Scope 318
References 319
13 Recent Advances in Intelligent Transportation Systems
in India: Analysis, Applications, Challenges, and Future Work 323
Elamurugan Balasundaram, Cailassame Nedunchezhian,
Mathiazhagan Arumugam and Vinoth Asaikannu
13.1 Introduction 324
13.2 A Primer on ITS 325
13.3 The ITS Stages 326
13.4 Functions of ITS 327
13.5 ITS Advantages 328
xii Contents

13.6 ITS Applications 329

13.7 ITS Across the World 331
13.8 India’s Status of ITS 333
13.9 Suggestions for Improving India’s ITS Position 334
13.10 Conclusion 335
References 335
14 Evolutionary Approaches in Navigation Systems for Road
Transportation System 341
Noopur Tyagi, Jaiteg Singh and Saravjeet Singh
14.1 Introduction 342
14.1.1 Navigation System 343
14.1.2 Genetic Algorithm 347
14.1.3 Differential Evolution 348
14.2 Related Studies 349
14.2.1 Related Studies of Evolutionary Algorithms 351
14.3 Navigation Based on Evolutionary Algorithm 352
14.3.1 Operators and Terms Used in Evolutionary
Algorithms 353
14.3.2 Operator and Terms Used in Evolutionary
Algorithm 357
14.4 Meta-Heuristic Algorithms for Navigation 359
14.4.1 Drawbacks of DE 362
14.5 Conclusion 362
References 363
15 IoT-Based Smart Parking System for Indian Smart Cities 369
E. Fantin Irudaya Raj, M. Appadurai,
M. Chithamabara Thanu and E. Francy Irudaya Rani
15.1 Introduction 370
15.2 Indian Smart Cities Mission 371
15.3 Vehicle Parking and Its Requirements in a Smart City
Configuration 373
15.4 Technologies Incorporated in a Vehicle Parking System
in Smart Cities 375
15.5 Sensors for Vehicle Parking System 383
15.5.1 Active Sensors 384
15.5.2 Passive Sensors 386
15.6 IoT-Based Vehicle Parking System for Indian Smart Cities 387
15.6.1 Guidance to the Customers Through Smart
Devices 389
 Contents xiii

15.6.2 Smart Parking Reservation System 391

15.7 Advantages of IoT-Based Vehicle Parking System 392
15.8 Conclusion 392
References 393
16 Security of Smart Home Solution Based on Secure
Piggybacked Key Exchange Mechanism 399
Jatin Arora and Saravjeet Singh
16.1 Introduction 400
16.2 IoT Challenges 404
16.3 IoT Vulnerabilities 405
16.4 Layer-Wise Threats in IoT Architecture 406
16.4.1 Sensing Layer Security Issues 407
16.4.2 Network Layer Security Issues 408
16.4.3 Middleware Layer Security Issues 409
16.4.4 Gateways Security Issues 410
16.4.5 Application Layer Security Issues 411
16.5 Attack Prevention Techniques 411
16.5.1 IoT Authentication 412
16.5.2 Session Establishment 413
16.6 Conclusion 414
References 414
17 Machine Learning Models in Prediction of Strength
Parameters of FRP-Wrapped RC Beams 419
Aman Kumar, Harish Chandra Arora, Nishant Raj Kapoor
and Ashok Kumar
17.1 Introduction 420
17.1.1 Defining Fiber-Reinforced Polymer 421
17.1.2 Types of FRP Composites 422
17.1.2.1 Carbon Fiber–Reinforced Polymer 422
17.1.2.2 Glass Fiber 423
17.1.2.3 Aramid Fiber 424
17.1.2.4 Basalt Fiber 424
17.2 Strengthening of RC Beams With FRP Systems 425
17.2.1 FRP-to-Concrete Bond 426
17.2.2 Flexural Strengthening of Beams With FRP
Composite 427
17.2.3 Shear Strengthening of Beams With FRP
Composite 427
17.3 Machine Learning Models 428
xiv Contents

17.3.1 Prediction of Bond Strength 430

17.3.2 Estimation of Flexural Strength 434
17.3.3 Estimation of Shear Strength 434
17.4 Conclusion 441
References 441
18 Prediction of Indoor Air Quality Using Artificial Intelligence 447
Nishant Raj Kapoor, Ashok Kumar, Anuj Kumar,
Aman Kumar and Harish Chandra Arora
18.1 Introduction 448
18.2 Indoor Air Quality Parameters 450
18.2.1 Physical Parameters 453
18.2.1.1 Humidity 453
18.2.1.2 Air Changes (Ventilation) 454
18.2.1.3 Air Velocity 454
18.2.1.4 Temperature 454
18.2.2 Particulate Matter 455
18.2.3 Chemical Parameters 456
18.2.3.1 Carbon Dioxide 456
18.2.3.2 Carbon Monoxide 456
18.2.3.3 Nitrogen Dioxide 456
18.2.3.4 Sulphur Dioxide 457
18.2.3.5 Ozone 457
18.2.3.6 Gaseous Ammonia 458
18.2.3.7 Volatile Organic Compounds 458
18.2.4 Biological Parameters 459
18.3 AI in Indoor Air Quality Prediction 459
18.4 Conclusion 464
References 465
Index 471
 Preface

