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EMERGING CYBER THREATS
AND COGNITIVE
VULNERABILITIES
This page intentionally left blank
EMERGING CYBER
THREATS AND
COGNITIVE
VULNERABILITIES
Edited by

VLADLENA BENSON
University of West London, London, United Kingdom

JOHN MCALANEY
Bournemouth University, Fern Barrow, Poole Dorset, United Kingdom
Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier
125 London Wall, London EC2Y 5AS, United Kingdom
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50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any
means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information
storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on
how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies
and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the
Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions.
This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright
by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).

Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and
experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional
practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in
evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described
herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety
and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional
responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or
editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a
matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any
methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
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 Contents

Contributors ix
Preface xi

1. Factors leading to cyber victimization

Peter J.R. Macaulay, Oonagh L. Steer, and Lucy R. Betts

Introduction 1
Features of cyber victimization 5
Factors leading to cyber victimization 11
Conclusion 17
References 18

2. Cyberterrorism e the spectre that is the convergence of the

physical and virtual worlds
Namosha Veerasamy

Introduction 28
Terrorism 29
Cyberterrorism 32
Motivation 34
Advantage 35
Effects 35
Practices 37
Target 37
Query 1: If there is a cyberattack should it be labelled as cyberterrorism? 39
Query 2: What is the difference between cyberterrorism and hacktivism? 40
Query 3: Can I become a victim of cyberterrorism (Are cyberterrorists out to
target me personally?) 41
Query 4: When terrorists groups use cyberspace to communicate, recruit or
publicize their vision, mission and activities in a digital domain, can this be
considered cyberterrorism? 42
Query 5: Do cyberterrorists aim to steal money? 42
Convergence of physical and digital worlds 44
Composition of an attack 46
Fear 47
Myth or reality? 48
Conclusion 49
References 50

v
vi Contents

3. Closed, safe and secure e the Russian sense of information security

Mari Ristolainen and Juha Kukkola

Introduction 54
Synthesis from ‘RuNet’ through the ‘Russian segment of the Internet’ to the
‘unified information space’ 55
Sociocultural approach to the Russian sense of information security 57
Fear-based template for the isolation rhetoric 59
Celebrating and awarding the ‘Russian way’ of doing things 60
Cleaning together for safer information environment and creating a ‘psychological
firewall’ 63
‘Russian segment of the Internet’ e a state-controlled project for protecting
information security 66
Controlled digital harmony 68
References 68

4. The social and psychological impact of cyberattacks

Maria Bada and Jason R.C. Nurse

Introduction 74
Factors influencing perceptions of risk and reactions to risk 75
Understanding public reactions to malicious cyber incidents 82
Case studies of cyberattacks 85
Conclusions 89
References 89
Further reading 92

5. The relationship between user religiosity and preserved

privacy in the context of social media and cybersecurity
Rami Baazeem and Alaa Qaffas

Introduction 94
Cybersecurity 94
Information privacy 97
Behaviour 100
Religiosity 103
The study 104
Conclusion 111
References 111
 Contents vii

6. Avoiding a cyber world war: rational motives for negative

cooperation among the United States, China and Russia
Tomas Janeli
unas and Agnija Tumkevic

Introduction 118
Theoretical concept: defensive realism and cooperation in the cyberspace 119
The United States, China and Russia’s strategic posturing in cyberspace 125
Cyberspace capabilities and the offenceedefense balances of the
United States, China and Russia 132
The United States, China and Russia’s communications regarding
cooperation and confrontation in cyberspace 135
Conclusion 139
References 140
Further reading 143

7. Standard operating procedures for cybercrime

investigations: a systematic literature review
Stephen Jeffries and Edward Apeh

Introduction 146
The problem of investigating cybercrime 147
Research methodology 150
Results and discussion 152
Techniques 152
Legislation 154
Policy/strategy 157
Best practice/training 158
Summary, conclusions, and future work 160
References 160
Further reading 162

8. Information and communication technologies: a curse

or blessing for SMEs?
Anne-Marie Mohammed, Bochra Idris, George Saridakis, and Vladlena Benson

Introduction 164
The role of information and communication technologies on performance and
internationalization activities of SMEs 165
SME security challenges and cybercrime risks associated with the use
of information and communication technologies 166
The costs of cybercrime to firms’ financial performance and reputation 168
Conclusions and future directions for research 169
References 170
viii Contents

