Modern Compiler Implementation in Java 2Ed 2nd

Edition Andrew W. Appel pdf download

https://ebookfinal.com/download/modern-compiler-implementation-
in-java-2ed-2nd-edition-andrew-w-appel/

Explore and download more ebooks or textbooks

at ebookfinal.com
Here are some recommended products for you. Click the link to
download, or explore more at ebookfinal

Engineering a Compiler 2nd Edition Keith Cooper

https://ebookfinal.com/download/engineering-a-compiler-2nd-edition-
keith-cooper/

Pharmacogenetics 2ed Edition Weber W.

https://ebookfinal.com/download/pharmacogenetics-2ed-edition-weber-w/

Advanced ASIC chip synthesis using Synopsys Design

Compiler Physical Compiler and PrimeTime 2nd Edition
Himanshu Bhatnagar
https://ebookfinal.com/download/advanced-asic-chip-synthesis-using-
synopsys-design-compiler-physical-compiler-and-primetime-2nd-edition-
himanshu-bhatnagar/

An Introduction to Modern Cosmology 2nd ed Edition Andrew

Liddle

https://ebookfinal.com/download/an-introduction-to-modern-
cosmology-2nd-ed-edition-andrew-liddle/
Learn Java for Web Development Modern Java Web Development
1st Edition Vishal Layka

https://ebookfinal.com/download/learn-java-for-web-development-modern-
java-web-development-1st-edition-vishal-layka/

Continuous Enterprise Development in Java Testable

Solutions with Arquillian First Edition Andrew Lee
Rubinger
https://ebookfinal.com/download/continuous-enterprise-development-in-
java-testable-solutions-with-arquillian-first-edition-andrew-lee-
rubinger/

Modern Construction Handbook 6th Edition Andrew Watts

https://ebookfinal.com/download/modern-construction-handbook-6th-
edition-andrew-watts/

Modern Political Ideologies 3rd Edition Andrew Vincent

https://ebookfinal.com/download/modern-political-ideologies-3rd-
edition-andrew-vincent/

Java in a nutshell 2nd ed Edition David Flanagan

https://ebookfinal.com/download/java-in-a-nutshell-2nd-ed-edition-
david-flanagan/
Modern Compiler Implementation in Java 2Ed 2nd
Edition Andrew W. Appel Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Andrew W. Appel
ISBN(s): 9780521820608, 052182060X
Edition: 2
File Details: PDF, 2.16 MB
Year: 2002
Language: english
This page intentionally left blank
 Modern Compiler Implementation in Java
Second Edition

This textbook describes all phases of a compiler: lexical analysis, parsing, abstract syntax, semantic
actions, intermediate representations, instruction selection via tree matching, dataflow analysis, graph-
coloring register allocation, and runtime systems. It includes good coverage of current techniques in
code generation and register allocation, as well as the compilation of functional and object-oriented
languages, which is missing from most books. The most accepted and successful techniques are de-
scribed concisely, rather than as an exhaustive catalog of every possible variant. Detailed descriptions
of the interfaces between modules of a compiler are illustrated with actual Java classes.

The first part of the book, Fundamentals of Compilation, is suitable for a one-semester first course in
compiler design. The second part, Advanced Topics, which includes the compilation of object-oriented
and functional languages, garbage collection, loop optimization, SSA form, instruction scheduling, and
optimization for cache-memory hierarchies, can be used for a second-semester or graduate course.

This new edition has been rewritten extensively to include more discussion of Java and object-oriented
programming concepts, such as visitor patterns. A unique feature is the newly redesigned compiler
project in Java for a subset of Java itself. The project includes both front-end and back-end phases, so
that students can build a complete working compiler in one semester.

Andrew W. Appel is Professor of Computer Science at Princeton University. He has done research
and published papers on compilers, functional programming languages, runtime systems and garbage
collection, type systems, and computer security; he is also author of the book Compiling with Contin-
uations. He is a designer and founder of the Standard ML of New Jersey project. In 1998, Appel was
elected a Fellow of the Association for Computing Machinery for “significant research contributions
in the area of programming languages and compilers” and for his work as editor-in-chief (1993–97)
of the ACM Transactions on Programming Languages and Systems, the leading journal in the field of
compilers and programming languages.