The concepts of machine intelligence, big data analytics and the Internet of
Things (IoT) continue to improve our lives through various cutting-edge
applications such as disease detection in real time, crop yield prediction,
smart parking and so forth. The transformative effects of these technolo-
gies are life-changing because they play an important role in demystifying
smart healthcare, plant pathology, and smart city/village planning, design
and development. This book presents a cross-disciplinary perspective on
the practical applications of machine intelligence, big data analytics and
IoT by compiling cutting-edge research and insights from researchers, aca-
demicians and practitioners worldwide. It identifies and discusses various
advanced technologies, such as artificial intelligence, machine learning,
IoT, image processing, network security, cloud computing and sensors, to
provide effective solutions to the lifestyle challenges faced by humankind.
These practical innovative applications may include navigation systems
for road transportation, IoT- and WSN-based smart agriculture, plant
pathology through deep learning, cancer detection from medical images
and smart home solutions. Moreover, cloud computing has made it possi-
ble to access these real-life applications remotely over the internet. The pri-
mary concern of this book is to equip those new to this field of application,
as well as those with more advanced knowledge related to practical appli-
cation development, exploit the inherent features of machine intelligence,
big data analytics and IoT. For instance, how to harness these advanced
technologies to develop practical applications such as drone-based sur-
veillance, smart transportation, healthcare, smart farming solutions, and
robotics for automation.
This book is a significant addition to the body of knowledge on practical
applications emerging from machine intelligence, big data analytics and
IoT. The chapters deal with specific areas of applications of these technol-
ogies. This deliberate choice of covering a diversity of fields was to empha-
size the applications of these technologies in almost every contemporary
aspect of real life to assist working in different sectors by understanding

xv
xvi Preface

and exploiting the strategic opportunities offered by these technologies. A

summary of the main ideas of the work presented in each of the chapters
follows:

– Chapter 1 is based on the models used to diagnose Alzheimer’s dis-

ease (AD). These models utilize CaffeNet, GoogLeNet, VGGNet-16,
VGGNet-19, DenseNet with varying depths, Inception-V4, AlexNet,
ResNet-18, ResNet-152, or even ensemble transfer-learning, that are
pre-trained on generalized images for AD classification to achieve better
performance as compared to training a model from scratch.
– Chapter 2 describes how to detect cancerous lung nodules from a lung
CT scan image given as input and how to classify the lung cancer along
with its severity. A novel deep learning method is used to detect the loca-
tion of cancerous lung nodules.
– Chapter 3 outlines a classifier used to divide the liver and CT images into
normal and abnormal categories based on the main features in terms of
shape, texture, and feature statistics. It includes four stages: preprocess-
ing, fuzzy clustering, feature extraction and classification. Furthermore,
the grey-level co-occurrence matrix (GLCM) method is used to extract
the features.
– Chapter 4 provides some of the major emerging digital technologies
which have transformed the lives of individuals by making their future
dependent upon the resilience of these technologies. It also highlights
some of the major challenges related to these technologies with their
suitable implications.
– Chapter 5 describes a model based on ResNet architecture in deep learn-
ing to help farmers detect plant leaf diseases at an early stage in order to
take precautionary measures against them.
– Chapter 6 discusses an IoT-based smart irrigation system to assist farm-
ers in precision agriculture for increasing crop yield. It uses multiple
sensor metrics to help anticipate conditions for irrigation planning by
predicting soil moisture, temperature, and humidity.
– Chapter 7 presents a hybrid model for wheat crop yield prediction using
machine learning (ML) approaches, namely k-nearest neighbors (KNN),
naïve Bayes, artificial neural network, logistic regression, support vec-
tor machine and linear discriminant analysis. The model works in two
stages: the first stage uses a feature selection strategy to find the best fea-
tures for wheat crops, and the second stage uses ML to estimate crop
yield based on these best features.
 Preface xvii

– Chapter 8 discusses wireless sensor network (WSN)-based tech-

niques used for smart agriculture and applications of ML for smart
decision-making.
– Chapter 9 provides an insight into the applications of data preprocess-
ing techniques and their effects on information retrieval. It covers the
major issues that need to be dealt with before beginning any data analysis
process.
– Chapter 10 focuses on the security for the latest paradigm shift in cloud
and distributed computing. It delineates various risk parameters in the
cloud environment and provides some novel methods to be adopted for
cloud data security.
– Chapter 11 talks about the internet of drone things (IoDT), its appli-
cations in the modern world, research opportunities, and current chal-
lenges to be dealt with. Furthermore, it discusses new age inventions,
security issues, and attacks that frequently occur in the IoDT.
– Chapter 12 presents an artificial intelligence-based gesture recognition
system for the prediction of Indian sign language in real time. It covers
different experiments using two-dimensional convolutional neural net-
work-based classification to convert images into text.
– Chapter 13 sets forth applications, challenges, and future developments
in the field of intelligent transportation systems (ITS) in India. It explains
ITS and evaluates their feasibility in India.
– Chapter 14 provides a survey of evolutionary techniques used in nav-
igation to create opportunities for analysts and researchers seeking to
understand the broad pattern of different algorithms used in the naviga-
tion system.
– Chapter 15 examines the IoT-based vehicle parking system in Indian cit-
ies. Additionally, it discusses vehicle parking and its basic requirements,
various technologies incorporated in modern parking systems, different
sensors utilized in parking facilities, and the advantages of IoT-based
vehicle parking systems in detail.
– Chapter 16 discusses a secure data transmission and key exchange for
ensuring the confidentiality of data. Also, a lightweight authentication
mechanism for ensuring the integrity and confidentiality of data shared
over an unsecured network is presented.
– Chapter 17 delineates machine learning models in the prediction of
strength parameters of fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) wrapped rein-
forced concrete (RC) beams. It provides a summary of machine learning
models in the estimation of bond strength between FRP and concrete
surface, and shear and flexural strength of FRP wrapped RC beams.
xviii Preface