9. Cyber personalities in adaptive target audiences

Miika Sartonen, Petteri Simola, Lauri Lovén, and Jussi Timonen

Introduction 176
Military influence operations 177
Cyber personalities as a target audience 181
Cyber personalities in adaptive target audiences 188
Conclusion 191
Discussion 192
References 194

10. Privacy issues and critical infrastructure protection

Jussi Simola

Introduction 198
Legislation concerning privacy issues 199
Central concepts 202
Management of situational awareness in Finland 209
Tracking in the everyday life of citizens 213
Research method and process 215
Findings 216
Discussion 220
Conclusions 221
References 223

Index 227
 Contributors

Edward Apeh Department of Computing and Informatics, Bournemouth

University, Poole, United Kingdom
Rami Baazeem University of Jeddah, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
Maria Bada Cybercrime Centre, Computer Laboratory, University of
Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
Vladlena Benson Aston Business School, Aston University, Birmingham,
United Kingdom
Lucy R. Betts Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, United Kingdom
Bochra Idris Aston Business School, Aston University, Birmingham, United
Kingdom
unas Institute of International Relations and Political Science,
Tomas Janeli
Vilnius University, Vilnius, Lithuania
Stephen Jeffries Department of Computing and Informatics, Bournemouth
University, Poole, United Kingdom
Juha Kukkola Finnish National Defence University, Helsinki, Finland
Lauri Lovén Center for Ubiquitous Computing, University of Oulu, Oulu,
Finland
Peter J.R. Macaulay Staffordshire University, Stoke-on-Trent, United Kingdom;
Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, United Kingdom
Anne-Marie Mohammed Department of Economics, The University of the West
Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago
Jason R.C. Nurse School of Computing, University of Kent, Canterbury, United
Kingdom
Alaa Qaffas University of Jeddah, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
Mari Ristolainen Finnish Defence Research Agency, Riihimäki, Finland
George Saridakis Kent Business School, University of Kent, Canterbury, United
Kingdom
Miika Sartonen Department of Leadership and Military Pedagogy, National
Defence University, Helsinki, Finland
Jussi Simola Department of Information Technology, University of Jyväskylä,
Finland
Petteri Simola Finnish Defence Research Agency, Tuusula, Finland
Oonagh L. Steer Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, United Kingdom
Jussi Timonen National Defence University, Helsinki, Finland

ix
x Contributors

Agnija Tumkevic Institute of International Relations and Political Science,

Vilnius University, Vilnius, Lithuania
Namosha Veerasamy Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR),
Pretoria, South Africa
 Preface

Humans are adaptive creatures. Daily, we navigate a complex and

changing social world. We have developed strategies to process informa-
tion to allow us to identify what is important and what must be acted
upon. This is not, however, something we do flawlessly. In the face of
vast amounts of information, we often rely on cognitive shortcuts and
biases to come to quick decisions. We do so to meet our desires and to
achieve our personal goals, but as part of this must interact with others
who have their own agendas and biases. Technology both enhances and
potentially changes these interactions in ways that we still do not fully
comprehend. It fundamentally alters the ways in which we establish trust
with others and creates new ways in which this trust can be exploited by
malicious actors. Yet it also provides new techniques that can be used to
empower individuals and organizations to better protect themselves and
their assets.
This book explores the opportunities for conflict and cooperation in hu-
man interactions that arise in the cybersecurity space. The discussions it
contains range from individual factors that may predict cyber victimiza-
tion to wider social determinants of cyber behaviour including religion,
culture and nationality. It evaluates the challenges specific to investigating
and altering behaviour and attitudes online, such as fluid and dynamic
identities that individuals may present in cyber space. It further investi-
gates the link between online actions and offline impacts, including the
social and psychological consequences of cyber attack and how evidence
can be collected to aid in the prosecution of cyber offenders.
Cybersecurity is a complex topic that requires interdisciplinary and
transdisciplinary solutions, achieved through collaboration between
stakeholders from different backgrounds. This publication contributes to-
wards to this approach through the inclusion of chapters from academics
and nonacademics from a range of disciplines and professional contexts.
Chapter 1. Factors leading to cyber victimization investigates the
unique characteristics of online spaces that may increase the risk of
victimization, including the individual and social factors that cyber
aggressors focus on when selecting targets. Suggestions are made as to
how to promote policy changes and best practice to protect individuals
from this growing cyber threat.

