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 Page i

Engineering Fundamentals &

Problem Solving

Arvid R. Eide
Iowa State University

Steven K. Mickelson
Iowa State University

Cheryl L. Eide
Iowa State University

Roland D. Jenison
Iowa State University

Larry L. Northup
Iowa State University

Eighth Edition
 Page ii

ENGINEERING FUNDAMENTALS AND PROBLEM SOLVING

Published by McGraw Hill LLC, 1325 Avenue of the Americas, New

York, NY 10019. Copyright ©2023 by McGraw Hill LLC. All rights
reserved. Printed in the United States of America. No part of this
publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any
means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior
written consent of McGraw Hill LLC, including, but not limited to, in
any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast
for distance learning.

Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may

not be available to customers outside the United States.

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 LKV 27 26 25 24 23 22

ISBN 978-1-265-14055-7
MHID 1-265-14055-3

Cover Image: Liu zishan/Shutterstock

All credits appearing on page or at the end of the book are

considered to be an extension of the copyright page.

The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of
publication. The inclusion of a website does not indicate an
endorsement by the authors or McGraw Hill LLC, and McGraw Hill
LLC does not guarantee the accuracy of the information presented at
these sites.

mheducation.com/highered
 Page iii

Contents

1 The Engineering Profession

1.1 An Engineering Career

1.2 The Technology Team
1.3 The Engineering Profession
1.4 The Engineering Functions
1.5 The Engineering Disciplines
1.6 Conclusion

2 Education for Engineering

2.1 Education for Engineering

2.2 The Engineer as a Professional
2.3 Conclusion

3 Introduction to Engineering Design

3.1 An Introduction to Engineering Design

3.2 The Design Process
3.3 Design and the Customer
3.4 The Nature of Engineering Design
3.5 Experiencing the Design Process in Education
3.6 Design Opportunities and Challenges of the Future

4 Engineering Solutions

4.1 Introduction
4.2 Problem Analysis
4.3 The Engineering Method
4.4 Problem Presentation
4.5 Standards of Problem Presentation

5 Representation of Technical Information

5.1 Introduction
5.2 Collecting and Recording Data
5.3 General Graphing Procedures
5.4 Empirical Functions
5.5 Curve Fitting
5.6 Method of Selected Points and Least Squares
5.7 Empirical Equations: Linear
5.8 Empirical Equations: Power Curves
5.9 Empirical Equations: Exponential Curves

Page iv
6 Engineering Measurements and Estimations

6.1 Introduction
6.2 Measurements: Accuracy and Precision
6.3 Measurements: Significant Digits
6.4 Errors
6.5 Estimations

7 Dimensions, Units, and Conversions

7.1 Introduction
7.2 Progress in the United States toward Metrification
7.3 Physical Quantities
7.4 Dimensions
7.5 Units
7.6 SI Units and Symbols
7.7 Rules for Using SI Units
7.8 U.S. Customary and Engineering Systems
7.9 Conversion of Units
7.10 Celsius, Fahrenheit, and Absolute Scales

8 Introduction to Engineering Economics

8.1 Introduction
8.2 Simple and Compound Interest
8.3 Cash-Flow Diagram
8.4 Present Worth and Future Worth
8.5 Annual Worth and Gradients
8.6 Summary Table

9 Economics: Decision Making

9.1 Economic Decision Making

9.2 Depreciation and Taxes

10 Statistics

10.1 Introduction
10.2 Frequency Distribution
10.3 Measures of Central Tendency
10.4 Measures of Variation
10.5 Linear Regression
10.6 Coefficient of Correlation

Page v

11 Inferential Statistics and Decision Making

11.1 Inferential Statistics

11.2 Experimental Design
11.3 Sampling
11.4 Use of Various Distributions
11.5 Level of Significance and Confidence Intervals

12 Mechanics: Statics
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Scalars and Vectors
12.3 Forces
12.4 Types of Force Systems
12.5 Transmissibility
12.6 Resolution of Forces
12.7 Moments
12.8 Free-Body Diagrams
12.9 Equilibrium

13 Mechanics: Strength of Materials

13.1 Introduction
13.2 Stress
13.3 Strain
13.4 Modulus of Elasticity
13.5 Design Stress
13.6 Stress Concentration

14 Material Balance

14.1 Introduction
14.2 Conservation of Mass
14.3 Processes
14.4 A Systematic Approach

15 Energy Sources and Alternatives

15.1 Introduction
15.2 Fossil Fuels
15.3 Finite Supply of Fossil Fuels
15.4 Major Areas of Energy Consumption in the United States
15.5 Alternate Energy Sources

16 Fundamental Energy Principles

16.1 Introduction to Thermodynamics

16.2 Stored Energy
16.3 Energy in Transit
16.4 First Law of Thermodynamics: The Conservation of Energy
16.5 Second Law of Thermodynamics
16.6 Efficiency
16.7 Power
16.8 Refrigeration Cycles

Page vi

17 Electrical Theory

17.1 Introduction
17.2 Structure of Electricity
17.3 Static Electricity
17.4 Electric Current
17.5 Electric Potential
17.6 Simple Electric Circuits
17.7 Resistance
17.8 DC Circuit Concepts
17.9 DC Electric Power
17.10 Terminal Voltage
17.11 Kirchhoff’s Laws
17.12 Mesh Currents

18 Flowcharts

18.1 Introduction
18.2 Flowcharting

Appendices

A. Part 1 Unit Conversions

Part 2 Unit Prefixes
Part 3 Physical Constants
Part 4 Approximate Specific Gravities and Densities
B. Greek Alphabet
C. Chemical Elements
D. NSPE Code of Ethics for Engineers
E. Areas under the Standard Normal Curve from 0 to z
F. Part 1 Selected Algebra Topics
Part 2 Selected Trigonometry Topics

Answers to Selected Problems

Index
 Page vii

Preface

To the Student
As you begin the study of engineering no doubt you are filled with
enthusiasm, curiosity, and a desire to succeed. Your first year will be
spent primarily in establishing a solid foundation in mathematics,
basic sciences, and communications. Also, you will be introduced to
selected engineering topics that will demonstrate how engineers
approach problem solving, arrive at correct solutions, and interface
with other engineering professionals and the general public to
implement the solutions. You will see how mathematics, science, and
communications provide the means to solve problems and convey
the solutions in a manner that can be clearly understood and quickly
verified by the appropriate persons. Next, you will discover the need
for more in-depth study in many engineering subjects in order to
solve increasingly complex problems. We believe the material
presented in this book will provide you with a fundamental
understanding of how engineers function in today’s technological
world. After your study of topics in this text, we believe you will be
eager to enter the advanced engineering subjects in your chosen
discipline, confident that you will successfully achieve your
educational goals. You will also find profiles of practicing engineers
who were in your shoes a few years ago. They will show the result of
your hard work will result in amazing careers.

To the Instructor
Engineering courses for first-year students cover a wide range of
topics from an overview of the engineering profession to discipline-
specific subjects. A broad set of course goals, including coverage of
prerequisite material, motivation, and retention, have spawned a
variety of first-year activity. Courses in introductory engineering and
problem solving routinely utilize spreadsheets and mathematical
solvers in addition to teaching the rudiments of a computer
language. The Internet has become a major instructional tool,
providing a wealth of data to supplement your class notes and
textbooks. This eighth edition continues the authors’ intent to
introduce the profession of engineering and to provide students with
many of the tools and techniques needed to succeed.
The eighth edition of this text draws on the experiences the
authors have encountered with the first seven editions and
incorporates many excellent suggestions from faculty and students
using the text. Over the past 40+ years the fundamentals of problem
solving have remained nearly the same, but the numerical tools and
presentation techniques have improved tremendously. Therefore our
general objectives remain the same for this eighth edition, and we
have concentrated on new and emerging problems like microplastics
pollution and desalination of water for drinking and community use
and improvements in the textual material.
The objectives are (1) to motivate engineering students during
their first year when exposure to the subject matter of engineering is
limited, (2) to provide students with experience in solving problems
in both SI and customary units while presenting solutions in a logical
manner, (3) to introduce students to subject areas common to most
engineering disciplines that require the application of fundamental
engineering concepts, and (4) to develop students’ skills in solving
open-ended problems.