– Chapter 18 describes existing AI-based studies for forecasting the indoor

air quality of buildings and the future of AI-based indoor air quality fore-
casting. It provides an overview of the important role of machine learning
models in the prediction of indoor pollutant concentrations to develop
warning systems which help to affect the occupant’s health positively.

This book was edited by a team of academicians and experts. It is our

hope that readers will draw several benefits from both the theoretical and
practical aspects covered in the book to enhance their own practice or
research.

The Editors
Dr. Ashok Kumar
Phagwara, India
Dr. Megha Bhushan
Dehradun, India
Dr. José Galindo
Seville, Spain
Dr. Lalit Garg
Valetta, Malta
Dr. Yu-Chen Hu
Tai Chung, Taiwan
January 2023
Visit https://ebookmass.com today to explore
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genres, available in popular formats like
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all devices. Enjoy a seamless reading
experience and effortlessly download high-
quality materials in just a few simple steps.
Plus, don’t miss out on exciting offers that
let you access a wealth of knowledge at the
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which he had, but also those alleged by the inquisitors
of his kingdom, against the excessive privileges of the
Society, and the form of their government. He desired
likewise that the Pope should be acquainted with the
heads of accusation laid against the Society, and
confirmed by some of its own members remarkable for
their learning and piety, and demanded that the
Society should undergo an apostolic visitation. Sixtus
V., convinced that these demands and solicitations of
Philip were just and well founded, did, without
hesitation, comply therewith; and, in consequence,
named a bishop of distinguished prudence, virtue, and
learning, to be apostolical visitor, and at the same time
deputed a congregation of cardinals to examine this
matter.
“But this pontiff having been carried off by a
premature death, this wise undertaking remained
without effect. Gregory XIV. being raised to the
supreme apostolic chair, approved, in its utmost
extent, the institution of the Society, by his letter, sub
plumbo, dated the 28th of July 1591. He confirmed all
the privileges which had been granted by any of his
predecessors to the Society, and particularly the power
of expelling and dismissing any of its members,
without any previous form of process, information, act,
or delay; upon the sole view of the truth of the fact,
and the nature of the crime, from a sufficient motive,
and a due regard of persons and circumstances. He
ordained, and that under pain of excommunication,
that all proceedings against the Society should be
quashed, and that no person whatever should
presume, directly or indirectly, to attack the institution,
constitutions, or decrees of the said Society, or attempt
in any manner whatever to make any changes therein.
To each and every of the members only of the said
Society, he permitted to expose and propose, either by
themselves or by the legates and nuncios of the Holy
See, to himself only, or the Popes his successors,
whatever they should think proper to be added,
modified, or changed in their institution.
“Who would have thought that even these
dispositions should prove ineffectual towards
appeasing the cries and appeals against the Society?
On the contrary, very violent disputes arose on all
sides concerning the doctrine of the Society, which
many represented as contrary to the orthodox faith
and to sound morals. The dissensions among
themselves, and with others, grew every day more
animated; the accusations against the Society were
multiplied without number, and especially with that
insatiable avidity of temporal possessions with which it
was reproached. Hence the rise not only of those well-
known troubles which brought so much care and
solicitude upon the Holy See, but also of the
resolutions which certain sovereigns took against the
said order.
“It resulted that, instead of obtaining from Paul V., of
blessed memory, a fresh confirmation of its institute
and privileges, the Society was reduced to ask of him
that he would condescend to ratify and confirm, by his
authority, certain decrees formed in the Fifth General
Congregation of the Company, and transcribed word
for word in the Brief of the said Pope, bearing date
September 4, 1606. In these decrees, it is plainly
acknowledged that the dissensions and internal revolts
of the said companions, together with the demands
and appeals of strangers, had obliged the said
companions assembled in congregation to enact the
following statute, namely:
“‘The Divine Providence having raised up our Society
for the propagation of the Faith, and the gaining of
souls, the said Society can, by the rules of its own
institute, which are its spiritual arms, arrive happily,
under the standard of the Cross, at the end which it
has proposed for the good of the Church and the
edification of our neighbours. But the said Society
would prevent the effect of these precious goods, and
expose them to the most imminent dangers, if it
concerned itself with temporal matters, and which
relate to political affairs and the administration of
government; in consequence whereof, it has been
wisely ordained by our superiors and ancients, that,
confining ourselves to combat for the glory of God, we
should not concern ourselves with matters foreign to
our profession: but whereas, in these times of difficulty
and danger, it has happened, through the fault
perhaps of certain individuals, through ambition and
intemperate zeal, that our institute has been ill spoken
of in divers places, and before divers sovereigns,
whose affection and goodwill the Father Ignatius, of
holy memory, thought we should preserve for the good
of the service of God; and whereas a good reputation
is indispensably necessary to make the vineyard of
Christ bring forth fruits; in consequence hereof, our
congregation has resolved that we shall abstain from
all appearance of evil, and remedy, as far as in our
power, the evils arisen from false suspicions. To this
end, and by the authority of the present decree of the
said congregation, it is severely and strictly forbidden