xi
xii Preface

Chapter 2. Cyberterrorism - the spectre that is the convergence of the

physical and virtual worlds describes how technological advancements
are being used by individuals and groups to commit acts of cyberterror-
ism. In doing so it discusses the varying definitions of cyberterrorism
and how this can be differentiated from other acts including cybercrime
and hacking.
Chapter 3. Closed, safe and secure e the Russian sense of information
security provides an insight into the Russian sense of information security.
Through use of examples it explores the use of historical, fear-based tem-
plates that promote the isolation rhetoric and celebrate the Russian
approach to the Internet.
Chapter 4. The social and psychological impact of cyberattacks looks
beyond the technological and financial consequences of cyberattack to the
social and psychological impacts that these can have. It evaluates how
cognitive processes relate to public reactions to malicious cyber events,
focusing on incidents such as the WannaCry attack of 2017.
Chapter 5. The relationship between user religiosity and preserved pri-
vacy effect in the context of social media and cybersecurity outlines how
user behaviour is influenced by religious belief, examined through the
examples of online privacy and the use of social platforms. A proposed
model is presented and evaluated, with the findings discussed in relation
to policy and practice implications.
Chapter 6. Avoiding a cyber world war: rational motives for negative
cooperation among the United States, China and Russia analyses coop-
eration and conflict in cyberspace between the three potential adversaries
of the United States, China and Russia. It examines the motivations of
states, its material and the information that the state has about the capa-
bilities and intentions of other actors. A discussion is put forward on why
cooperation between states is both possible and desirable.
Chapter 7. Standard operating procedures for cybercrime investiga-
tions: a systematic literature review provides a critical overview of the
overt and covert collection of evidence in order to secure successful pros-
ecution of cyber offenders. It explores the differences between cybercrime
and more traditional forms of crime, before putting forward recommen-
dations for new procedures that can be used to aid in the gathering of
evidence in online and digital spaces.
Chapter 8. Information and communication technologies: a curse or
blessing for SMEs? examines the risk and compliance challenges for
small to medium-sized enterprises that arise from information and
communication technologies. It explores how, in order to make business
transactions quicker and more efficient, SMEs may be exposed to new
and serious cybersecurity threats.
 Preface xiii

Chapter 9. Cyber personalities in adaptive target audiences discusses

the role of target audience analysis in influence operations, and the
challenges that are encountered when applying this approach to cyber-
space. It suggests how through the use cyber personalities influence oper-
ations can be made more effective.
Chapter 10. Privacy issues and critical infrastructure protection
examines how the development of smart technology is changing the
nature of critical infrastructure. It addresses the debate around the use
of information that is generated by consumer behaviour, and the conflict
this creates between the need for security and the desire for privacy.
This page intentionally left blank
Discovering Diverse Content Through
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business to destroy insects, small animals, and weeds that trouble us
so much, and the more they eat the better for us.
Let us see where they go for food. Each bird has his own place to
work.
The catbird watches the fruit-trees, and all day long eats insects
that are spoiling our fruit or killing the trees. When the cherries are
ripe, we should not forget that he has saved the fruit from insects,
and has well earned a share for himself.
If you spent days and weeks picking off insects, would you not
think you had earned part of the fruit? "For every cherry he eats"
(says a man who has watched him), "he has eaten at least one
thousand insects."
The robin eats great numbers of cankerworms, which destroy our
apples, and cutworms, which kill the corn.
The bluebird sits on the fence keeping sharp watch, and every
few minutes flies down and picks up a grasshopper or a cricket, or
some such grass-eating insect.
Woodpeckers hunt over the trunks and limbs of trees. They tap
on the bark and listen, and if they hear a grub stir inside, they cut a
hole in the bark and drag it out. The downy is fond of insects that
infest our apple-trees, and he makes many holes in the trunks. But it
does not hurt the trees. It is good for them, for it takes away the
creatures that were eating them.
Orioles go over the fruit-trees, and pick out tiny insects under the
leaves, and when they find great nests on the branches, they tear
them open and kill the caterpillars that made them.
Little warblers, such as the pretty summer yellow-bird, help to
keep our trees clear, doing most of their work in the tops, where we
can hardly see them.
 Swallows fly about in the air, catching mosquitoes and tiny flies
that trouble us.
Very useful to us are the birds who feed upon dead animals, such
as the turkey buzzards, who may be seen any day in our Southern
States, soaring about high in the air, looking for their food.
What they eat is so very unpleasant to us that we are apt to
despise the birds. But we should cherish and feel grateful to them
instead. For they are doing us the greatest kindness. In many of the
hot countries people could not live, if these most useful birds were
killed.
Some persons think buzzards find their food by seeing it, and
others are just as sure that they smell it. Perhaps they use both
senses.
 XIII
MORE ABOUT HIS FOOD