Page viii

The material in this book is presented in a manner that allows

each of you to emphasize certain aspects more than others without
loss of continuity. In the eighth edition, new engineering graduate
profiles have been added to help student understand better what an
engineer does and what recommendations they would have for a new
engineering student. Modern engineering examples, data, and
photos have been integrated throughout the chapters, and more
problems have been added to Connect. The problems that follow
most chapters vary in difficulty so that students can experience
success rather quickly and still be challenged as problems become
more complex.
There is sufficient material in the 18 chapters for a three-credit
semester course. By omitting some chapters and/or by varying
coverage from term to term, you can present a sound introductory
problem-solving course in two to four quarter credits or two
semester credits.
The book may be visualized as having three major sections. The
first, encompassing the first three chapters, is an introduction to the
engineering profession. Chapter 1 provides information on
engineering disciplines and functions. If a formal orientation course
is given separately, Chapter 1 can be simply a reading assignment
and the basis for students to investigate disciplines of interest.
Chapter 2 outlines the course of study and preparation for an
engineering work environment. Interdisciplinary projects, teaming,
and ethics are discussed. Chapter 3 is an introduction to the design
process. If time permits, this material can be supplemented with case
studies and your personal experiences to provide an interesting and
motivating look at engineering.
The second major section, Processing Engineering Data, includes
materials we believe that all engineering students require in
preparation for success in the engineering profession. Chapters 4
and 5 provide procedures for approaching an engineering problem,
determining the necessary data and method of solution, and
presenting the results. The authors have found that emphasis in this
area will reap benefits when the material and problems become more
difficult later.
Chapters 6 and 7 include engineering estimations and
dimensions and units (including both customary and SI units).
Throughout the book discussions and example problems tend to
emphasize SI metric. However, other dimension systems are used
extensively today, so a number of our examples and problems
contain nonmetric units to ensure that students are exposed to
conversions and other units that are commonly used.
 Chapters 8 and 9, Engineering Economy, demonstrate the
importance of understanding the time value of money in making
engineering decisions. Chapter 8 emphasizes basic calculations using
everyday information such as credit card debt, savings accounts, and
current interest rates. Additionally, the Summary Table 8.8 is a
valuable resource that students use well beyond this course. Chapter
9 follows with applications to engineering decision making for
equipment selection, depreciation, investments, and taxes. Chapters
10 and 11, Statistics, provide an introduction to a subject that is
assuming a greater role in engineering decision making. Chapter 10
introduces basic descriptive statistics, linear regression, and
coefficient of correlation. Chapter 11 includes normal distributions as
well as Student’s t, F, and Chi-Square. It also adds new material on
the use of inferential statistics and a general introduction to
randomized sampling and experimental design. The ability to take
large amounts of test or field data, perform statistical analyses, and
draw correct conclusions is crucial in establishing performance
parameters. Engineering Economy and Statistics are subdivided,
permitting you to choose the first chapter for an introduction to the
fundamentals and, if time permits, applications to specific
engineering activities can be covered.

Page ix

The third major section provides engineering content that you

can use to reinforce fundamentals from the previous section.
Chapters 12 through 17 allow you as an instructor a great deal of
flexibility. Chapters 12 and 13 on engineering mechanics provide an
introduction to statics and strength of materials. Force vectors, two-
dimensional force systems, and the conditions of equilibrium are
emphasized in Chapter 12. Chapter 13 emphasizes stresses and
strains and requires Chapter 12 as a prerequisite. Chapter 15 has
undergone significant updating. Chapter 15 discusses energy forms
and sources. The authors believe that engineering students need to
become aware of the world’s current dependence on fossil fuels very
early in their studies so they may apply this knowledge to the use and
development of alternative sources of energy.
 Chapter 16 follows with an introduction to thermodynamics and
applications of the First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics. The
study of Chapter 16 should be preceded by coverage of Chapter 15.
Chapter 14, Material Balance, and Chapter 17, Electrical Theory,
complete the third major section and contain upgraded example
problems.
Certain problems suggest the use of a computer or spreadsheet
for solution. These are open-ended or “what-if” problems.
Depending on the students’ prior work with programming or
spreadsheets, additional instruction may be required before
attempting these problems. Chapter 18 covers the use of flowcharts,
which can be of tremendous help when programming with all kinds
of computer languages.
The appendices are provided as a ready reference on selected
areas that will enable students to review topics from algebra and
trigonometry. The National Society of Professional Engineers’ Code
of Ethics for Engineers is included and is highly recommended for
reading and class discussion. Other appendices include tables, unit
conversions, formulas, and selected answers to chapter problems.
Because the text was written for first-year engineering students,
mathematical expertise beyond algebra, trigonometry, and analytical
geometry is not required for any material in the book. The authors
have found, however, that additional experience in pre-calculus
mathematics is very helpful as a prerequisite for this text.

Acknowledgments
The authors are indebted to many who assisted in the development
of this edition of the textbook. First, we would like to thank the
faculty of the former Division of Engineering Fundamentals and
Multidisciplinary Design at Iowa State University, who have taught
the engineering computations courses over the past 40+ years. They,
with the support of engineering faculty from other departments,
have made the courses a success by their efforts. Several thousands
of students have taken the courses, and we want to thank them for
their comments and ideas, which have influenced this edition. The
many suggestions of faculty and students alike have provided us with
much information that was necessary to improve the previous
editions. Special thanks go to the reviewers for this edition whose
suggestions were extremely valuable. These suggestions greatly
shaped the manuscript in preparation of the eighth edition.
Finally, we thank our families for their continuing support of our
efforts.

Arvid R. Eide
Steven K. Mickelson
Cheryl L. Eide
Roland D. Jenison
Larry L. Northup
 Page x

Instructors: Student Success

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Page xi

Students: Get Learning that Fits

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 Page xiii

About the Authors

Arvid R. Eide received his baccalaureate degree in mechanical

engineering from Iowa State University. Upon graduation he spent
two years in the U.S. Army as a commissioned officer and then
returned to Iowa State as an instructor while completing a master’s
degree in mechanical engineering. Professor Eide has worked for
Western Electric, John Deere, and the Trane Company. He received
his Ph.D. in 1974 and was appointed professor and Chair of
Freshman Engineering, a position he held from 1974 to 1989, at
which time Dr. Eide was appointed Associate Dean of Academic
Affairs. In 1996, he returned to teaching as a professor of mechanical
engineering. In January 2000 he retired from Iowa State University
as professor emeritus of mechanical engineering.
Steven K. Mickelson is the Chuck R. and Jane F. Olsen Professor
of Engineering at Iowa State University. His tenure home is in the
Department of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering (ABE). Dr.
Mickelson was the Chair for the ABE department from 2011 to 2021.
He is currently the Special Advisor to the Senior Vice President and
Provost, co-leading the roleout of Iowa State University’s new
student information and receivable system. His teaching specialties
include computer-aided graphics, engineering problem solving,
engineering design, and soil and water conservation engineering. His
research areas include evaluation of best management practices for
reducing surface and groundwater contamination, manure
management evaluation for environmental protection of water
resources, and the scholarship of teaching and learning. Dr.
Mickelson has been very active in the American Society for
Engineering Education and the American Society of Agricultural and
Biosystems Engineers for the past 40 years. He received his
agricultural engineering degrees from Iowa State University in 1982,
1984, and 1991. He is a fellow within the American Society for
Agricultural and Biological Engineers.
Cheryl L. Eide has worked with undergraduate student
recruitment, retention, advising, and the development of programs
to support women and minorities pursuing engineering. Her
teaching portfolio includes engineering fundamentals and problem
solving, engineering economy, material handling, factory layout, and
computer simulation. Dr. Eide helped to re-activate and charter the
Heart of Iowa Section of the Society of Women Engineers (SWE) and
served as the faculty advisor to the Iowa State SWE student section.
She is a member of the Cardinal Key Honor Society, which
recognizes outstanding leadership, character, service, and
scholarship at Iowa State University where Dr. Eide earned her
bachelor’s, master’s, and doctorate degrees.
Roland D. (Rollie) Jenison taught for 35 years in aerospace
engineering and lower-division general engineering. He taught
courses in engineering problem solving, engineering design graphics,
aircraft performance, and aircraft stability and control, in addition to
serving as academic adviser to many engineering students. He was a
member of the American Society for Engineering Education (ASEE)
and the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA),
and published numerous papers on engineering education. He
served as chair of the Engineering Design Graphics Division of ASEE
in 1986–1987. He was active in the development of improved
teaching methodologies through the application of team learning,
hands-on projects, and open-ended problem solving. He retired in
June 2000 as professor emeritus in the Department of Aerospace
Engineering and Engineering Mechanics at Iowa State University.