Jens Palsberg is Associate Professor of Computer Science at Purdue University. His research inter-
ests are programming languages, compilers, software engineering, and information security. He has
authored more than 50 technical papers in these areas and a book with Michael Schwartzbach, Object-
oriented Type Systems. In 1998, he received the National Science Foundation Faculty Early Career
Development Award, and in 1999, the Purdue University Faculty Scholar award.

i
ii
Modern Compiler
Implementation
in Java
Second Edition

ANDREW W. APPEL
Princeton University

with JENS PALSBERG

Purdue University

iii
         
The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge, United Kingdom

  

The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK
40 West 20th Street, New York, NY 10011-4211, USA
477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, Australia
Ruiz de Alarcón 13, 28014 Madrid, Spain
Dock House, The Waterfront, Cape Town 8001, South Africa

http://www.cambridge.org

© Cambridge University Press 2004

First published in printed format 2002

ISBN 0-511-03930-1 eBook (Adobe Reader)

ISBN 0-521-82060-X hardback
Contents

Preface ix

Part I Fundamentals of Compilation

1 Introduction 3
1.1 Modules and interfaces 4
1.2 Tools and software 5
1.3 Data structures for tree languages 7

2 Lexical Analysis 16
2.1 Lexical tokens 17
2.2 Regular expressions 18
2.3 Finite automata 21
2.4 Nondeterministic finite automata 24
2.5 Lexical-analyzer generators 30

3 Parsing 38
3.1 Context-free grammars 40
3.2 Predictive parsing 45
3.3 LR parsing 55
3.4 Using parser generators 68
3.5 Error recovery 76

4 Abstract Syntax 86
4.1 Semantic actions 86
4.2 Abstract parse trees 89
4.3 Visitors 93

5 Semantic Analysis 103

5.1 Symbol tables 103

v
 CONTENTS

5.2 Type-checking MiniJava 111

6 Activation Records 116

6.1 Stack frames 118
6.2 Frames in the MiniJava compiler 126

7 Translation to Intermediate Code 136

7.1 Intermediate representation trees 137
7.2 Translation into trees 140
7.3 Declarations 155

8 Basic Blocks and Traces 162

8.1 Canonical trees 163
8.2 Taming conditional branches 169

9 Instruction Selection 176

9.1 Algorithms for instruction selection 179
9.2 CISC machines 187
9.3 Instruction selection for the MiniJava compiler 190

10 Liveness Analysis 203

10.1 Solution of dataflow equations 205
10.2 Liveness in the MiniJava compiler 214

11 Register Allocation 219

11.1 Coloring by simplification 220
11.2 Coalescing 223
11.3 Precolored nodes 227
11.4 Graph-coloring implementation 232
11.5 Register allocation for trees 241

12 Putting It All Together 249

Part II Advanced Topics

13 Garbage Collection 257

13.1 Mark-and-sweep collection 257
13.2 Reference counts 262
13.3 Copying collection 264

vi
CONTENTS

13.4 Generational collection 269

13.5 Incremental collection 272
13.6 Baker’s algorithm 274
13.7 Interface to the compiler 275

14 Object-Oriented Languages 283

14.1 Class extension 283
14.2 Single inheritance of data fields 284
14.3 Multiple inheritance 286
14.4 Testing class membership 289
14.5 Private fields and methods 292
14.6 Classless languages 293
14.7 Optimizing object-oriented programs 293

15 Functional Programming Languages 298

15.1 A simple functional language 299
15.2 Closures 301
15.3 Immutable variables 302
15.4 Inline expansion 308
15.5 Closure conversion 316
15.6 Efficient tail recursion 319
15.7 Lazy evaluation 321

16 Polymorphic Types 335

16.1 Parametric polymorphism 336
16.2 Polymorphic type-checking 339
16.3 Translation of polymorphic programs 344
16.4 Resolution of static overloading 347

17 Dataflow Analysis 350

17.1 Intermediate representation for flow analysis 351
17.2 Various dataflow analyses 354
17.3 Transformations using dataflow analysis 359
17.4 Speeding up dataflow analysis 360
17.5 Alias analysis 369

18 Loop Optimizations 376

18.1 Dominators 379
18.2 Loop-invariant computations 384

vii
 CONTENTS

18.3 Induction variables 385

18.4 Array-bounds checks 391
18.5 Loop unrolling 395

19 Static Single-Assignment Form 399

19.1 Converting to SSA form 402
19.2 Efficient computation of the dominator tree 410
19.3 Optimization algorithms using SSA 417
19.4 Arrays, pointers, and memory 423
19.5 The control-dependence graph 425
19.6 Converting back from SSA form 428
19.7 A functional intermediate form 430