Some of the big birds work all the time for us. When you see a
hawk sitting very still on a dead limb, what do you suppose he is
doing?
A good deal of the time he is looking on the ground for a mouse,
or a ground squirrel, or a rat, or some creature that he likes to eat.
When he sees one of them move in the grass, he flies down and
pounces upon it. Thus he helps the farmer greatly, for all of these
little animals destroy crops.
When it grows dark, hawks stop work and go to sleep. Then the
owls, who can see better in the dusk, come out of the holes where
they have been half sleeping all day. They hunt the same little
creatures, most of all rats and mice, which like best to run about in
the night.
Perhaps you have heard that hawks and owls carry off chickens.
Many people who keep chickens shoot every hawk and owl they see.
But if they knew more about them they would not do so. Only two of
the common hawks and one owl[1] disturb chickens. All the others
kill thousands of the little animals that give the farmers so much
trouble.
Owls have a curious way of eating mice. They swallow them
whole, and after a while they throw up a queer-looking little ball
made of the bones and fur of the mouse.
 You may some time have seen a long-legged heron walking about
on the seashore or in the salt marsh. Now and then he would thrust
his long, sharp bill into something, and lift up his head and swallow.
Or you have noticed a little sandpiper running along on the beach or
the bank of a river.
The heron was probably eating frogs or fish, and the sandpiper
some of the small sea creatures thrown up by the waves. If these
were not taken away they would be very bad for us, and perhaps
make us sick.
Not less useful to us than these birds are the whole family of
finches. The goldfinch in bright yellow coat, the purple finch in red,
and the sparrows in plain brown. All of these are fond of seeds as
well as insects, and most of all they like the seeds of some weeds
that are hard to get rid of.
The goldfinch is called the thistle-bird, because he likes best the
seeds of thistles, though he eats the beggar's-ticks too.
The chipping sparrow, the little red-headed bird who comes about
our doors, eats the seeds of fox-tail and crab grasses, that spoil our
lawns.
The white-throated sparrow, a large and very pretty bird, eats the
seeds of smartweed and ragweed. Other finches like bittersweet,
sorrel, and amaranth, all of which we are glad to have them eat.
The seed-eating birds can find their food in winter, even when
snow covers the ground, because the dead weeds hold on to their
seeds, and the snow is not often deep enough to cover them.
Some birds gather their food in the fall, and hide it away where
they can find it in winter. Blue jays collect acorns and beech-nuts,
and store them in a hole in a tree, or some other safe place, to eat
when food is scarce. A woodpecker who lives in the West picks holes
in the bark of a tree, and puts an acorn into each one.
 The oddest store I know of was made by a woodpecker. He found
a long crack in a post, and stuffed it full of live grasshoppers. He did
not like dead grasshoppers. He wedged them into the crack so
tightly that they could not get out, and I do not know that they
wanted to. When grasshoppers were scarce in the fields, he came
day after day to his queer storehouse, till he had eaten every one.
One of the woodpecker family who lives in Mexico stores nuts and
acorns in the stems of plants. These stems are hollow and made in
joints like bamboo. The bird cuts a hole at the upper end of a joint,
and stuffs it full. When he wants his nuts, he cuts a hole at the lower
end of the joint and pulls them out.
I once had a tame blue jay, who was fond of saving what he
could not eat, and putting it safely away. The place he seemed to
think most secure was somewhere about me, and he would come
slyly around me as I sat at work, and try to hide his treasure about
my clothes.
When it was a dried currant or bit of bread, I did not care; but
when he came on to my shoulder, and tried to tuck a dead meal
worm into my hair or between my lips, or a piece of raw beef under
a ruffle or in my ear, I had to decline to be used as a storehouse,
much to his grief.
He liked to put away other things as well as food. Matches he
seemed to think were made for him to hide. His chosen place for
them was between the breadths of matting on the floor.
Once he found a parlor match, hunted up a good opening, and
put it in. Then he went on, as he always did, to hammer it down so
tightly that it would stay. One of the blows of his hard beak struck
the lighting end of the match, and it went off with a sharp crack.
The noise and the flame which burst out made the bird jump three
feet, and scared him nearly out of his senses.
After that I took care to keep the matches out of the way of a
bird so fond of hiding things.
 FOOTNOTE:
[1] Cooper's and sharp-shinned
hawks, and great horned or hoot owl.
 XIV
WHERE HE SLEEPS

Most birds sleep on their feet.