Page xiv

Larry L. Northup is a professor emeritus of civil, construction, and

environmental engineering at Iowa State University. He has 40 years
of teaching experience, with 25 years devoted to lower-division
engineering courses in problem solving, graphics, and design. He has
two years of industrial experience and is a registered engineer in
Iowa. He has been active in ASEE (Engineering Design Graphics
Division), having served as chair of the Freshman Year Committee
and Director of Technical and Professional Committees (1981–1984).
He also served as chair of the Freshman Programs Constituent
Committee of ASEE in 1983–1984.
 Page 1

CHAPTER 1

The Engineering Profession

Chapter Objectives
When you complete your study of this chapter, you will be able to:

Understand the role of engineering in the world

Understand how to prepare for a meaningful engineering career
Understand the role of an engineer in the engineering workplace
Describe the responsibilities and roles of the most common engineering
disciplines
Gain academic career advice from past engineering graduates from
various engineering disciplines

1.1 An Engineering Career

The rapidly expanding and developing sphere of science and technology

may seem overwhelming to the individual exploring a career in a
technological field. A technical specialist today may be called engineer,
scientist, technologist, or technician, depending on education, industrial
affiliation, and specific work. For example, about 700 colleges and
universities in 29 countries offer close to 3 600 engineering programs
accredited by ABET, the main accrediting body for engineering and
technology programs. Included in these programs are such traditional
specialties as aerospace, agricultural, architectural, chemical, civil,
computer, construction, electrical, industrial, manufacturing, materials,
mechanical, and software engineering—as well as expanding
bioengineering, biomedical, biological, electromechanical, environmental,
and telecommunications. Programs in engineering, mechanics, mining,
nuclear, ceramic, software, and petroleum engineering add to a lengthy list
of career options in engineering alone. Coupled with thousands of
programs in science and technical training offered at hundreds of
universities, colleges, and technical schools, the task of choosing the right
field no doubt seems formidable (Figure 1.1).

Figure 1.1 Imagine the number of engineers who were

involved in the design of the windmill related to construction,
material choices, electrical systems, and mechanical systems.
Oorka/Shutterstock

Since you are reading this book, we assume that you are interested in
studying engineering or at least are trying to decide whether to do so. Up to
this point in your academic life you probably have had little experience
with engineering as a career and have gathered your impressions from
advertising materials, counselors, educators, and perhaps a practicing
engineer or two. Now you must investigate as many careers as you can as
soon as possible to be sure of making the right choice.
The study of engineering requires a strong background in mathematics
and the physical sciences. Section 1.5 discusses typical areas of study
within an engineering program that lead to the bachelor’s degree. You also
should consult with your academic counselor about specific course
requirements. If you are enrolled in an engineering program but have not
chosen a specific discipline, consult with an adviser or someone on the
engineering faculty about particular course requirements in your areas of
interest.
 Page 2

When considering a career in engineering or any closely related fields,

you should explore the answers to several questions:

What is engineering?
What are the career opportunities for engineers?
What are the engineering disciplines?
Where does the engineer fit into the technical spectrum?
How are engineers educated?
What is meant by professionalism and engineering ethics?
What have engineers done in the past?
What are engineers doing now? What will engineers do in the future?
What are the workplace competencies needed to be a successful
engineer?

Finding answers to such questions can be difficult and time consuming,

but essential to determining the proper path for you as an individual. To
assist you in assessing your educational goals, we have included a number
of student profiles. These are students that have recently graduated from
an accredited engineering program and selected different career paths.
Each student background is unique and each career path is different. We
hope you find these helpful.

Page 3

1.2 The Technology Team

In 1876, 15 men led by Thomas Alva Edison gathered in Menlo Park, New
Jersey, to work on “inventions.” By 1887, the group had secured over 400
patents, including ones for the electric lightbulb and the phonograph.
Edison’s approach typified that used for early engineering developments.
Usually one person possessed nearly all the knowledge in one field and
directed the research, development, design, and manufacture of new
products in this field.
Today, however, technology has become so advanced and sophisticated
that one person cannot possibly be aware of all the intricacies of a single
device or process. The concept of systems engineering thus has evolved;
that is, technological problems are studied and solved by a technology
team.
Scientists, engineers, technologists, technicians, and craftspersons form
the technology team. The functions of the team range across what often is
called the technical spectrum. At one end of the spectrum are functions
that involve work with scientific and engineering principles. At the other
end of this technical spectrum are functions that bring designs into reality.
Successful technology teams use the unique abilities of all team members
to bring about a successful solution to a human need.
Each of the technology team members has a specific function in the
technical spectrum, and it is of utmost importance that each specialist
understands the role of all team members. It is not difficult to find
instances where the education and tasks of team members overlap. For any
engineering accomplishment, successful team performance requires
cooperation that can be realized only through an understanding of the
functions of the technology team. The technology team is one part of a
larger team that has the overall responsibility for bringing a device,
process, or system into reality. This team, frequently called a project or
design team, may include managers, sales representatives, field service
persons, financial representatives, and purchasing personnel in addition to
the technology team members. These project teams meet frequently from
the beginning of the project to ensure that schedules and design
specifications are met, and that potential problems are diagnosed early. We
will now investigate each of the team specialists in more detail.

1.2.1 Scientist
Scientists have as their prime objective increased knowledge of nature (see
Figure 1.2). In the quest for new knowledge, the scientist conducts research
in a systematic manner. The research steps, referred to as the scientific
method, are often summarized as follows:

1. Formulate a hypothesis to explain a natural phenomenon.

2. Conceive and execute experiments to test the hypothesis.
3. Analyze test results and state conclusions.
4. Generalize the hypothesis into the form of a law or theory if experimental
results are in harmony with the hypothesis.
5. Publish the new knowledge.

Figure 1.2 Scientists use the laboratory for discovery of

new knowledge.
SDI Productions/Getty Images

An open and inquisitive mind is an obvious characteristic of a scientist.

Although the scientist’s primary objective is that of obtaining an increased
knowledge of nature, many scientists are also engaged in the development
of their ideas into new and useful creations. But to differentiate quite
simply between the scientist and engineer, we might say that the true
scientist seeks to understand more about natural phenomena, whereas the
engineer primarily engages in applying new knowledge. Science degree
programs include chemistry, physics, agronomy, biology, horticulture,
botany, genetics, earth science, geology, meteorology, and many more.

Page 4

1.2.2 Engineer
The profession of engineering takes the knowledge of mathematics and
natural sciences gained through study, experience, and practice and
applies this knowledge with judgment to develop ways to utilize the
materials and forces of nature for the benefit of all humans.
 An engineer is a person who possesses this knowledge of mathematics
and natural sciences, and through the principles of analysis and design
applies this knowledge to the solution of problems and the development of
devices, processes, structures, and systems. Both the engineer and scientist
are thoroughly educated in the mathematical and physical sciences, but the
scientist primarily uses this knowledge to acquire new knowledge, whereas
the engineer applies the knowledge to design and develops usable devices,
structures, and processes. In other words, the scientist seeks to know, the
engineer aims to do.
You might conclude that the engineer is totally dependent on the
scientist for the knowledge to develop ideas for human benefit. Such is not
always the case. Scientists learn a great deal from the work of engineers.
For example, the science of thermodynamics was developed by a physicist
from studies of practical steam engines built by engineers who had no
science to guide them. On the other hand, engineers have applied the
principles of nuclear fission discovered by scientists to develop nuclear
power plants and numerous other devices and systems requiring nuclear
reactions for their operation. The scientist’s and engineer’s functions
frequently overlap, leading at times to a somewhat blurred image of the
engineer. What distinguishes the engineer from the scientist in broad
terms, however, is that the engineer often conducts research but does so
for the purpose of solving a problem.

Page 5

The end result of an engineering effort—generally referred to as design

—is a device, structure, system, or process that satisfies a need. A
successful design is achieved when a logical procedure is followed to meet a
specific need. The procedure, called the design process, is similar to the
scientific method with respect to a step-by-step routine, but it differs in
objectives and end results. The design process encompasses the following
activities (all of which must be completed):

1. Define the problem to be solved.

2. Acquire and assemble pertinent data.
3. Identify solution constraints and criteria.
4. Develop alternative solutions.
5. Select a solution based on analysis of alternatives.
6. Communicate the results.
As the designer proceeds through each step, new information may be
discovered and new objectives may be specified for the design. If so, the
designer must backtrack and repeat steps. For example, if none of the
alternatives appears to be economically feasible when the final solution is
to be selected, the designer must redefine the problem or possibly relax
some of the constraints to admit less expensive alternatives. Thus, because
decisions must frequently be made at each step as a result of new
developments or unexpected outcomes, the design process becomes
iterative.
As you progress through your engineering education, you will solve
problems and learn the design process using the techniques of analysis and
synthesis. Analysis is the act of separating a system into its constituent
parts, whereas synthesis is the act of combining parts into a useful system.
In the design process you will observe how analysis and synthesis are
utilized to generate a solution to a human need.