20 Pipelining and Scheduling 440

20.1 Loop scheduling without resource bounds 444
20.2 Resource-bounded loop pipelining 448
20.3 Branch prediction 456

21 The Memory Hierarchy 464

21.1 Cache organization 465
21.2 Cache-block alignment 468
21.3 Prefetching 470
21.4 Loop interchange 476
21.5 Blocking 477
21.6 Garbage collection and the memory hierarchy 480

Appendix: MiniJava Language Reference Manual 484

A.1 Lexical Issues 484
A.2 Grammar 484
A.3 Sample Program 486

Bibliography 487

Index 495

viii
Preface

This book is intended as a textbook for a one- or two-semester course in com-

pilers. Students will see the theory behind different components of a com-
piler, the programming techniques used to put the theory into practice, and
the interfaces used to modularize the compiler. To make the interfaces and
programming examples clear and concrete, we have written them in Java.
Another edition of this book is available that uses the ML language.

Implementation project. The “student project compiler” that we have out-

lined is reasonably simple, but is organized to demonstrate some important
techniques that are now in common use: abstract syntax trees to avoid tan-
gling syntax and semantics, separation of instruction selection from register
allocation, copy propagation to give flexibility to earlier phases of the com-
piler, and containment of target-machine dependencies. Unlike many “stu-
dent compilers” found in other textbooks, this one has a simple but sophisti-
cated back end, allowing good register allocation to be done after instruction
selection.
This second edition of the book has a redesigned project compiler: It uses
a subset of Java, called MiniJava, as the source language for the compiler
project, it explains the use of the parser generators JavaCC and SableCC, and
it promotes programming with the Visitor pattern. Students using this edition
can implement a compiler for a language they’re familiar with, using standard
tools, in a more object-oriented style.
Each chapter in Part I has a programming exercise corresponding to one
module of a compiler. Software useful for the exercises can be found at
http://uk.cambridge.org/resources/052182060X (outside North America);
http://us.cambridge.org/titles/052182060X.html (within North America).

Exercises. Each chapter has pencil-and-paper exercises; those marked with

a star are more challenging, two-star problems are difficult but solvable, and

ix
 PREFACE

the occasional three-star exercises are not known to have a solution.

Course sequence. The figure shows how the chapters depend on each other.
Lexical Abstract Semantic
2. 3. Parsing 4. 5.

Quarter
Analysis Syntax Analysis

Activation Translation to Basic Blocks

Semester
6. 7. 8.
Records Intermediate Code and Traces

Instruction Putting it
1. Introduction 9. 12.
Selection All Together

Quarter
Liveness Register
10. 11.
Analysis Allocation
Static Single-
Dataflow Loop
17. 18. 19. Assignment
Analysis Optimizations
Form

Semester
Functional Polymorphic Pipelining,
15. 16. 20.
Languages Types Scheduling

Garbage Object-Oriented Memory

13. 14. 21.
Collection Languages Hierarchies

• A one-semester course could cover all of Part I (Chapters 1–12), with students
implementing the project compiler (perhaps working in groups); in addition,
lectures could cover selected topics from Part II.
• An advanced or graduate course could cover Part II, as well as additional
topics from the current literature. Many of the Part II chapters can stand inde-
pendently from Part I, so that an advanced course could be taught to students
who have used a different book for their first course.
• In a two-quarter sequence, the first quarter could cover Chapters 1–8, and the
second quarter could cover Chapters 9–12 and some chapters from Part II.

Acknowledgments. Many people have provided constructive criticism or

helped us in other ways on this book. Vidyut Samanta helped tremendously
with both the text and the software for the new edition of the book. We would
also like to thank Leonor Abraido-Fandino, Scott Ananian, Nils Andersen,
Stephen Bailey, Joao Cangussu, Maia Ginsburg, Max Hailperin, David Han-
son, Jeffrey Hsu, David MacQueen, Torben Mogensen, Doug Morgan, Robert
Netzer, Elma Lee Noah, Mikael Petterson, Benjamin Pierce, Todd Proebsting,
Anne Rogers, Barbara Ryder, Amr Sabry, Mooly Sagiv, Zhong Shao, Mary
Lou Soffa, Andrew Tolmach, Kwangkeun Yi, and Kenneth Zadeck.

x
PART ONE
Fundamentals of
Compilation

1
2
1
Introduction

A compiler was originally a program that “compiled”

subroutines [a link-loader]. When in 1954 the combina-
tion “algebraic compiler” came into use, or rather into
misuse, the meaning of the term had already shifted into
the present one.