You know how a canary goes to sleep, all puffed out like a ball,
with his head buried in the feathers of his shoulder. He may stick his
bill over behind the top of the wing, but he never "puts his head
under his wing," as you have heard.
Sometimes he stands straight up on one leg, with the other
drawn up out of sight in his feathers, but more often he sits down
on the perch, still resting on his feet. Most wild birds of the perching
kind sleep in the same way.
It is only lately that we have begun to find out where birds sleep,
because it is dark when they go to bed, and they get up before it is
light enough for us to see them.
The only way to catch them in bed is to go out in the evening,
and start them up after they have gone to sleep. And this is not very
kind to the poor little birds. Some men who are trying to learn about
the habits of birds have tried this way, and so have found out some
of their sleeping-places.
One thing they have learned is that the nest is not often used for
a bed, except for the mother, while she is sitting and keeping her
little ones warm.
Robins and orioles, and others, creep into the thick branches of
an evergreen tree, close up to the trunk. Some crawl under the edge
of a haystack, others into thick vines or thorny bushes. All these are
meant for hiding-places, so that beasts which prowl about at night,
and like to eat birds, will not find them.
Tree sparrows like to sleep in holes in the ground like little caves.
The men who found these cosy little bedrooms think they are places
dug out by field mice, and other small animals, for their own use.
And when they are left, the birds are glad to take them.
When the weather is cold, some birds sleep under the snow. You
may think that would not be very warm, and it is not so warm as a
bed in the house with plenty of blankets. But it is much warmer than
a perch in a tree, with nothing but leaves to keep off the wind.
While the snow is falling, some birds find it as good as blankets
for their use. Grouse, who live on the ground, dive into a snow-bank,
and snuggle down quietly, while the snow falls and covers them all
over, and keeps the cold wind off. Air comes through the snow, so
they do not smother.
Some birds creep into a pile of brush that is covered with snow,
and find under the twigs little places like tents, where the snow has
been kept out by the twigs, and they sleep there, away from the
wind and storm outside.
Water birds find the best sleeping-places on the water, where
they float all night like tiny boats. Some of them leave one foot
hanging down and paddling a little, while they sleep, to keep from
being washed to the shore.
Bob-white and his family sleep in a close circle on the ground, all
with their heads turned outward, so that they can see or hear an
enemy, whichever way he comes.
Hawks and eagles are said to sleep standing, never sitting on the
feet like a canary. Some ducks and geese do even more: they sleep
standing on one foot. Woodpeckers and chimney swifts hang
themselves up by their claws, using their stiff tail for a brace, as if it
were a third leg.
Some birds, like the crows, sleep in great flocks. They agree upon
a piece of woods, and all the crows for miles around come there
every night. Sometimes thousands sleep in this one bedroom, called
a crow roost. Robins do the same, after the young are big enough to
fly so far.

AMERICAN ROBIN
 Audubon, who has told us so much about birds, once found a
hollow tree which was the sleeping-room of chimney swifts. The
noise they made going out in the morning was like the roar of a
great mill-wheel.
He wanted to see the birds asleep. So in the daytime, when they
were away, he had a piece cut out at the foot of the tree, big
enough to let him in, and then put back, so the birds would not
notice anything unusual.
At night, after the swifts were abed, he took a dark lantern and
went in. He turned the light upon them little by little, so as not to
startle them. Then he saw the whole inside of the tree full of birds.
They were hanging by their claws, side by side, as thick as they
could hang. He thought there were as many as twelve thousand in
that one bedroom.
 XV
HIS TRAVELS