1.2.3 Technologist and Technician

Much of the actual work of converting the ideas of scientists and engineers
into tangible results is performed by technologists and technicians (see
Figure 1.3). A technologist generally possesses a bachelor’s degree and a
technician an associate’s degree. Technologists are involved in the direct
application of their education and experience to make appropriate
modifications in designs as the need arises. Technicians primarily perform
computations and experiments and prepare design drawings as requested
by engineers and scientists. Thus technicians (typically) are educated in
mathematics and science but not to the depth required of scientists and
engineers. Technologists and technicians obtain a basic knowledge of
engineering and scientific principles in a specific field and develop certain
manual skills that enable them to communicate technically with all
members of the technology team. Some tasks commonly performed by
technologists and technicians include drafting, estimating, model building,
data recording and reduction, troubleshooting, servicing, and specification.
Often they are the vital link between the idea on paper and the idea in
practice.
 Figure 1.3 Technicians modify a tabletop robot for use in
a research project.
Goran Bogicevic/Shutterstock

Page 6

1.2.4 Skilled Tradespersons/Craftspersons

Members of the skilled trades possess the skills necessary to produce parts
specified by scientists, engineers, technologists, and technicians.
Craftspersons do not need to have an in-depth knowledge of the principles
of science and engineering incorporated in a design (see Figure 1.4). They
often are trained on the job, serving an apprenticeship during which the
skills and abilities to build and operate specialized equipment are
developed. Specialized positions include welder, machinist, electrician,
carpenter, plumber, and mason.
 Figure 1.4 Skilled craftspersons are key in building
specialized equipment as designed by the engineers.
Don Hammond/Design Pics

1.3 The Engineering Profession

Engineering is an exciting profession. Engineers don’t just sit in a cubicle

and solve mathematical equations; they work in teams to solve challenging
engineering problems to make life safer, easier, and more efficient for the
world we live in. Engineers must demonstrate competence in initiative,
professionalism, engineering knowledge, teamwork, innovation,
communication, cultural adaptability, safety awareness, customer focus,
general knowledge, continuous learning, planning, analysis and judgment,
quality orientation, and integrity. In addition, engineers are expected to be
leaders. Engineers help to shape government policies, international
development, and education at all levels. Engineering is fun and
challenging, and it provides for a meaningful career.

Page 7

1.4 The Engineering Functions

As we alluded to in Section 1.2, engineering feats dating from earliest

recorded history up to the Industrial Revolution could best be described as
individual accomplishments. The various pyramids of Egypt were usually
designed by one individual, who directed tens of thousands of laborers
during construction. The person in charge called every move, made every
decision, and took the credit if the project was successful or accepted the
consequences if the project failed.
The Industrial Revolution brought a rapid increase in scientific findings
and technological advances. One-person engineering teams were no longer
practical or desirable. Today, no single aerospace engineer is responsible
for a jumbo jet and no one civil engineer completely designs a bridge.
Automobile manufacturers assign several thousand engineers to the design
of a new model. So we not only have the technology team as described
earlier, but we have engineers from many disciplines who are working
together on single projects.
One approach to explaining an engineer’s role in the technology
spectrum is to describe the different types of work that engineers do. For
example, agricultural, biological, civil, electrical, mechanical, and other
engineers become involved in design, which is an engineering function.
The engineering functions, which are discussed briefly in this section, are
research, development, design, production, testing, construction,
operations, sales, management, consulting, and teaching. Several of the
engineering disciplines will be discussed later in the chapter.

Page 8

To avoid confusion between “engineering disciplines” and “engineering

functions,” let us consider the following. Normally a student selects a
curriculum (e.g., aerospace, chemical, mechanical) either before or soon
after admission to an engineering program. When and how the choice is
made varies with each school. The point is, the student does not choose a
function but rather a discipline. To illustrate further, consider a student
who has chosen mechanical engineering. This student will, during an
undergraduate education, learn how mechanical engineers are involved in
the engineering functions of research, development, design, and so on.
Some program options allow a student to pursue an interest in a specific
subdivision within the curriculum, such as energy conversion in a
mechanical engineering program. Most other curricula have similar
options.
Upon graduation, when you accept a job with a company, you will be
assigned to a functional team performing in a specific area such as
research, design, or sales. Within some companies, particularly smaller
ones, you may become involved in more than one function—design and
testing, for example. It is important to realize that regardless of your choice
of discipline, you may become involved in one or more of the functions
discussed in the following paragraphs:

Space Exploration: Where Do We Go from Here?

Clayton Anderson
 NASA

Clayton Anderson received his undergraduate degree in Physics from

Hastings College, Nebraska, and an MS in Aerospace Engineering from
Iowa State University. He joined the Johnson Space Center (JSC) in 1983
in Mission Planning and Analysis, before moving to the Missions
Operations Directorate and leading the trajectory design team for the
Galileo planetary mission. He became supervisor of the Ascent Flight
Design Section in 1992, which was then reorganized into the Flight
Design Engineering Group. In 1993 he was named chief of the Flight
Design Branch and in 1996 he assumed the role of manager of the
Emergency Operations Center at JSC.
His broad expertise in space operations at JSC led to his selection as a
NASA Mission Specialist astronaut in 1998. Intensive training for
missions to the International Space Station (ISS) included physiological
aspects and flight training in a T-38 aircraft, as well as underwater
training and wilderness survival techniques. In 2007, Anderson
embarked on his first space adventure aboard the Space Shuttle Atlantis
to the ISS. Aboard the ISS he served as the Flight Engineer and Science
Officer. During the 152-day stay, he performed three EVAs
(extravehicular activity or spacewalks) totaling 18 hours. His second
mission came in 2010 when he rode Space Shuttle Discovery on a
resupply mission to the ISS. During this short 15-day stay, he performed
three more EVAs totaling 20 hours, 17 minutes.
Anderson retired from NASA in 2013 very proud of his
accomplishments and filled with a strong desire to educate the public on
the knowledge, research, and training necessary to conduct continued
space exploration in a logical and safe manner. To this end, he has
traveled extensively around the country giving keynote presentations on
his experiences and visions for future space endeavors. Recently there
have been efforts to develop commercial launching rockets to transport
travelers into space (and the ISS), to the moon, and possibly to Mars.
Anderson asks, “What capabilities does the commercial space industry
need to have in order to transport spacefaring neophytes safely? Will
passengers need three years of intensive astronaut training? How could
engineers design controls and user interfaces to better serve
inexperienced space travelers?”
Anderson believes we must take measured steps in educating and
training the public for space travel and he believes the first step is using
our Moon. “. . . Theoreticians claim that the surface of Mars or the Moon
may provide on-site (in situ) resources that could be used. They tout our
ability to concoct fuel, extract water, and create oxygen, simply by living
off the land. While this may be true, how do we do this? What
technologies are needed? It does not seem completely practical to commit
to Mars before we have answers to these fundamental questions. We can
use our 35 years of space experience with moon missions and space
station operations to develop the foundation for longer missions. A
mission to Mars and its 20-minute communication lapses introduce new
psychological implications within an 18-month trip requiring sufficient
fuel, food, water, spare parts, clothing, etc. Planning and training for such
a mission is a huge and, as yet, not completely defined task.”
In 2014, Anderson was named an Iowa State University Distinguished
Faculty Fellow in Aerospace Engineering. He has developed a prototype
workshop in space flight operations intended to expose students to
training events similar to those completed by astronauts. For example,
scuba diving certification will help students learn how to work in a
hazardous environment while following distinctly operational
procedures. Wilderness survival training uniquely introduces students to
the basic concepts of mission planning, expeditionary behavior, and
teamwork. Aircraft flight simulation training reinforces procedural
concepts while introducing more “big picture” and anticipatory thinking.
Further, in an effort to provide ISU graduating students with a new and
different thought process, the workshop attempts to address the needs of
the emerging commercial spaceflight companies, by providing students
whose decision analysis and leadership capabilities reflect this more
operational background. Supplemented with general training in
spacecraft subsystems, space physiology, and space suits, the workshop
experience is coupled with virtual reality spaceflight scenarios using the
C6 virtual reality room in the Virtual Reality Applications Center at Iowa
State University. Anderson is collaborating with Dr. Nir Keren, Associate
Professor in the Department of Agricultural and BioSystems Engineering
and a Graduate Faculty member at the Virtual Reality Applications
Center. Dr. Keren utilizes VirtuTrace, a powerful simulation engine he
developed with his research team, to simulate the main U.S. living section
of the ISS and the exterior of the station in full scale three-dimension in
exquisite detail. Students experience the space station environment and
the inherent stressors associated with combating an in-flight emergency
situation.

Page 9

1.4.1 Research
Successful research is one catalyst for starting the activities of a technology
team or, in many cases, the activities of an entire industry. The research
engineer seeks new findings, as does the scientist; but keep in mind that
the research engineer also seeks a way to use the discovery.
Key qualities of a successful research engineer are perceptiveness,
patience, and self-confidence. Most students interested in research will
pursue the master’s and doctor’s degrees in order to develop their
intellectual abilities and the necessary research skills. An alert and
perceptive mind is needed to recognize nature’s truths when they are
encountered. When attempting to reproduce natural phenomena in the
laboratory, cleverness and patience are prime attributes. Research often
involves tests, failures, retests, and so on for long periods of time (see
Figure 1.5). Research engineers therefore are often discouraged and
frustrated and must strain their abilities and rely on their self-confidence
in order to sustain their efforts to a successful conclusion.