to all the members of the Society to interfere in any
manner whatever in public affairs, even though they
be thereto invited, or to deviate from the institute,
through entreaty, persuasion, or any other motive
whatever. The congregation recommends to the
fathers-coadjutors, that they do propose and
determine, with all diligence and speed, such further
means as they may think necessary for remedying this
abuse.’
“We have seen, in the grief of our heart, that neither
these remedies, nor an infinity of others, since
employed, have produced their due effect, or silenced
the accusations and complaints against the said
Society. Our other predecessors, Urban VII., Clement
IX., X., XI., and XII., and Alexander VII. and VIII.,
Innocent X., XII., and XIII., and Benedict XIV.,
employed, without effect, all their efforts to the same
purpose. In vain did they endeavour, by salutary
constitutions, to restore peace to the Church; as well
with respect to secular affairs, with which the
Company ought not to have interfered, as with regard
to the missions; which gave rise to great disputes and
oppositions on the part of the Company with the
ordinaries, with other religious orders, about the holy
places, and communities of all sorts in Europe, Africa,
and America, to the great loss of souls, and great
scandal of the people; as likewise concerning the
meaning and practice of certain idolatrous ceremonies,
adopted in certain places, in contempt of those justly
approved by the Catholic Church; and further,
concerning the use and explanation of certain maxims,
which the Holy See has with reason proscribed as
scandalous, and manifestly contrary to good morals;
and, lastly, concerning other matters of great
importance and prime necessity, towards preserving
the integrity and purity of the doctrines of the gospel;
from which maxims have resulted very great
inconveniences and great detriment both in our days
and in past ages; such as the revolts and intestine
troubles in some of the Catholic states, persecutions
against the Church in some countries of Asia and
Europe, not to mention the vexation and grating
solicitude which these melancholy affairs brought on
our predecessors, principally upon Innocent XI., of
blessed memory, who found himself reduced to the
necessity of forbidding the Company to receive any
more novices; and afterwards upon Innocent XIII.,
who was obliged to threaten the Company with the
same punishment; and, lastly, upon Benedict XIV., who
took the resolution of ordaining a general visitation of
all the houses and colleges of the Company in the
kingdom of our dearly beloved son in Jesus Christ, the
most faithful King of Portugal.
“The late apostolic letter of Clement XIII., of blessed
memory, our immediate predecessor, by which the
institute of the Company of Jesus was again approved
and recommended, was far from bringing any comfort
to the Holy See, or any advantage to the Christian
republic. Indeed this letter was rather extorted than
granted, to use the expression of Gregory X. in the
above-named General Council of Lyons.
“After so many storms, troubles, and divisions, every
good man looked forward with impatience to the
happy day which was to restore peace and tranquillity.
But under the reign of this same Clement XIII. the
times became more difficult and tempestuous;
complaints and quarrels were multiplied on every side;
in some places dangerous seditions arose, tumults,
discords, dissensions, scandals, which, weakening or
entirely breaking the bonds of Christian charity, excited
the faithful to all the rage of party hatreds and
enmities. Desolation and danger grew to such a
height, that the very sovereigns, whose piety and
liberality towards the Company were so well known as
to be looked upon as hereditary in their families—we
mean our dearly-beloved sons in Christ, the Kings of
France, Spain, Portugal, and Sicily—found themselves
reduced to the necessity of expelling and driving from
their states, kingdoms, and provinces, these very
Companions of Jesus; persuaded that there remained
no other remedy to so great evils; and that this step
was necessary in order to prevent the Christians from
rising one against another, and from massacring each
other in the very bosom of our common mother the
Holy Church. The said our dear sons in Jesus Christ
having since considered that even this remedy would
not be sufficient towards reconciling the whole
Christian world, unless the said Society was absolutely
abolished and suppressed, made known their demands
and wills in this matter to our said predecessor
Clement XIII. They united their common prayers and
authority to obtain that this last method might be put
in practice, as the only one capable of assuring the
constant repose of their subjects, and the good of the
Catholic Church in general. But the unexpected death
of the aforesaid pontiff rendered this project abortive.
“As soon as by the divine mercy and providence we
were raised to the chair of St Peter, the same prayers,
demands, and wishes were laid before us, and
strengthened by the pressing solicitations of many
bishops, and other persons of distinguished rank,
learning, and piety. But, that we might choose the
wisest course in an affair of so much importance, we
determined not to be precipitate, but to take due time;
not only to examine attentively, weigh carefully, and
wisely debate, but also, by unceasing prayers, to ask
of the Father of Lights his particular assistance under
these circumstances; exhorting at the same time the
faithful to co-operate with us by their prayers and
good works in obtaining this needful succour.
“And first of all we proposed to examine upon what
grounds rested the common opinion, that the institute
of the Clerks of the Company of Jesus had been
approved and confirmed in an especial manner by the
Council of Trent. And we found that in the said Council
nothing more was done with regard to the said
Society, only to except it from the general decree,
which ordained that in the other regular orders, those
who had finished their novitiate, and were judged
worthy of being admitted to the profession, should be
admitted thereto; and that such as were not found
worthy should be sent back from the monastery. The
same Council declared, that it meant not to make any