Bauer and Eickel [1975]

This book describes techniques, data structures, and algorithms for translating
programming languages into executable code. A modern compiler is often or-
ganized into many phases, each operating on a different abstract “language.”
The chapters of this book follow the organization of a compiler, each covering
a successive phase.
To illustrate the issues in compiling real programming languages, we show
how to compile MiniJava, a simple but nontrivial subset of Java. Program-
ming exercises in each chapter call for the implementation of the correspond-
ing phase; a student who implements all the phases described in Part I of the
book will have a working compiler. MiniJava is easily extended to support
class extension or higher-order functions, and exercises in Part II show how
to do this. Other chapters in Part II cover advanced techniques in program
optimization. Appendix A describes the MiniJava language.
The interfaces between modules of the compiler are almost as important
as the algorithms inside the modules. To describe the interfaces concretely,
it is useful to write them down in a real programming language. This book
uses Java – a simple object-oriented language. Java is safe, in that programs
cannot circumvent the type system to violate abstractions; and it has garbage
collection, which greatly simplifies the management of dynamic storage al-

3
 CHAPTER ONE. INTRODUCTION

Environ-
ments
Source Program

Abstract Syntax
Tables

Reductions

Translate

IR Trees

IR Trees
Tokens

Assem
Parsing Semantic Canon- Instruction
Lex Parse Actions Analysis Translate icalize Selection

Frame
Frame
Layout

Relocatable Object Code

Register Assignment

Assembly Language
Interference Graph

Machine Language
Flow Graph
Assem

Control Data
Flow Flow Register Code Assembler Linker
Analysis Analysis Allocation Emission

FIGURE 1.1. Phases of a compiler, and interfaces between them.

location. Both of these properties are useful in writing compilers (and almost
any kind of software).
This is not a textbook on Java programming. Students using this book who
do not know Java already should pick it up as they go along, using a Java
programming book as a reference. Java is a small enough language, with
simple enough concepts, that this should not be difficult for students with
good programming skills in other languages.

1.1 MODULES AND INTERFACES

Any large software system is much easier to understand and implement if

the designer takes care with the fundamental abstractions and interfaces. Fig-
ure 1.1 shows the phases in a typical compiler. Each phase is implemented as
one or more software modules.
Breaking the compiler into this many pieces allows for reuse of the compo-
nents. For example, to change the target machine for which the compiler pro-

4
 1.2. TOOLS AND SOFTWARE

duces machine language, it suffices to replace just the Frame Layout and In-
struction Selection modules. To change the source language being compiled,
only the modules up through Translate need to be changed. The compiler
can be attached to a language-oriented syntax editor at the Abstract Syntax
interface.
The learning experience of coming to the right abstraction by several itera-
tions of think–implement–redesign is one that should not be missed. However,
the student trying to finish a compiler project in one semester does not have
this luxury. Therefore, we present in this book the outline of a project where
the abstractions and interfaces are carefully thought out, and are as elegant
and general as we are able to make them.
Some of the interfaces, such as Abstract Syntax, IR Trees, and Assem, take
the form of data structures: For example, the Parsing Actions phase builds an
Abstract Syntax data structure and passes it to the Semantic Analysis phase.
Other interfaces are abstract data types; the Translate interface is a set of
functions that the Semantic Analysis phase can call, and the Tokens interface
takes the form of a function that the Parser calls to get the next token of the
input program.

DESCRIPTION OF THE PHASES

Each chapter of Part I of this book describes one compiler phase, as shown in
Table 1.2
This modularization is typical of many real compilers. But some compil-
ers combine Parse, Semantic Analysis, Translate, and Canonicalize into one
phase; others put Instruction Selection much later than we have done, and
combine it with Code Emission. Simple compilers omit the Control Flow
Analysis, Data Flow Analysis, and Register Allocation phases.
We have designed the compiler in this book to be as simple as possible, but
no simpler. In particular, in those places where corners are cut to simplify the
implementation, the structure of the compiler allows for the addition of more
optimization or fancier semantics without violence to the existing interfaces.