Figure 1.5 Research requires high-cost, sophisticated

equipment.
Janiecbros/Getty Images

Billions of dollars are spent each year on research at colleges and

universities, industrial research laboratories, government installations,
and independent research institutes. The team approach to research is
predominant today primarily because of the need to incorporate a vast
amount of technical information into the research effort. Individual
research also is carried out but not to the extent it was several years ago. A
large share of research monies are channeled into the areas of energy,
environment, health, defense, and space exploration. A fast growing
research area is nanotechnology. The Royal Academy of Engineering
describes it this way: “Nanotechnology is the application of nanoscale
science, engineering and technology to produce novel materials and
devices, including biological and medical applications.” Research funding
from federal agencies is very sensitive to national and international
priorities. During a career as a research engineer you might expect to work
in many diverse, seemingly unrelated areas, but your qualifications will
allow you to adapt to many different research efforts.

Page 10

1.4.2 Development
Using existing knowledge and new discoveries from research, the
development engineer attempts to produce a functional device, structure,
or process (see Figure 1.6). Building and testing scale or pilot models is the
primary means by which the development engineer evaluates ideas. This
has been made easier to accomplish with 3-D modeling software, rapid
prototyping equipment, and virtual reality software and visualization tools.
A major portion of development work requires use of well-known devices
and processes in conjunction with established theories. Thus reading
available literature and having a solid background in the sciences and in
engineering principles are necessary for the engineer’s success.
 Figure 1.6 Development engineers take an idea and
produce a concept of a functional product or system. The
result of this activity is passed on to the design engineers for
completing necessary details for production.
GaudiLab/Shutterstock

Many people who suffer from heart irregularities are able to function
normally today because of the pacemaker, an electronic device that
maintains a regular heartbeat. The pacemaker is an excellent example of
the work of development engineers. The first pacemakers developed in the
1950s were externally AC-powered units that sent pulses of energy through
an implanted lead wire to the heart. However, the power requirement for
heart stimulus was so great that patients suffered severe burns on their
chests. As improvements were studied, research in surgery and electronics
enabled development engineers to devise a battery-powered external
pacemaker that eliminated concerns about chest burns and allowed the
patients more mobility. Although more efficient from the standpoint of
power requirements, the devices were uncomfortable, and patients
frequently suffered infection where the wires entered the chest. Finally,
two independent teams developed the first internal pacemaker, eight years
after the original pacemaker had been tested. Their experience and
research with tiny pulse generators for spacecraft led to this achievement.
But the very fine wire used in these early models proved to be inadequate
and quite often failed, forcing patients to have the entire pacemaker
replaced. A team of engineers at General Electric developed a pacemaker
that incorporated a new wire, called a helicable. The helicable consisted of
49 strands of wire coiled together and then wound into a spring. The
spring diameter was about 46 μm, one-half the diameter of a human hair.
Thus, with doctors and development engineers working together, an
effective, comfortable device was perfected that has enabled many heart
patients to enjoy a more active life.

Page 11

Research and Development Engineer

Molly Adam
 Molly Adam

Molly Adam earned her BS in Chemical and Biological Engineering from

the University of Wisconsin-Madison in 2018. Molly has worked for
Lonza, Inc. in Bend, Oregon as a Research and Development Engineer
since graduation. Lonza is a global partner to the pharmaceutical,
biotech, and specialty ingredients markets. Her primary responsibilities
include being the engineering lead on new research projects focused on
innovation in pharmaceutical drug-delivery applications.
Since completing her degree, she has taken short courses in technical
writing, coding, and pharmaceutical solid dosage forms to further her
personal and professional goals. Because she aspires to be a manager, she
plans to pursue a master’s in business administration (MBA) in the
future.
As a student, Molly found that teamwork and communication were
very important skills. Her advice is: Form study groups! The
homework is really challenging, and it is helpful to find a group of
students to work through tough problem sets. This will help you feel less
alone and master the concepts. As a practicing engineer, Molly works on
teams every day, so effective communication and teamwork skills are
very important.
At the University, Molly engaged in the club lacrosse team, art classes,
and a student organization that planned an annual STEM education
event to help kids get excited about science. These activities provided a
fun outlet to balance the tough class schedule of engineering. It is
important to find a work-life balance to stay mentally and physically
healthy. Molly is involved in STEM programming for children in her
community and she also makes time for creative hobbies because she
knows that a strong creative mind is good at solving challenging
problems at work.

Page 12
 To illustrate how important technological changes can arise from the
work of development engineers, here’s what’s become of the pacemaker.
Today pacemakers have been developed by engineers and doctors to
operate at more than one speed, enabling the patient to speed up or slow
down heart rate depending on physical activity. Motion sensors are used to
detect breathing rate and can be programmed by the doctor for individual
needs. The new pager-sized pacemakers are also now programmed to act
as sensors to detect problems with intermittent atrial fibrillation and
switch the pacemaker to a different mode that paces the lower heart
chamber only. For those with damage to the heart muscles and the heart’s
electrical systems, the new biventricular pacemaker can pace both of the
lower heart chambers so that they beat at the same rate. In addition to the
advances in pacemakers, medical research has evolved many other
procedures for correcting heart deficiencies. The field of electrophysiology,
combining cardiology with electrical and computer engineering, is enabling
thousands of persons with heart irregularities to live productive and happy
lives.
We have discussed the pacemaker in detail to point out that important
changes in technology can arise from the work of development engineers.
That it took only 13 years to develop an efficient, dependable pacemaker,
five years to develop the transistor, and 25 years to develop the digital
computer indicates that modern engineering methods generate and
improve products nearly as fast as research generates new knowledge.
Successful development engineers are ingenious and creative. Astute
judgment often is required in devising models that can be used to
determine whether a project will be successful in performance and
economical in production. Obtaining an advanced degree is helpful, but
not as important as it is for an engineer who will be working in research.
Practical experience more than anything else produces the qualities
necessary for a career as a development engineer.
Development engineers frequently are asked to demonstrate that an
idea will work. Within certain limits they do not work out the exact
specifications that a final product should possess. Such matters are usually
left to the design engineer if the idea is deemed feasible.

1.4.3 Design
The development engineer produces a concept or model that is passed on
to the design engineer for converting into a device, process, or structure
(see Figure 1.7). The designer relies on education and experience to
evaluate many possible design options, keeping in mind the cost of
manufacture, ease of production, availability of materials, and
performance requirements. Usually several designs and redesigns will be
undertaken before the product is brought before the general public.

Figure 1.7 A team of design engineers review a proposed

design solution.
Blue Planet Studio/Shutterstock

To illustrate the role that the design engineer plays, we will discuss the
development of the side air bags for added safety in automobiles. Side air
bags created something of a design problem, as designers had to decide
where and how the air bags would be fastened to the car body. They had to
determine what standard parts could be used and what parts had to be
designed from scratch. Consideration was given to how to hide the air bags
so not to take away from the aesthetics of the interior of the car while still
providing maximum impact safety. Materials to be used for attaching the
air bags to the frame and for the air bag itself had to be selected. An
inflation device had to be designed that would give flawless performance.

Page 13

The 12 000 or so other parts that form the modern automobile also
demand numerous considerations: Optimum placement of engine
accessories, comfortable design of seats, maximization of trunk space, and
aesthetically pleasing body design all require thousands of engineering
hours if the model is to be successful in a highly competitive industry.
Like the development engineer, the designer is creative. But where the
development engineer is usually concerned only with a prototype or model,
the designer is restricted by the state of the art in engineering materials,
production facilities, and, perhaps most important, economic
Other documents randomly have
different content
difficult of access than that of Westminster.
It was here that it was decided that the
Flemings, who had flocked over during the
last reign, should leave the country. Among
them was William of Ypres whom Stephen
had made Earl of Kent. We hear very little
of the King’s personal relations with the
citizens, by whom he was respected as
befits one of whom it is written that he was
“pitiful to the poor, liberal to all men, that
he took of his subjects but seldom times
any great tributes, and, further, that he was
careful above all things to have the laws
duly executed and justice uprightly
administered on all hands.”
In the year 1170 Henry II. had his eldest
son Henry crowned King; but the “Young
King,” as he was called, never lived to
occupy his father’s place; after a career of
rebellion he died of a fever in 1183.
Henry’s Charter gave the citizens
privileges and liberties as large as those
granted by Henry I.—with one or two
important exceptions. The opening clause in
the former Charter was as follows:—

“Know ye that I have granted to my HENRY II. (1133-1189)