change or innovation in the government of the clerks
of the Company of Jesus, that they might not be
hindered from being useful to God and his Church,
according to the intent of the pious institute approved
by the Holy See.
“Actuated by so many and important considerations,
and, as we hope, aided by the presence and
inspiration of the Holy Spirit; compelled, besides, by
the necessity of our ministry, which strictly obliges us
to conciliate, maintain, and confirm the peace and
tranquillity of the Christian republic, and remove every
obstacle which may tend to trouble it; having further
considered that the said Company of Jesus can no
longer produce those abundant fruits, and those great
advantages, with a view to which it was instituted,
approved by so many of our predecessors, and
endowed with so many and extensive privileges; that,
on the contrary, it was very difficult, not to say
impossible, that the Church could recover a firm and
durable peace so long as the said Society subsisted; in
consequence hereof, and determined by the particular
reasons we have here alleged, and forced by other
motives which prudence and the good government of
the Church have dictated, the knowledge of which we
reserve to ourselves, conforming ourselves to the
examples of our predecessors, and particularly to that
of Gregory X. in the general Council of Lyons; the
rather as, in the present case, we are determining
upon the fate of a society classed among the
mendicant orders, both by its institute and by its
privileges;—after a mature deliberation, we do, out of
our certain knowledge, and the fulness of our
apostolical power, suppress and abolish the said Company:
we deprive it of all activity whatever, of its houses,
schools, colleges, hospitals, lands, and, in short, every
other place whatsoever, in whatever kingdom or
province they may be situated; we abrogate and annul
its statutes, rules, customs, decrees, and constitutions,
even though confirmed by oath, and approved by the
Holy See or otherwise; in like manner we annul all and
every its privileges, indults, general or particular, the
tenor whereof is, and is taken to be, as fully and as
amply expressed in the present Brief as if the same
were inserted word for word, in whatever clauses,
form, or decree, or under whatever sanction their
privileges may have been conceived. We declare all,
and all kind of authority, the General, the provincials,
the visitors, and other superiors of the said Society to
be for ever annulled and extinguished, of what nature
soever the said authority may be, as well in things
spiritual as temporal. We do likewise order that the
said jurisdiction and authority be transferred to the
respective ordinaries, fully and in the same manner as
the said generals, &c. exercised it, according to the
form, places, and circumstances with respect to the
persons and under the conditions hereafter
determined; forbidding, as we do hereby forbid, the
reception of any person to the said Society, the
novitiate or habit thereof. And with regard to those
who have already been admitted, our will is, that they
be not received to make profession of the simple,
solemn, absolute vows, under penalty of nullity, and
such other penalties as we shall ordain. Further, we do
will, command, and ordain, that those who are now
performing their novitiate be speedily, immediately,
and actually sent back to their own homes; we do
further forbid that those who have made profession of
the first simple vows, but who are not yet admitted to
either of the holy orders, be admitted thereto under
any pretext or title whatever; whether on account of
the profession they have already made in the said
Society, or by virtue of any privileges the said Society
has obtained, contrary to the tenor of the decrees of
the Council of Trent.
“And whereas all our endeavours are directed to the
great end of procuring the good of the Church and the
tranquillity of nations; and it being at the same time
our intention to provide all necessary aid, consolation,
and assistance to the individuals or companions of the
said Society, every one of which, in his individual
capacity, we love in the Lord with a truly parental
affection; and to the end that they being delivered on
their part from the persecutions, dissensions, and
troubles with which they have for a long time been
agitated, may be able to labour with more success in
the vineyard of the Lord, and contribute to the
salvation of souls; therefore, and for these motives, we
do decree and determine that such of the companions
as have yet made professions only of the first vows,
and are not yet promoted to holy orders, being
absolved, as in fact they are absolved, from the first
simple vows, do, without fail, quit the houses and
colleges of the said Society, and be at full liberty to
choose such course of life as each shall judge most
conformable to his vocation, strength, and conscience,
and that within a space of time to be prescribed by the
ordinary of the diocese; which time shall be sufficient
for each to provide himself some employment or
benefice, or at least some patron who will receive him
into his house, always provided that the time thus
allowed do not exceed the space of one year, to be
counted from the day of the date hereof. And this the
rather, as, according to the privileges of the said
Company, those who have only taken these first vows
may be expelled the order upon motives left entirely to
the prudence of the superiors, as circumstances
require, and without any previous form of process. As
to such of the companions as are already promoted to
holy orders, we grant them permission to quit the
houses and colleges of the Company, and to enter into
any other regular order already approved by the Holy
See. In which case, and supposing they have already
professed the first vows, they are to perform the
accustomed novitiate in the order into which they are
to enter according to the prescription of the Council of
Trent; but if they have taken all the vows, then they
shall perform only a novitiate of six months, we
graciously dispensing with the rest. Or otherwise, we
do permit them to live at large as secular priests and
clerks, always under a perfect and absolute obedience