Most of our birds take two long journeys every year, one in the
fall to the south, and the other in the spring back to the north.
These journeys are called "migrations."
The birds do not go all at once, but in many cases those of a kind
who live near each other collect in a flock and travel together. Each
species or kind has its own time to go.
It might be thought that it is because of the cold that so many
birds move to a warmer climate. But it is not so; they are very well
dressed to endure cold. Their feather suits are so warm that some of
our smallest and weakest birds are able to stay with us, like the
chickadee and the golden-crowned kinglet. It is simply because they
cannot get food in winter, that they have to go.
The fall travel begins soon after the first of July. The bobolink is
one of the first to leave us, though he does not start at once on his
long journey. By that time his little folk are full grown, and can take
care of themselves, and he is getting on his winter suit, or moulting.
Then some morning all the bobolinks in the country are turned
out of their homes in the meadows, by men and horses and
mowing-machines, for at that time the long grass is ready to cut.
Then he begins to think about the wild rice which is getting just
right to eat. Besides, he likes to take his long journey to South
America in an easy way, stopping here and there as he goes. So
some morning we miss his cheerful call, and if we go to the meadow
we shall not be able to see a single bobolink.
 There, too, are the swallows, who eat only small flying insects. As
the weather grows cooler, these tiny flies are no longer to be found.
So the swallows begin to flock, as it is called. For a few days they
will be seen on fences and telegraph wires, chattering and making a
great noise, and then some morning they will all be gone.
They spend some time in marshes, and other lonely places,
before they at last set out for the south.
As the days grow shorter and cooler, the warblers go. These are
the bright-colored little fellows, who live mostly in the tops of trees.
Then the orioles and the thrushes and the cuckoos leave us, and
most birds who live on insects.
By the time that November comes in, few of them will be left.
Birds who can live on seeds and winter berries, such as cedar-berries
and partridge-berries, and others, often stay with us,—bluebirds,
finches, and sometimes robins.
Many birds take their journey by night. Think of it! Tiny creatures,
that all summer go to bed at dark, start off some night, when it
seems as if they ought to be asleep, and fly all night in the dark.
When it grows light, they stop in some place where they can feed
and rest. And the next night, or two or three nights later, they go on
again. So they do till they reach their winter home, hundreds or
thousands of miles away.
These night flyers are the timid birds, and those who live in the
woods, and do not like to be seen,—thrushes, wrens, vireos, and
others. Birds with strong wings, who are used to flying hours every
day, and bolder birds, who do not mind being seen, take their
journey by daylight.
Most of them stop now and then, a day or two at a time, to feed
and rest. They fly very high, and faster than our railroad trains can
go.
 In the spring the birds take their second long journey, back to
their last year's home.
How they know their way on these journeys, men have been for
many years trying to find out. They have found that birds travel on
regular roads, or routes, that follow the rivers and the shore of the
ocean. They can see much better than we can, and even in the night
they can see water.
One such road, or highway, is over the harbor of New York. When
the statue of Liberty was set up on an island in the harbor a few
years ago, it was put in the birds' path.
Usually they fly too high to mind it; but when there is a rain or
fog they come much lower, and, sad to say, many of them fly against
it and are killed.
We often see strange birds in our city streets and parks, while
they are passing through on their migrations, for they sometimes
spend several days with us.
A sparrow, who was hurt and unable to fly, was picked up one fall
and kept in a house all winter. He was not caged, and he chose for
his headquarters and sleeping-place a vase that stood on a shelf.
He went with the family to the table, and made himself very
much at home there. He picked out what he wanted to eat and
drink, and scolded well if he did not have it.
The thing he liked best was butter, and when he was ready to
wipe his bill after eating, as birds do, he found the coat-sleeve of the
master soft and nice for the purpose. This pleased the bird better
than it did the owner of the sleeve, but he tried in vain to keep the
saucy fellow off. If he forgot for an instant to watch the bird, he
would dash up, wipe off the butter, and fly away out of the reach of
everybody.
In the spring the sparrow left the family, and lived out of doors.
But, with the first cold weather of fall, he came back, went to his old
vase, and settled himself for the winter again. This he did for several
years.
 XVI
HIS WINTER HOME