1.2 TOOLS AND SOFTWARE

Two of the most useful abstractions used in modern compilers are context-
free grammars, for parsing, and regular expressions, for lexical analysis. To
make the best use of these abstractions it is helpful to have special tools,

5
 CHAPTER ONE. INTRODUCTION

Chapter Phase Description

2 Lex Break the source file into individual words, or tokens.
3 Parse Analyze the phrase structure of the program.
4 Semantic Build a piece of abstract syntax tree corresponding to each
Actions phrase.
5 Semantic Determine what each phrase means, relate uses of variables to
Analysis their definitions, check types of expressions, request translation
of each phrase.
6 Frame Place variables, function-parameters, etc. into activation records
Layout (stack frames) in a machine-dependent way.
7 Translate Produce intermediate representation trees (IR trees), a nota-
tion that is not tied to any particular source language or target-
machine architecture.
8 Canonicalize Hoist side effects out of expressions, and clean up conditional
branches, for the convenience of the next phases.
9 Instruction Group the IR-tree nodes into clumps that correspond to the ac-
Selection tions of target-machine instructions.
10 Control Analyze the sequence of instructions into a control flow graph
Flow that shows all the possible flows of control the program might
Analysis follow when it executes.
10 Dataflow Gather information about the flow of information through vari-
Analysis ables of the program; for example, liveness analysis calculates
the places where each program variable holds a still-needed value
(is live).
11 Register Choose a register to hold each of the variables and temporary
Allocation values used by the program; variables not live at the same time
can share the same register.
12 Code Replace the temporary names in each machine instruction with
Emission machine registers.

TABLE 1.2. Description of compiler phases.

such as Yacc (which converts a grammar into a parsing program) and Lex
(which converts a declarative specification into a lexical-analysis program).
Fortunately, such tools are available for Java, and the project described in this
book makes use of them.
The programming projects in this book can be compiled using any Java

6
 1.3. DATA STRUCTURES FOR TREE LANGUAGES

Stm → Stm ; Stm (CompoundStm)

ExpList → Exp , ExpList (PairExpList)
Stm → id := Exp (AssignStm)
ExpList → Exp (LastExpList)
Stm → print ( ExpList ) (PrintStm)
Binop →+ (Plus)
Exp → id (IdExp)
Binop →− (Minus)
Exp → num (NumExp)
Binop →× (Times)
Exp → Exp Binop Exp (OpExp)
Binop →/ (Div)
Exp → ( Stm , Exp ) (EseqExp)

GRAMMAR 1.3. A straight-line programming language.

compiler. The parser generators JavaCC and SableCC are freely available on
the Internet; for information see the World Wide Web page
http://uk.cambridge.org/resources/052182060X (outside North America);
http://us.cambridge.org/titles/052182060X.html (within North America).
Source code for some modules of the MiniJava compiler, skeleton source
code and support code for some of the programming exercises, example Mini-
Java programs, and other useful files are also available from the same Web
address. The programming exercises in this book refer to this directory as
$MINIJAVA/ when referring to specific subdirectories and files contained
therein.

1.3 DATA STRUCTURES FOR TREE LANGUAGES

Many of the important data structures used in a compiler are intermediate

representations of the program being compiled. Often these representations
take the form of trees, with several node types, each of which has different
attributes. Such trees can occur at many of the phase-interfaces shown in
Figure 1.1.
Tree representations can be described with grammars, just like program-
ming languages. To introduce the concepts, we will show a simple program-
ming language with statements and expressions, but no loops or if-statements
(this is called a language of straight-line programs).
The syntax for this language is given in Grammar 1.3.
The informal semantics of the language is as follows. Each Stm is a state-
ment, each Exp is an expression. s1 ; s2 executes statement s1 , then statement
s2 . i :=e evaluates the expression e, then “stores” the result in variable i.