From his effigy at Fontevrault.
citizens of London to hold Middlesex to
farm for three hundred pounds upon
accompt to them and their heirs: so that the said citizens shall
place as sheriff whomsoever they will of themselves: and as
Justiciar whomsoever they will of themselves, for keeping of the
pleas of the crown, and of the pleadings of the same, and none
other shall be justice over the same men of London.”
 Except for a few years in the twelfth century the sheriffs were
always elected by the Crown. In the reign of Stephen the citizens are
said to have bought the right of electing their sheriffs. The omission
of so important a clause indicates the policy of the King. It was his
intention to bring the City under the direct supervision of the Crown.
He therefore retained the appointment of the sheriff in his own
hands; he calls him “my sheriff,” meus Vicecomes; and it was so kept
by himself and his successor Richard the First. When John restored
to the City the election of the sheriff, the post had lost much of its
importance because the communal system of municipal government
had been introduced under a mayor. Thanks mainly to the strong
hand of the King, who enforced peace and order throughout the
country, the prosperity of London greatly increased during his reign.
As yet the City was governed by its aristocracy, the aldermen of the
wards, which were at first manors or private estates. They
endeavoured to rule the City as a baron ruled his people each in his
own ward: there was, however, the Folk Mote to be reckoned with.
The people understood what was meant by meeting and by open
discussion: the right of combination was but a corollary.
It is at this time that we first hear of the licences of guilds. We
may take it as a sign of prosperity when men of the same craft begin
to unite themselves into corporate bodies, and to form rules for the
common interest.
In the year 1180 it is recorded that a number of Guilds formed
without licence were fined:—

“The Gild whereof Gosceline was Alderman or President, thirty

marks; Gilda Aurifabrorum, or Goldsmiths, Radulphus Flael,
Alderman, forty-five marks; Gilda de Holiwell, Henry son of
Godr. Alderman, twenty shillings; Gilda Bocheiorum, William la
Feite, Alderman, one mark; Gilda de Ponte Thomas Cocus,
Alderman, one mark; Gilda Piperariorum, Edward——,
Alderman, sixteen marks; Gilda de Ponte, Alwin Fink, Alderman,
fifteen marks; Gilda Panariorum, John Maurus, Alderman, one
 mark; Robert Rochefolet, his Gild, one mark; Richard Thedr.
Feltrarius, Alderman, two marks; Gilda de Sancto Lazaro,
Radulph de Barre, Alderman, twenty-five marks; Gilda de Ponte,
Robert de Bosio, Alderman, ten marks; Gilda Peregrinorum,
Warner le Turner, Alderman, forty shillings; Odo Vigil, Alderman,
his Gild, one mark; Hugo Leo, Alderman, his Gild, one mark;
and Gilda de Ponte, Peter, son of Alan, Alderman, fifteen marks.”
(Maitland, vol. i. p. 53.)

CORONATION OF THE “YOUNG KING”

From Vie de St. Thomas (a French MS., 1230-1260).

If there were unlicensed guilds, there must have been licensed

guilds. Unfortunately it is not known how many, or of what kind,
these were. Among them, however, was the important and powerful
Guild of Weavers, who were at that time to London what the
“drapiers” were to Ypres in Flanders. (See p. 201.)
It is sufficient to note the claim of the King to license every guild.
As for the fining of the unlicensed guild, since the business of a guild
is the regulation of trade, one would like to know how trade was
regulated when there was no guild. But enough of this matter for
the present.
In this reign occurs an early instance of heresy obstinate unto
death. The heretics came over from Germany. There were thirty of
them, men and women. They called themselves Publicans; one of
them, their leader, Gerard, had some learning: the rest were
ignorant. They derided matrimony, the Sacraments of Baptism, the
Lord’s Supper, and other articles. Being brought before the King,
they were pressed with Scripture, “but stuck manfully to their faith
and refused to be convinced.” It was therefore ordered that they
should be burned with a hot iron on the forehead, and the leader on
the chin as well, that they should be whipped, that they should be
thrust out into the fields and that none should give them food, or
fire, or lodging; which was done, the sufferers singing all the time,
“Blessed are ye when men do hate you”—and so they went out into
the open country, where they all died of cold and starvation. A pitiful
story!
Here is a strange story told by Stow. It is a good deal amplified
from that given by Roger of Hoveden, but perhaps Stow obtained
more material from other authorities also:—
“A brother of the Earle Ferrers was in the night privily slayne at
London, which when the King understoode, he sware that he would
bee avenged on the Citizens: for it was then a common practice in
the Citie, and an hundred or more in a company of young and old,
would make nightly invasions upon the houses of the wealthie, to
the intent to robbe them, and if they found any man stirring in the
Citie within the night, they would presently murther him, in so much,
that when night was come, no man durst adventure to walke in the
Streetes. When this had continued long, it fortuned that a crewe of
young and wealthy Cittizens assembling together in the night,
assaulted a stone house of a certaine rich manne, and breaking
through the wall, the good man of that house having prepared
himselfe with other in a corner, when he perceived one of the
Theeves named Andrew Bucquinte to leade the way, with a burning
brand in the one hand and a pot of coales in the other, whiche he
assayed to kindle with the brande, hee flew upon him, and smote off
his right hande, and then with a lowde voyce cryed Theeves, at the
hearing whereof the Theeves tooke their flight, all saving hee that
had lost his hande, whom the good man in the next morning
delivered to Richarde de Lucy the King’s Justice. This Theefe uppon
warrant of his life, appeached his confederates, of whome many
were taken, and many were fled, but among the rest that were
apprehended, a certaine Citizen of great countenance, credite, and
wealth, surnamed Iohn the olde,1 when he could not acquite
himselfe by the Watardome, offered the King for his life five hundred
Marks, but the King commanded that he shoulde be hanged, which
was done, and the Citie became more quiet.” (Howe’s edition of
Stow’s Chronicles, p. 153.)
Here, then, is a case in which the ordeal by water was thought to
prove a man’s guilt. In another place will be found described the
method of the ordeal by water. What happened was, of course, that
the unfortunate man’s arm was scalded. However, the City became
quiet, which was some gain.
In the year 1164 London Bridge was “new made of timber” by
Peter of Colechurch, who afterwards built it of stone.
In the year 1176 the stone bridge over the river was commenced.
It was not completed until 1209, after the death of the architect.
Henry I. had punished the moneyers for their base coin. Henry II.
also had to punish them for the same offence, but he chose a
method perhaps more effective. He fined them.
 BECKET DISPUTING WITH THE KING
From MS. in British Museum—Claudius D2 (Cotton).

The relations of Thomas à Becket with the King: their friendship

and their quarrels and the tragic end of the Archbishop, belong to
the history of the country. It does concern this book, however, that
Thomas was by birth a Londoner. His father, Gilbert, whose family
came from Caen, was a citizen of good position, chief magistrate, or
portreeve, in the reign of Stephen. Gilbert Becket was remembered
in the City not only by the history of his illustrious son, but by the
fact that it was he who built the chapel in the Pardon Churchyard, on
the north side of St. Paul’s, a place where many persons of honour
were buried. It was ever the mediæval custom to make one place
more sacred than another, so that if it was a blessed thing to be
buried in a certain church, it was more blessed to lie in front of the
altar. The old story about Gilbert’s wife being a Syrian is repeated by
the historians, and is very possibly true. Holinshed says she was a
“Saracen by religion,” which is certainly not true. Thomas Becket was
born in wedlock; his father was certainly not married to a
Mohammedan, and the birthplace of the future martyr was in a
house on the site of the present Mercers’ Chapel, which itself stands
on the site of the chapel of St. Thomas of Acon.
 Gilbert Becket died leaving behind him a considerable property in
houses and lands. Whether the archbishop took possession of this
property as his father’s son, or whether he gave it to his sister, I do
not know. Certain it is that after his death his sister Agnes, then
married to Thomas Fitz Theobald de Heiley, gave the whole of the
family estates to endow a Hospital dedicated to her brother Saint
and Martyr. Nothing should be kept back: all—all must be given: one
sees the intensity of affection, sorrow, pride, with which the new
Saint was regarded by his family. There could be no worshipper at
the altar of St. Thomas à Becket more devout than his own sister.
(See also p. 278.)

GREAT SEAL OF HENRY II.