to the jurisdiction of the ordinary of the diocese where
they shall establish themselves. We do likewise ordain,
that to such as shall embrace this last expedient, a
convenient stipend be paid out of the revenues of the
house or college where they reside; regard being paid,
in assigning the same, to the expenses to which the
said house shall be exposed, as well as to the
revenues it enjoyed. With regard to those who have
made the last vows, and are promoted to holy orders,
and who, either through fear of not being able to
subsist for want of a pension, or from the smallness
thereof, or because they know not where to fix
themselves, or, on account of age, infirmities, or other
grave and lawful reasons, do not choose to quit the
said colleges or houses, they shall be permitted to
dwell therein, provided always that they exercise no
ministry whatsoever in the said houses or colleges,
and be entirely subject to the ordinary of the diocese;
that they make no acquisitions whatever, according to
the decree of the Council of Lyons, that they do not
alienate the houses, possessions, or funds which they
actually possess. It shall be lawful to unite in one or
more houses the number of individuals that remain,
nor shall others be substituted in the room of those
who may die; so that the houses which become vacant
may be converted to such pious uses as the
circumstances of time and place shall require, in
conformity to the holy canons, and the intention of the
founders, so as may best promote the divine worship,
the salvation of souls, and the public good. And to this
end a member of the regular clergy, recommendable
for his prudence and sound morals, shall be chosen to
preside over and govern the said houses; so that the
name of the Company shall be, and is, for ever
extinguished and suppressed.
“In like manner we declare, that in this general
suppression of the Company shall be comprehended
the individuals thereof in all the provinces from
whence they have already been expelled; and to this
effect our will is, that the said individuals, even though
they have been promoted to holy orders, be ipso facto
reduced to the state of secular priests and clerks, and
remain in absolute subjection to the ordinary of the
diocese, supposing always that they are not entered
into any other regular order.
“If, among the subjects heretofore of the Company
of Jesus, but who shall become secular priests or
clerks, the ordinaries shall find any qualified by their
virtues, learning, and purity of morals, they may, as
they see fit, grant or refuse them power of confessing
and preaching; but none of them shall exercise the
said holy function without a permission in writing; nor
shall the bishops or ordinaries grant such permission to
such of the Society who shall remain in the colleges or
houses heretofore belonging to the Society, to whom
we expressly and for ever prohibit the administration
of the sacrament of penance, and the function of
preaching; as Gregory X. did prohibit it in the Council
already cited. And we leave it to the consciences of the
bishops to see that this last article be strictly observed;
exhorting them to have before their eyes the severe
account which they must render to God of the flock
committed to their charge, and the tremendous
judgment with which the great Judge of the living and
the dead doth threaten those who are invested with so
high a character.
“Further, we will, that if any of those who have
heretofore professed the institute of the Company,
shall be desirous of dedicating themselves to the
instruction of youth in any college or school, care be
taken that they have no part in the government or
direction of the same, and that the liberty of teaching
be granted to such only whose labours promise a
happy issue, and who shall shew themselves averse to
all spirit of dispute, and untainted with any doctrines
which may occasion or stir up frivolous and dangerous
quarrels. In a word, the faculty of teaching youth shall
neither be granted nor preserved but to those who
seem inclined to maintain peace in the schools and
tranquillity in the world.
“Our intention and pleasure is, that the dispositions
which we have thus made known for the suppression
of this Society shall be extended to the members
thereof employed in missions, reserving to ourselves
the right of fixing upon such methods as to us shall
appear most sure and convenient for the conversion of
infidels and the conciliation of controverted points.
“All and singular the privileges and statutes of the
said Company being thus annulled and entirely
abrogated, we declare that as soon as the individuals
thereof shall have quitted their houses and colleges,
and taken the habit of secular clerks, they shall be
qualified to obtain, in conformity to the decrees of the
holy canons and apostolic constitutions, cures,
benefices without cure, offices, charges, dignities, and
all employments whatever, which they could not obtain
so long as they were members of the said Society,
according to the will of Gregory XIII., of blessed
memory, expressed in his bull bearing date September
10th, 1548, which Brief begins with these words—
Satus superque, &c. Likewise we grant them the power
which they had not before, of receiving alms for the
celebration of the mass, and the full enjoyment of all
the graces and favours from which they were
heretofore precluded as regular clerks of the Company
of Jesus.
“We likewise abrogate all the prerogatives which had
been granted to them by their General and other
superiors in virtue of the privileges obtained from the
Sovereign Pontiffs, and by which they were permitted
to read heretical and impious books proscribed by the
Holy See; likewise the power they enjoyed of not
observing the stated fasts, and of eating flesh on fast
days; likewise the faculty of reciting the prayers called
the canonical hours, and all other like privileges; our
firm intention being, that they do conform themselves
in all things to the manner of living of the secular
priests, and to the general rules of the Church.
“Further, we do ordain, that after the publication of
this our letter, no person do presume to suspend the
execution thereof, under colour, title, or pretence of
any action, appeal, relief, explanation of doubts which