7
 CHAPTER ONE. INTRODUCTION

print(e1 , e2 , . . . , en ) displays the values of all the expressions, evaluated

left to right, separated by spaces, terminated by a newline.
An identifier expression, such as i, yields the current contents of the vari-
able i. A number evaluates to the named integer. An operator expression
e1 op e2 evaluates e1 , then e2 , then applies the given binary operator. And
an expression sequence (s, e) behaves like the C-language “comma” opera-
tor, evaluating the statement s for side effects before evaluating (and returning
the result of) the expression e.
For example, executing this program
a := 5+3; b := (print(a, a-1), 10*a); print(b)

prints
8 7
80

How should this program be represented inside a compiler? One represen-

tation is source code, the characters that the programmer writes. But that is
not so easy to manipulate. More convenient is a tree data structure, with one
node for each statement (Stm) and expression (Exp). Figure 1.4 shows a tree
representation of the program; the nodes are labeled by the production labels
of Grammar 1.3, and each node has as many children as the corresponding
grammar production has right-hand-side symbols.
We can translate the grammar directly into data structure definitions, as
shown in Program 1.5. Each grammar symbol corresponds to an abstract
class in the data structures:
Grammar class
Stm Stm
Exp Exp
ExpList ExpList
id String
num int

For each grammar rule, there is one constructor that belongs to the class
for its left-hand-side symbol. We simply extend the abstract class with a “con-
crete” class for each grammar rule. The constructor (class) names are indi-
cated on the right-hand side of Grammar 1.3.
Each grammar rule has right-hand-side components that must be repre-
sented in the data structures. The CompoundStm has two Stm’s on the right-
hand side; the AssignStm has an identifier and an expression; and so on.

8
Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
Mr. Camfield’s wound was much inflamd, by wading the streams, and
traveling. He receivd a shot in his side from a pistol, the ball still
remaining in the flesh.

Mr. Jackson, it will be recollected, accompanied me to 102

Waiilatpu, and was waiting my return from the Utilla, till
Monday forenoon, when a slight circumstance inducd him to leave
for Clear Water, about three hours before the massacre commencd.
He reachd Mr. Craig’s Tuesday night, ignorant of what had taken
place, and of his own narrow escape.

There was another band of Indians encampd in the same valley,

some ten miles from my station, headed by Joseph,—a principal
chief, in the absence of Ellis.

Joseph was one of the first natives who gave evidence of a change
of heart, and united with the church 8 years ago, and had, up to this
time, with the exception of two or three slight deviations, exhibited a
good Christian character.

Many of Joseph’s people were campd with him, and cultivated

extensively in the valley, and had for the last four or five years,
constituted a good portion of the Sabbath congregation—and the
school. Seven of them were members of the church, and had ever
appeard friendly to the mission.

Their present movements however, were very suspicious.—Almost

daily, Joseph with many of his people, had been in the habit of
visiting the house. But after the arrival of the news of the massacre,
neither Joseph nor any of his people showd themselves till Monday
morning, when many of the latter, and among them, Joseph’s
brother-in-law, and from the same fire—showd themselves with the
robbers, and were foremost in plundering the buildings.

Here was an opportunity for religion to show itself, if there was any.
Never before had temptation come to Joseph and his native
brethren, in the ch. in this dress. But now it came, and his fall, as I
regard it, and that of some others, has given to the Christian world a
lesson that should be well studied, before it again places the lives
and property of missionaries at the mercy of lawless savages,
without a military force to keep them in awe.

103
THINGS IN OREGON.
 CHAPTER XVI.
Arrival of Gov. Lane—Description of Port Astoria and vicinity—Narrow escape from
Shipwreck.

March 8th, 1849.—I am quietly stowd away in a private family in

Oregon city, after having roamd up and down the valley, in pursuit of
information.

All is commotion here. Gov. Lane, from Indiana, arrivd in town the
first of this month, bringing the new government with him in his
pocket up the Willamet river in a skiff, over the Clackamas rapids. As
to whether he got out and helpd to pull the boat over the rapids or
not, I have not been informd. The big men of the place are brushing
up their boots and putting on their best clothes, as the Governor
passes the streets, hoping as he passes along, that his eye may fall
upon them placidly. I do not very well know what such things mean,
though I suppose that politicians do.

April 7th.—The first public mail arrivd in Oregon city, from the U.
States, by the mail steamer of San Francisco, to-day. This country
begins to be alive to maritime business—the first vessel ever built at
the Willamet falls in Oregon, is now on the stocks. Her owners say
her tunnage will be from 50 to 60 tuns burden.

After having staid in Oregon nearly seven months, I take my

departure from Oregon city, the 10th of April, for San Francisco, by
way of the ocean.