 CHAPTER II
RICHARD I
The coronation of King Richard on September 3, 1189, was
disgraced by a massacre of the Jews—the first example of anti-
Jewish feeling. Perhaps when they first came over these unfortunate
people hoped that no traditional hatred of the race existed in
England. Experience, alas! might have taught them, perhaps had
taught them, that hatred grew up round the footsteps of the Infidel
as quickly as the thistles in the field. When the Jew arrived in
England what could he do? He could not trade because the
merchants had their guilds; and every guild had its church, its saint,
its priests, its holy days. He could not hold land because every acre
had its own lord, and could only be transferred by an Act including a
declaration of faith; he could not become a lawyer or a physician
because the avenues to these professions lay also through the
Church. Did a man wish to build a bridge, he must belong to the
Holy Brotherhood of Bridge-Builders—Pontifices. Was an architect
wanted, he was looked for in a Monastery. The scholars, the
physicians, the artists were men of the cloister. Even the minstrels,
gleemen, jugglers, tumblers, dancers, buffoons, and mimes, though
the Church did not bless their calling, would have scorned to suffer a
Jew among them. That was the position of the Jew. Every calling
closed to him, every door shut. There was, however, one way open,
but a way of contempt, a way accursed by the Church, a way held
impossible to the Christian. He might practise usury. The lending of
money for profit was absolutely forbidden by the Church. He who
carried on this business was accounted as excommunicated. If he
died while carrying it on, his goods were forfeited and fell to the
Crown. In the matter of usury the Church had always been firm and
consistent. The Church, through one or two of the Fathers, had even
denounced trade. St. Augustine plainly said that in selling goods no
addition was to be made to the price for which they were bought, a
method which if carried out would destroy all trade except barter. So
that while the usurer was accursed by the Church, to the King he
became a large and very valuable asset. Every Jew who became
rich, by his death enriched the King. It was calculated (see Joseph
Jacobs, The Jews of Angevin England) that the Jews contributed
every year one-twelfth of the King’s revenues. The interest charged
by the usurer was in those days enormously high, forty per cent and
even more: so that it is easy to understand how rich a Jew might
become and how strong would be the temptation to squeeze him.

FIRST SEAL OF RICHARD I.

As for the hatred of the people for the Jews, I think that it had
nothing whatever to do with their money-lending, for the simple
reason that they had no dealings with them. The common people
never borrowed money of the Jews, because they had no security to
offer and no want of money except for their daily bread. Those who
borrowed of the Jews were the Barons, who strengthened or
repaired or rebuilt their castles; the Bishop, who wanted to carry on
his cathedral or to build a church; the Abbot, who had works to
execute upon the monastery estates, or a church to beautify. The
great Lords of the Church and the Realm were the borrowers; and
we do not find that they murdered the Jews. The popular hatred
was purely religious. The Jew was an unbeliever: when no one was
looking at him he spat upon the Cross; when he dared he kidnapped
children and crucified them; he it was who crucified our Lord, and
would do so again if he could. Why, the King was going off to the
East to kill infidels, and here were infidels at home. Why not begin
by killing them first? So the people reasoned, quite logically, on
these premisses.
To return to the coronation of Richard I. For fear of magic it was
ordered that no Jew and no woman should be allowed admission to
the Abbey Church during the function. Unfortunately, the Jews,
hoping to conciliate the new Sovereign with gifts, assembled outside
the gates and endeavoured to gain admission. It was always
characteristic of the Jews, especially in times of persecution, that
they never in the least understood the intensity of hatred with which
they were regarded by the world. One would think that on such an
occasion common prudence would have kept them at home. Not so,
they endeavoured to force their way into the Hall during the
Coronation Banquet, but they were roughly driven back, and the
rumour ran that the King had ordered them to be put to death; so
they were cudgelled, stoned, struck with knives, chased to their
houses, which were then set on fire. From mid-day till two of the
clock on the following day the mob continued to murder, to pillage,
and to destroy.
It is noted that at Richard’s Coronation Banquet the Chief
Magistrate of London, not yet Mayor, officiated as Butler, an office
claimed in the following reigns from that precedent.
When Richard prepared for his Crusade he ordered the City to
furnish a certain quantity of armour, spears, knives, tents, etc., for
the use of his army, together with wine, silken habits, and other
things for his own use.
On the departure of Richard for Palestine his Chancellor, William
Longchamp, Bishop of Ely, took up his residence in the Tower. Power
turned his head; he acted like one whose position is safe, and
authority unbounded. He annoyed the citizens by constructing a
moat round the Tower, and by including within the external wall of
the Tower a piece of land here and another there, a mill which
belonged to St. Katherine’s Hospital, and a garden belonging to the
City. He offended the Bishops by seizing his brother Regent, Bishop
Pudsey; and the Barons by insulting Geoffrey, Archbishop of York,
the son of Fair Rosamond. Thereafter, when John, at the head of a
large army, summoned him to justify himself at Reading, Longchamp
closed the gates of the Tower.
John proceeded to ascertain the disposition of the leading citizens
of London. On the one hand Longchamp was the representative of
the King, appointed by the King, to whom obedience was due. On
the other hand, he had exasperated the citizens beyond endurance.
They were ready—but with exceptions—to transfer their allegiance
to John—always as the King’s representative. And here they saw
their opportunity for making terms with John to their own
advantage. Why not ask for the Commune? They did so. They made
the granting of the Commune the condition of John’s admission into
the City, and therefore of Longchamp’s disgrace. Should John refuse
they would close their gates and support the Chancellor. But John
accepted.
He rode from Reading into London accompanied by the
Archbishop of Rouen and a great number of Bishops, Earls, and
Barons. He was met by the citizens. The gates were thrown open;
and John’s army sat down to besiege the Tower from the City and
from the outside. This done, he called a council in the Chapel House
of St. Paul’s and there solemnly conceded the Commune, upon
which the citizens took oath of obedience to him, subject to the
rights of the King. The meaning of this concession will be found
more fully considered later on. At present it is sufficient to observe
that it was followed by the election of the first Mayor of London: that
other towns hastened to get the same recognition: and that the
Commune, though never formally withdrawn by Richard himself, was
never allowed by him.
Two Charters were granted to the City by Richard. The first, dated
April 23, 1194, was an exact copy of his father’s Charter, with the
same omission as to the election of Sheriff and Justiciar. It is not
addressed to the Mayor, because Richard never recognised that
office, but, as the Charter of Henry II. and that of Henry I., “To the
Archbishops, Bishops, Abbots, Earls, Barons, Justices, Sheriffs,
Ministers, and all others his faithful Friends and English people.”
The second Charter of July 14, 1197, authorised the removal of all
weirs in the River: “For it is manifest to us ... that great determent
and discommodity have grown to our City of London and also to the
whole realm by reason of the said wears.”
We now arrive at the first intimation of an articulate discontent
among the people. In all times those “who have not” regard those
“who have” with envy and disfavour; from time to time, generally
when the conditions of society seem to make partition possible, this
hatred shows itself openly. In the year 1195, there first arose among
the people a leader who became the voice of their discontent: he
flourished for a while upon their favour; in the end he met with the
usual fate of those who rely upon the gratitude and the support of
the people. (See vol. ii. pt. i. ch. vi.)
In the year 1198 the Sheriffs of London and Middlesex were
ordered by the King to provide standards of weight, length, and
measures to be sent into all the Counties.
Richard was received by the City, on his return from captivity, with
the greatest show of rejoicing; the houses being so decorated as to
move the astonishment of the “Lords of Almaine” who rode with the
King.
“When they saw the great riches,” Holinshed
writes, “which the Londoners shewed in that
triumphant receiuing of their souereigne lord and
king, they maruelled greatlie thereat, insomuch
that one of them said unto him:‘Surelie, oh King,
your people are wise and subtile, which doo
nothing doubt to shew the beautiful shine of their
riches now that they have receiued you home, CROSS OF KNIGHT
whereas before they seemed to bewaile their TEMPLAR
need and povertie, whilest you remained in
captiuitie. For verelie if the emperor had understood that the riches
of the realme had bin such, neither would he have beene persuaded
that England could have been made bare of wealth, neither yet
should you so lightlie have escaped his hands without the paiment of
a more huge and intollerable ransome.’” (Vol. iii. p. 142, 1586
edition.)
The whole period of Richard’s residence in London, or, indeed, in
England, was limited to a few weeks after his coronation and a few
weeks after his return from captivity.
 CHAPTER III
JOHN
John granted five Charters to the City.
By the first of these Charters, June 17, 1199, he confirmed the
City in the liberties which they had enjoyed under King Henry II.
By the third Charter, July 5, 1199,
he went farther: he gave back to the
citizens the rights they had obtained
from Henry I., viz. the farm of
Middlesex for a payment of £300
sterling every year, and the right of
electing their own sheriffs. This
seemed a great concession, but was
not in reality very great, for the
existence of a Mayor somewhat
lessened the importance of the
Sheriffs.
The second Charter confirmed
previous laws as to the conservation
of the Thames and its Fisheries.
The fourth Charter, March 20, 1202,
disfranchised the Weavers’ Guild.
The fifth Charter, May 9, 1215,
granted the right of the City to
appoint a Mayor. Now there had been KING JOHN (1167(?)-1216)
already a Mayor for many years, but From the effigy in Worcester Cathedral.
he had not been formally recognised
by the King, and this Charter recognised his existence. The right
involved the establishment of the Commune, that is to say, the
association of all the burghers alike for the purpose of protecting
their common interests. It was no longer, for instance, the Merchant
Guild which regulated trade as a whole; nor an association of Trade
Guilds: nor was it an association of City Barons: nor was it a tribunal
of Justice: it was simply the association of the burghers as a body.
We are now, however, approaching that period of the City History
in which was carried on the long struggle between the aristocratic
party and the crafts for power. In this place it is only necessary to
indicate the beginning of the strife. The parties were first the Barons
and Aldermen, owners of the City manors; secondly, the merchants,
some of whom belonged to the City aristocracy; and, lastly, the craft.
The Chief Magistrate of the Commune held a position of great power
and importance. It was necessary for the various parties to
endeavour to secure this post for a man of their own side.
 HENRY FITZAILWYN, KNT., FIRST LORD MAYOR OF LONDON
From an old print.