may arise, or any other pretext whatever, foreseen or
not foreseen. Our will and meaning is, that the
suppression and destruction of the said Society, and of
all its parts, shall have an immediate and
instantaneous effect in the manner here above set
forth; and that under pain of the greater
excommunication, to be immediately incurred by
whosoever shall presume to create the least
impediment or obstacle, or delay in the execution of
this our will: the said excommunication not to be taken
off but by ourselves, or our successors, the Roman
Pontiffs.
“Further, we ordain and command, by virtue of the
holy obedience to all and every ecclesiastical person,
regular and secular, of whatever rank, dignity, and
condition, and especially those who have been
heretofore of the said Company, that no one of them
do carry their audacity so far as to impugn, combat, or
even write or speak about the said suppression, or the
reasons and motives of it, or about the institute of the
Company, its form of government, or other
circumstance thereto relating, without an express
permission from the Roman Pontiff, and that under the
same pain of excommunication.
 “We forbid all and every one to offend any person
whatever on account of the said suppression, and
especially those who have been members of the said
Society, or to make use of any injurious, malevolent,
reproachful, or contemptuous language towards them,
whether verbally or by writing.
“We exhort all the Christian princes to exert all that
force, authority, and power which God has given them
for the defence of the holy Roman Church, so that, in
consequence of the respect and veneration which they
owe to the Apostolic See, things may be so ordered,
that these our letters have their full effect, and that
they attentively heeding all the articles therein
contained, do publish such ordonnances and
regulations as may prevent all excesses, disputes, and
dissensions among the faithful, whilst they carry this
our will into execution.
“Finally, we exhort all Christians, and entreat them
by the bowels of our Saviour Jesus Christ, to
remember that we have one Master, who is in heaven,
one Saviour, who has purchased us by his blood; that
we have all been again born in the water of baptism,
through the word of eternal life; that we have all been
declared sons of God, and co-heirs with Jesus Christ;
all fed with the same bread of the Catholic doctrine,
and of the Divine Word; that we are all one body in
Jesus Christ, of which we are members, consequently
it is absolutely necessary that, united by the common
bond of charity, they should live in peace with all men,
and consider it as their first duty to love one another,
remembering that he who loveth his neighbour
fulfilleth the law, avoiding studiously all occasion of
scandal, enmity, division, and such-like evils, which
were invented and promoted by the ancient enemy of
mankind, in order to disturb the Church of God, and
prevent the eternal happiness of the faithful, under the
false title of schools, opinions, and even of the
perfection of Christianity. On the contrary, every one
should exert his utmost endeavours to acquire that
true and sincere wisdom of which St James speaks in
his canonical epistle, ch. iii. v. 13.
“Further, our will and pleasure is, that though the
superiors and other members of the Society, and
others interested therein, have not consented to this
disposition, have not been cited or heard, still it shall
not at any time be allowed them to make any
observations on our present letter, to attack or
invalidate it, to demand a further examination of it, to
appeal from it, make it a matter of dispute, to reduce
it to the terms of law, to proceed against it by the
means of restitutionis ad integrum, to open their
mouth against it, to reduce it ad viam et terminos
juris, or, in short, to impugn it by any way whatever, of
right or fact, favour or justice; and even though these
means may be granted them, and though they should
have obtained them, still they may not make use of
them in court or out of court; nor shall they plead any
flaw, subreption, obreption, nullity, or invalidity in this
letter, or any other plea, how great, unforeseen, or
substantial it may be, nor the neglect of any form in
the above proceedings, or in any part thereof, nor the
neglect of any point founded on any law or custom,
and comprised in the body of laws, nor even the plea
of enormis enormissimæ et totalis læsionis, nor, in
short, any pretext or motive, however just, reasonable,
or privileged, not even though the omission of such
form or point should be of such nature as, without the
same being expressly guarded against, would render
every other act invalid. For all this notwithstanding, our
will and pleasure is, that these our letters should for
 ever and to all eternity be valid, permanent, and
efficacious, have and obtain their full force and effect,
and be inviolably observed by all and every whom they
do or may concern, now or hereafter, in any manner
whatever.
“In like manner, and not otherwise, we ordain that
all the matters here above specified, and every of
them, shall be carried into execution by the ordinary
judge and delegate, whether by the auditor, cardinal,
legate à latere, nuncio, or any other person who has,
or ought to have, authority or jurisdiction in any matter
or suits, taking from all and every of them all power of
interpreting these our letters. And this to be executed,
notwithstanding all constitutions, privileges, apostolic
commands, &c. &c. &c. And though to render the
abolition of these privileges legal they should have
been cited word for word, and not comprised only in
general clauses, yet for this time, and of our special
motion, we do derogate from this usage and custom,
declaring that all the tenor of the said privileges is, and
is to be supposed, as fully expressed and abrogated as
if they were cited word for word, and as if the usual
form had been observed.
“Lastly, our will and pleasure is, that to all copies of
the present Brief, signed by a notary public, and sealed
by some dignitary of the Church, the same force and
credit shall be given as to this original.
“Given at Rome, at St Mary the Greater,
under the seal of the Fisherman, the
21st day of July 1773, in the fifth year
of our Pontificate.”