Nearly every bird has two homes, one for winter and one for
summer.
We can see why birds leave us and go to a warmer and better
place for the winter; but why they do not stay in that country where
there is always plenty of food, but choose to come back in the spring
to their old home, we do not know.
It may be because they want more room to build nests, and bring
up their little ones. Or it may be that they want to come back
because they love their old home.
Whatever may be the reason, it is well for us that they do so, for
if we had no more birds in the summer than we have in the winter,
we should suffer very much from insects. We could not raise fruit, or
vegetables, or grain, for insects would eat it all. That is one reason
we are so glad that birds come back to us in the spring.
Though so many birds leave us in the fall, they do not all go. A
few come to us who have nested farther north, and some who have
been with us all summer stay over winter too. These last are called
"permanent residents," that is, they stay all the year round.
In the Middle States of the East—New York, Pennsylvania, New
Jersey, and Ohio—there are twenty or twenty-five who stay all the
year. There are several hawks and owls and woodpeckers, the crow,
bob-white, the blue jay, and the meadowlark, and, of the little ones,
the goldfinch, in his sober winter coat, his cousin the purple finch,
the song sparrow, the nuthatch, and the chickadee.
 Besides these "permanent residents," there are ten or twelve who
come from the north. The funny little saw-whet owl is one, and the
snowflake, who loves to frolic in the snow, is another.
Many of our summer birds stay in the Southern States all winter.
Those who can eat seeds and winter berries—for instance, robins
and bluebirds, catbirds and sparrows—need not go very far south;
and some of them even stay in the State of New York.
Most of our birds who do not eat berries, but must have insects,
go farther, some to Florida or the West Indies, others to Central
America, and a few even into South America,—except the
woodpecker, who gets his insects under the bark of trees.
The summer birds of the Western States nearly all go to Mexico
for the winter.
The little birds who stay with us are only those who can eat
seeds, as I said, or the eggs and insects to be found in the crevices
of the bark on trees. These birds do a great deal of good, for each
one destroys thousands of insects before they have come out of the
egg. One small chickadee will eat several hundred insect eggs in a
day.
These little fellows can almost always find their food, for the snow
seldom covers the trunks of the trees; but now and then in the
winter we have an ice storm; then the trunks and branches are
buried under ice, so that the birds suffer, and perhaps will starve to
death.
In such a time it will be kind of you who live in the country to put
out food for them. You can give them any table scraps of meat or
vegetables, or bread, chopped fine for their tiny mouths, with corn
or grain for bigger birds.
What they all like best to eat is suet,—which the butcher will give
you,—chopped fine, or, better still, nailed or tied to a branch or a
fence, so that they can pick off morsels for themselves. This will
make them all very happy; but you must see that the English
sparrow does not drive them away, or eat it all himself.
Some persons who live in the country or small towns spread a
table every day through the winter for the birds. Many come for
food, and they have great pleasure in watching them and studying
their ways.
One lady I know who is an invalid, and her greatest happiness in
the long cold months, when she cannot go out, is to set her
breakfast-table, and watch the guests who come to it.
She lives in the southern part of Ohio, and she has all winter
cardinal grosbeaks, or redbirds as she calls them, blue jays, tufted
titmice, and others. The cardinals are fine singers, and they sing to
her every month in the year.
XVII
 HIS FAMILY AND FRIENDS

Many people think that as soon as the young birds of a nest are
full grown, and know how to take care of themselves, the family
separate, and have no more to do with each other. Some have even
said that the old birds push the little ones out of the nest to get rid
of them.
All this is a great mistake, and any one who has watched them
carefully will say so.
In many cases, when the brood is grown and all have left the
nest, the whole family keep together. One who has eyes sharp to see
will find everywhere little groups of parents with their young. If the
old birds rear more than one brood in a summer, the young ones of
the first nest keep together.
I have often seen little parties of young bluebirds or sparrows
going about after food on the grass, or on the newly cut hay. Now
and then one of the parents would come around as if to see that all
was well, and then leave them alone again. When the second brood
is ready to go out, the whole family often unite in a small flock. In
some cases, where they could be watched, they have been known to
stay so all winter. All through July and August, in the New England
and Middle States, one may see these pretty little family groups.
Some birds who live and nest by themselves, each pair in its own
tree, or bush, or field, come together in larger parties after the
young are grown, in a social way. A few do this only at night, in
what are called roosts, which I spoke of in a former chapter.
Other birds, when nestlings are out, unite in flocks, and stay so all
the time, or through the winter. Our pretty little goldfinch does this.
Most of the birds we see about our homes like to have a tree or
bush to themselves for their nest. But there are many birds that live
close together all the time. Some, you may say, in small villages,—
swallows, for instance. We generally see several swallows flying
about together. They make their nests near each other. The barn
swallow chooses the beams inside the barn, and there are often
three or four or more nests in the same barn.
The eave swallows put their mud cottages in a row, under the
eaves outside the barn. One would think they needed to have
numbers on their doors, to know which was their own.
There, too, are the common crow blackbirds. They come in the
spring in crowds, and when it is time to make nests, they find some
grove or clump of trees that suits them, and all of them build their
nests close together. Often there are two or three on one tree, like a
bird city. There they live and rear their little ones, and it is said they
never quarrel.
Then there are the birds who get their food from the sea, such as
penguins. These birds live in big cities, of many thousand nests.
They go to an island where no people live, and build on the ground,
or on rocks, or anywhere.
Sometimes they are so near together one can hardly walk without
stepping on them. How each mother can tell her own, it is hard to
see. They live very happily together, and if a mother is killed, so that
her little ones are left orphans, one of the neighbors will adopt them
all, and feed and bring them up with her own.
Some of these birds do not even take the trouble to make a nest.
They put the eggs anywhere on the sand or earth.
Some one, Mr. Brehm, I think, tells a pretty story about a certain
kind of duck who rears two broods every season. After the ducklings
of the first brood have learned to take care of themselves, they go
about together, getting their food and sailing on the water in a little
party, while their parents are hatching the second brood. But when
the younger ones are big enough, they are led to the water, and at
once their elder brothers and sisters join them. They all swim around
together, the youngest in the middle of the group, where they are
protected and fed by the elder brood as well as by the parents, a
lovely and united little family.
 XVIII
HIS KINDNESS TO OTHERS