The disfranchisement of the weavers certainly marks a point of

importance in this conflict. It shows that the aristocratic party was
for the time victorious. The Weavers’ Guild, as we have seen, had
become very powerful. Their Guild united in itself all the tradesmen
belonging to the manufacture, or the use, of textile fabrics; such as
weavers, clothmakers, shearmen, fullers, cloth merchants, tailors,
drapers, linen armourers, hosiers, and others, forming a body
powerful by numbers, wealth, and organisation. To break up this
body was equivalent to destroying the power of the crafts for a long
time.
The domestic incidents of the City during this reign are not of
great importance.
A very curious story occurs in the year 1209. The King’s Purveyor
bought in the City a certain quantity of corn. The two Sheriffs, Roger
Winchester and Edmund Hardell, refused to allow him to carry it off.
King John, who was never remarkable for meekness, flew into a
royal rage on this being reported to him, and ordered the Council of
the City to degrade and imprison the said Sheriffs—which was done.
But the Council sent a deputation to the King, then staying at
Langley, to intercede for the Sheriffs. Their conduct, it was
explained, was forced upon them. Had they not stopped the carrying
off of the corn there would have been an insurrection which might
have proved dangerous. This makes us wonder if the Commonalty
resented the sending of corn out of the City? If so, why? Or was
there some other reason for preventing it?
After the King’s return from his Irish expedition the Parliament or
Council held at St Bride’s, Fleet Street, took place. John wanted
money. He insisted on taking it, not from the City but from the
Religious Houses. It was an act worthy of an Angevin. The fact, and
the way of achieving the fact, are thus narrated by Holinshed:—
 “From hence he made hast to London, and at his comming
thither, tooke counsell how to recover the great charges and
expenses that he had beene at in this journey and by the advice
of William Brewer, Robert de Turnham, Reignold de Cornhill, and
Richard de Marish, he caused all the cheefe prelats of England
to assemble before him at St. Bride’s in London. So that thither
came all the Abbats, Abbesses, Templars, Hospitallers, keepers
of farmes and possessions of the order of Clugnie, and other
such forreners as had lands within this realme belonging to their
houses. All which were constreined to paie such a greevous tax,
that the whole amounted to the summe of an hundred thousand
pounds. The moonks of the Cisteaux order, otherwise called
White Moonks, were constreined to paie 40 thousand pounds of
silver at this time, all their privileges to the contrarie
notwithstanding. Moreover, the abbats of that order might not
get licence to go their generall chapter that yeere, which
yeerelie was used to be holden, least their complaint should
moove all the world against the king, for his too too hard and
severe handling of them.” (Holinshed, vol. iii. p. 174, 1586
edition.)

This act of spoliation belonged to the period of the six years’

Interdict. The Interdict was pronounced on Passion Sunday, March
23, 1208, “which,” says Roger of Wendover, “since it was expressed
to be by authority of our Lord the Pope, was inviolably observed by
all without regard of persons or privileges. Therefore, all church
services ceased to be performed in England, with the exception only
of confession; the viaticum in cases of extremity; and the baptism of
children: the bodies of the dead, too, were carried out of cities and
towns, and buried in roads and ditches without prayers or the
attendance of priests.”
 KING JOHN HUNTING
From MS. in British Museum—Claudius D2 (Cotton).

At the beginning of the Interdict, the solemn silence of the church

bells, the closing of the church gates, the cessation of all religious
rites at a time when nothing was done without religion taking her
part, struck terror into the minds of all folk. But as time went on and
the people became accustomed to live without religion, this terror
wore itself away. One understands very plainly that an Interdict too
long maintained and too rigorously carried out might result in the
destruction of religion itself. We must also remember, first, that the
Interdict was in many places only partially observed, and in other
places was not observed at all. Some of the Bishops remained on the
King’s side; some of the clergy were rewarded for disobeying the
Interdict. And in London and elsewhere there were relaxations.
Thus, marriages and churchings took place at church doors; children
were baptized in the church; offerings might be made at the altar: in
the Monastic Houses the canonical hours were observed, but there
was no singing. In a word, though the close connection of religious
observances with the daily life made the Interdict grievous, there
can be no doubt that its burden was felt less and less the longer it
was maintained. Moreover, the King afforded the City a proof that
the longer the Interdict lasted the richer and more powerful he
would become: a fact which would certainly weaken the terror of the
Church, while it might make the King’s subjects uneasy as to their
liberties; for John confiscated all the property of the Church that he
could lay his hands upon. “The King’s agents,” says Roger of
Wendover, “converted the property of the Bishops to the King’s use,
giving them only a scanty allowance of food and clothing out of their
own property. The coin of the clergy was everywhere locked up and
distrained for the benefit of the revenue: the concubines of the
priests and clerks were taken by the King’s servants and compelled
to ransom themselves at great expense. Religious men and other
persons ordained, of any kind, when found travelling on the road,
were dragged from their horses, robbed, and basely ill-treated by
the satellites of the King, and no one could do them justice. About
that time the servants of a certain sheriff on the confines of Wales
came to the King, bringing in their custody a robber with his hands
tied behind him, who had robbed and murdered a priest on the
road: and on their asking the King what it was his pleasure should
be done to the robber in such a case, the King immediately
answered,‘He hath slain an enemy of mine. Release him, and let him
go!’”
In the year 1210 the Town Ditch was dug for the greater
strengthening of the City.
 A PORTION OF THE GREAT CHARTER
From the copy of original in British Museum. Rischgitz Collection.

A larger image is available here.

In 1213 the Standard Bearer of the City, Robert FitzWalter, one of

the malcontent Barons, fled to France rather than give a security of
his fidelity to John the King, whereupon John ordered his castle—
Baynard’s Castle—to be destroyed. This castle stood at the angle in
the junction of Thames and Fleet. The second Baynard’s Castle,
erected by the Duke of Gloucester, was some little distance to the
east, also on the bank of the river.
The leader of the Barons was this Robert FitzWalter, “Marshal of
the Army of God and of Holy Church.” He was Castellain of London,
Chief Banneret of the City, Baron of Dunmow, owner of Baynard’s
Castle, and of a soke which now forms the parish of St. Andrew by
the Wardrobe. As Castellain and Banneret it was his duty to direct
the execution of traitors by drowning in the Thames. At the Court of
Husting his place was on the right hand of the Mayor. In time of war
the Castellain proceeded to the western gate of St. Paul’s, attended
by nineteen knights mounted and armed, his banner borne before
him. The Mayor and Aldermen came forth to meet him, all in arms,
the Mayor carrying the City banner, which he placed in FitzWalter’s
hands, at the same time giving him a charger fully caparisoned
valued at £20. A sum of £20 was also given to FitzWalter for his
expenses. The Mote bell was then rung, and the whole party rode to
the Priory of the Holy Trinity, there to concert measures for the
defence of the City.
The events which led to the concession of Magna Charta belong to
the history of the country. But the part played by London in this
memorable event must not be passed over.
The Barons, under FitzWalter, were besieging Northampton when
letters arrived from certain citizens of London offering their
admission into the City, no doubt on terms and conditions. The
chance of getting the chief city of the country into their power was
too good to be refused. A large company of soldiers took back the
Barons’ answer. They were admitted within the walls secretly;
according to one Chronicle, at night and by scaling the wall;
according to another, by day, and on Sunday morning, the people
being at mass; according to another, openly and by Aldgate. Once in
the City, however, they seized and held the gates and proclaimed
rebellion against the King, murdering his partisans. Then the Barons
themselves entered London. From this stronghold they threatened
destruction to such of the Lords as had not joined their confederacy.
And for a time all government ceased; there were no pleas heard in
the Courts; the Sheriffs no longer attempted to carry out their
duties; no one paid tax dues, tolls, or customs. The King, at one
time reduced to a personal following of half a dozen, found himself
unable to make any resistance; and on the glorious June 15, 1215,
Magna Charta was signed.
The Barons, who retained London by way of security, returned to
the City and there remained for twelve months, but in doubt and
anxiety as to what the King would do next. That he would loyally
carry out his promises no one expected. He was sending
ambassadors to Rome seeking the Pope’s aid; and he was living with
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