Immediately after the promulgation of this Brief, the prelates

Macedonio and Alfani, accompanied by the Corsican soldiers,
presented themselves at the Gesù, called together all the members
of the Society, read to them the Brief of Suppression, and dispersed
them, for the moment, in different ecclesiastical establishments; the
General Ricci being confined to the English College. The two
prelates, who were members of a commission appointed to examine
and proceed in all this important matter, then took possession of the
building, put the seal on all papers and other valuable things, and
left the house in the keeping of the soldiers. Other commissioners
resorted to the same proceedings in the thirty-one establishments
which the Jesuits possessed in Rome; while in the provinces, the
bishops received and executed the same orders. Next morning, the
Collegio Romano, and all the other different schools of the Jesuits,
were taken possession of, and served by the Capuchins. But we
must here observe, that even before the Brief was published, the
Jesuits had been brought before divers tribunals in Rome, and in
other parts of the Papal States, accused and found guilty of various
misdemeanours; that several of their houses, as in Bologna Mecerata
Frascati, had been, by the bishops, subjected to visitation, and some
of them shut up; and that even the possessions, and all the valuable
things of the Collegio Romano, had been confiscated to pay
creditors. So that it may be said that even had Ganganelli wished to
preserve the Jesuits, he would have found it difficult to resist public
opinion, which, even in his own dominions, was so decidedly against
the order.
It will be perhaps well to take here a retrospective glance, and
rapidly examine the progressive march of the famous Society.
As we have seen, ten homeless and penniless enthusiasts, under
the guidance of a remarkable and superior intelligence, had decided
upon establishing a new religious order in a country already so
infested by such leprosy, that the Holy See itself had forbidden the
establishment of any new brotherhood. They were without friends,
without supporters; they met with many obstacles, which nothing
but the courage and indomitable energy of their chief could enable
them to overcome. They were obliged to beg, from door to door, a
hard piece of bread, and had nothing to shelter their wearied heads
but the roofs of hospitals. Yet all difficulties were vanquished, the
Society was established, and sixteen years after, in 1556, when
Ignatius died, the order numbered more than a thousand members,
was established in thirteen provinces, and was in possession of
many valuable establishments. A hundred years afterwards, the
members of the Society had increased to twelve thousand, the
provinces to thirty-four, their wealth and the number of their
establishments to a very considerable extent. Already, at this epoch,
they boasted of having three saints, eight or ten martyrs, and ten or
twelve of Loyola’s disciples had sat in the College of Cardinals. At the
time of the Suppression, the Society numbered thirty-nine houses of
professed members, 669 colleges, 61 novitiates, 196 seminaries, 335
residences, 223 missions, and 22,782 members, dispersed all over
the surface of the earth. The order then reckoned, as its chief glory,
in the register of its members, 24 cardinals, 6 electors of the empire,
19 princes, 21 archbishops, 121 titular bishops (so much for the
article in the Constitutions which forbids the member to accept of
any dignity), 11 martyrs, and 9 saints.
We wish we could give, with an equal degree of exactness, the
amount of their fortune, raised by some to a fabulous amount, and
by others represented as very insignificant. Nevertheless, we shall
try to come to a fair estimate of the whole, from what we know,
from their own confession, to have been a part of it.
Crétineau gives a very minute detail of the fortune possessed by
the Jesuits in France; and the total sum, according to his
calculations, amounted to 58 millions of francs.[398] In the same
volume, at page 303, the same historian says that the fortune the
fathers possessed in Spain was much more considerable—beaucoup
plus considerable—than that they had in France; let us, then, say 80
millions; while that which they possessed in Austria, according to the
same authority, amounted to 125 millions.[399] So that the total sum
of their fortunes in those three estates amounted, by their own
account, to 263 millions of francs. We, who know almost all the
establishments they had in Italy, do not hesitate to say that what
they possessed there amounted to an equal sum, 263. Now, let us
add to these 526 millions their other possessions in Belgium, Poland,
in the remainder of Germany, in Portugal, in other small states, and
in those rich mercantile establishments in both Indies, and we think
it may be boldly asserted that their fortune amounted, in the whole,
to a sum certainly not short of 40 millions sterling. So much for the
article of the Constitution recommending holy poverty as the bulwark
of religion. To this prodigious and almost incredible amount of
property—which, however, was not all productive, part of it
consisting in houses and colleges—the reverend fathers added the
annual income arising from pensions, or incomes assigned by
princes, towns, or chapters for the maintenance of divers colleges,
some of which assignments were so considerable as to amount to
£3000 yearly. Besides this, they had the annual revenues arising
from the presents which twice a year they received from two or
three hundred thousand pupils; the emoluments received by some of
them as private tutors, agents, or stewards of great families; and,
lastly, the——alms!!! Is not that a wonderful and astonishing fact,
which proves forcibly the cunning and cleverness of those monks,
who, to appearance, had nothing at heart but the conversion of
souls and the gratuitous education of children, and who were able,
in the space of 230 years, to accumulate the immense sum of forty
millions sterling?
However, when Ricci was examined, he swore that he had no
hidden treasures nor money laid out at interest; and we suppose
that the good father, not to tell an untruth, must have added secretly
after the words, we have no hidden treasures, “in the places where
you have looked for them, or where you supposed them to exist.”
We know, however, that after the Jesuits had been driven from
France, Spain, Naples, and Parma, “they were so terrified, that
Father Delci started instantly for Leghorn, carrying off the treasures
of the order, with the intention of transporting them to England; but
the General, who was less pusillanimous, stopped him in his
flight.”[400] What then became of all the moneys and valuable things
which the Jesuits possessed, since little or nothing was found in their
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