Port Astoria, 26th.—To-day embarkd on board ship for San Francisco

bay, after having staid nearly two weeks at Astoria, waiting 104
for the ship to be in readiness to leave. My stay at this place
has given me an opportunity of learning something of this part of
the country, the difficulty of navigating the river at this part of it, and
the prices of some articles of produce, as sold here in these times of
great excitement.

* * * * * * * *

Port Astoria is situated about 15 miles from the mouth of the

Columbia river, on the south side of it. The place has not been
improvd since its first establishment. There are only five or six
houses in the place that have been built by the whites, excepting a
storehouse or two built by the Hudson Bay Company. The country
here and around Astoria, is rugged and unpleasant, heavily coverd
with fir and hemlock, some of which is of giant size.

About 25 miles of the river from its mouth, is indented with bays by
various names, making a width of from 7 to 10 or 12 miles.

At the mouth of the river, on the north, is Cape Disappointment.

Eight miles distant, on the opposite side, is Clatsap point, sometimes

calld Point Adams.

Cape Disappointment, by its projection from the main land, forms a

little cove, calld Baker’s bay. Here ships may lie in perfect safety.

On the south side, higher up, at the entrance of Young into the
Lewis and Clark’s river, is Young’s bay.

At the mouth of the Columbia river, between Cape Disappointment

and Clatsap point, is an extensive sand-bar, which renders an
entrance to the river difficult, except by experiencd navigators of the
river.

The first 15 or 20 miles of the entrance of the river, has a channel so

crooked that almost every point of compass is traversd, which makes
navigation by sail ships slow and dangerous. At every new point,
ships are obligd oftentimes to stop several days and sometimes
weeks for a change of wind. The only successful and speedy mode
of traversing the river will ultimately be by steam vessels.

Amongst other things that have fallen within my notice whilst 105
at Astoria, was the price of a few articles of produce brought
to this place to sell to passengers, whilst waiting for the readiness of
the ship. Potatoes were sold at one dollar per bushel, eggs at $1 per
dozen, butter at $1 per pound. Flour a little more moderate—its
price per barrel was only $10. During my stay at Astoria, a beef was
killd at Clatsap and brought here, and sold at 12 cents for the fore,
and 15 for the hind quarters, per pound.

27th.—On leaving Astoria, our ship was thrown on the beach, where
she remaind during the day, occasiond by the drunkenness of our
pilot.

Thursday, May 3d, we left Baker’s bay for the broad ocean, with a
fair wind and high hopes of crossing the sand-bar with pleasantness
and safety. The number of souls on board was about 130. We
proceeded gently along for three-fourths of an hour, when we arrivd
near the place where the ships Shark, Vancouver and Maine were
wreckd, and the wind nearly ceasd to blow. Our ship became
unmanageable, drifting by the strong tide which was then
unfavorable, and likely in a few minutes to carry us from the channel
and place us upon the sands, where the ship must inevitably have
become a wreck.

In this critical situation, with only 18 feet of water for a ship drawing
15, and the tide yet falling—by the energetic movement of our
officers and crew, they were enabld to stay the ship by immediately
casting anchor. After waiting more than 2 hours in this perilous
situation, the wind became of sufficient strength to justify an
attempt to make our escape by parting anchor.

During this time of extreme anxiety, soundings were constantly kept

up both on ship and at a distance around.
When all things were ready on board for the attempt, orders were
given and instantly the anchor with 180 feet of chain were severd
from the ship, and she under way in a retrograde course towards
Cape Disappointment. We continud our retrograde course till we
arrivd as near the cape as practicable, in consequence of a bar
which projected a short distance from it, at which point we changd
our course to the south-west, and in less than one hour we were in
the broad ocean, and over all danger from sand-bars.

Monday evening, 9 o’clock, May 7th.—Safely anchord in San 106

Francisco bay. Our passage from the time we were relievd at
the Columbia bar, may be reckond at 96 hours’ sailing. More than 12
of this was under extremely moderate wind, though in a favorable
direction. The remainder of the way, was under a very strong
breeze. It would seem then, that the distance may be saild, with a
strong wind, in about 3½ days, which is about 560 miles, by the
way of the ocean.

To my great astonishment, on looking about on the morning of the

8th, I counted about 60 vessels of various sizes lying in the bay,
most of which were inactive for want of men to work them, they
having left for the mines. On passing up the St. Waukeen, the
course of my first visit to the mines, I saw scatterd along at different
points, many more vessels of various sizes.