Birds are helpful to each other when in trouble. If a robin is in

distress, other robins will come to see what is the matter, and to
help if they can. And not only robins, but catbirds, and orioles, and
chickadees, and others, will come, too.
Sometimes when a person tries to rob a nest, all the birds near
will come in a crowd, to drive away the thief. They will cry and
scream at him, and sometimes fly at his face, and try to peck his
eyes.
Birds are so little they cannot fight a man, but if they can peck at
his face, they can hurt him, and if they really get at his eyes, they
can put them out. We cannot blame the birds for trying to protect
themselves and their young, and it is well for boys to be careful how
they disturb a nest.
One proof that birds really do help each other is the fact that
when a man wants to know what birds live in a place, he can bring
them all around him by making a sound like a young bird in distress.
All who hear it will come to see what is the matter.
Let me tell you a story of some young swallows. They were able
to fly a little, and were sitting together on a roof, when a lady who
was watching them noticed that one of them seemed to be weak,
and not able to stand up.
When the parents came with food, the others stood up and
opened their mouths, and so were fed, but this little one hardly ever
got a morsel.
 If birds had no love for each other, as many people think, these
strong little ones would not have cared if their brother did starve;
but what did the lady see? She says that two of the strong young
swallows came close up to their weak brother, one on each side.
They put their beaks under his breast and lifted him up on to his
legs, and then crowded so close against him that their little bodies
propped him up, and held him there; so that he had his chance of
being fed as well as they.
Many times birds have been seen who were blind or old, or who
had a wing or a leg broken, or were in some way hurt so that they
could not take care of themselves, and who were being waited upon
by other birds, fed, and led to the water to drink and bathe.
 CHEWINK, OR TOWHEE

Birds have been found caught in the lining of a nest, so that they
were held there and could not go for food. They had been there for
weeks, and would have starved to death if they had not been fed.
Yet they were so well taken care of by other birds that they were
strong and able to fly.
In one case, where the nest was in a tree trunk, the hole in the
trunk had grown up, so that when big enough to fly, they could not
get out, and they had been there for months. Yet when a man cut
open the trunk and let them out, they were well and lively, proving
that they had been fed by friends outside all that time.
I could tell you many true stories of the kind care of birds for
each other, and for baby birds who had lost their parents, or been
stolen away from them.
A gentleman in Massachusetts told me that when he was a boy
he saw a small flock of chewinks who came about a house where
food was put out for birds. They came every day, and he soon saw
that one was bigger than the rest, and that he never tried to pick up
anything for himself, but all the others fed him.
One day he was cruel enough to throw a stone at the bird who
was so well taken care of, and when he took up his victim, he found
that the upper and lower parts of his bill were crossed, so that he
could not pick up anything from the ground, where chewinks find
their food. He had been born thus deformed, and if he had not been
fed every day by his friends he must have starved to death. Yet so
well had he been cared for that he was better grown than any of the
others.
 XIX
HIS AFFECTIONS

I am sure I need not say that father and mother birds love their
little ones.
So much does the mother love her nestlings that she is often
willing to die for them. Orioles and chickadees will let themselves be
caught in the hand of one who has taken their young, rather than
desert them.
Some birds live in our chimneys, generally in a flue that is not in
use, and are called chimney swifts. If a chimney takes fire the
mother swift tries hard to get her little ones out, but if they cannot
fly, she has been seen to fly into the fire herself, and die with them.
Robins have been found frozen to death on their nest. They could
easily have saved themselves, but they would not leave their young
ones to perish. A ground bird has been known to sit on her nest
during a freezing storm, till she died, rather than go and leave her
little ones to suffer.
Once when a young cedar-bird was caught and carried off, the
father followed it for miles, crying and showing so much distress that
the man who had stolen it was sorry for him, and let the little one
go.
Every one who has watched them knows that birds love their
mates. A man once shot a sea bird, when her mate came about him,
crying and showing his grief as well as if he could speak.
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