The present head of navigation for sail ships, is a little cloth town
calld Stocton. Here were 8 or 10 more vessels lying disrobd of their
sails to make cloth houses of. This town is more than 100 miles up
from San Francisco. At this place, supplies are deposited for the
mines, which are carrid by wagons and pack animals, to the mining
district, a distance of 70 or 80 miles further, upon the tributaries of
the Saint Waukeen.

107
 GOLD MANIA,
Or Yellow Fever, as some call it.
 CHAPTER XVII.
Excitement in Oregon, relative to the discovery of Gold in California.

The discovery of the Gold District in California, has producd the

greatest excitement of any thing of a similar nature in modern days.

The first commencement of the excitement in Oregon was about the

middle of August, 1848, and within one month’s time, nearly 2000
persons left Oregon for that place.

The district is said to be the richest ever known. Though it is

questionable whether the gold obtaind by Solomon was not found
equally abundant, since among so great a number of citizens as
Jerusalem furnishd, the abundance of gold in that place had reducd
the value of silver to almost nothing.

When the news of gold in California reachd Oregon, the wheat

harvest was not yet ended, and so great was the delirium when the
news arrivd, that many of the farmers left their fields unfinishd,
giving them up gratuitously to any one who might be disposd to
harvest them, or let them waste upon the ground.

As late as the 10th of March, 1849, the fever continud with unabated
fury, increasing in its sanguinary features as the warm season
approachd, preying upon the heart and vitals of every human being
in Oregon.

From the 13th of Sept. last, which was the time I arrivd at 108
Oregon city, to the 10th of March following, not one day
passd, Sundays not excepted, without the mention by some one in
my presence, of the gold speculation.
During the remainder of my stay in Oregon city, tools of various
kinds were invented and being made at that place, ready for
departure to the mines, so soon as they might be profitably worked,
on the opening of the warm season.

The following description of the Gold Mania is taken from the Oregon
Spectator, as quoted from the Californian—

GOLD MINES OF CALIFORNIA.

In our paper of August 16, we devoted considerable space to the

subject of the gold mines, stating some facts in regard to their
discovery, and the manner in which the ore was collected. So well
was the article receivd by the public—then on the qui vive for
information about the mines—and consequently so great the
demand for our paper, that in a few hours after publication the
entire edition was disposd of. Since then we have receivd many and
urgent demands for that number of the Californian, and this week,
at the solicitation of a number of our patrons, we repeat the
substance of our former article, with some additional particulars.

It appears that in the first part of February last, Messrs. Marshall and
Bennett were engagd with a party in erecting a saw-mill for Capt. J.
A. Sutter, on the American fork of the Sacramento river, about 40
miles above its mouth. In excavating the tail-race, they removd the
rock during the day, and let in the water during the night, in order to
wash out the loose dirt and sand. On the morning of the 10th, after
shutting off the water, Mr. Marshall discoverd the first gold, lying
upon decomposd granite, in the bottom of the race.

It would seem that but little doubt was entertaind of its being the
real simon pure, for operations immediately ceasd on the mill, and
all hands commencd searching for gold. It was soon found that gold
abounded along the American fork for a distance of 30 miles. For a
time the discoverers were the only ones aware of the fact, but the
news finally spread through the settlements. But little credit however
was gaind by the report, though occasionally a solitary “gold 109
hunter” might be seen stealing down to a launch with a pick
and shovel, more than half ashamd of his credulity.

Some time during the month of May, a number of credible persons

arrivd in town from the scene of operations, bringing specimens of
the ore, and stating that those engagd in collecting the precious
metal were making from $3 to $10 per day.

Then commencd the grand rush!

The inhabitants throughout the territory were in commotion. Large

companies of men, women and children could be seen on every road
leading to the mines, their wagons loaded down with tools for
digging, provisions, &c. Launch after launch left the wharves of our
city, crowded with passengers and freight for the Sacramento.

Mechanical operations of every kind ceasd—whole streets, that were

but a week before alive with a busy population, were entirely
deserted, and the place wore the appearance of a city that had been
suddenly visited by a devastating plague. To cap the climax,
newspapers were obligd to stop printing for want of readers.

Meantime our mercantile friends were doing an unusual “stroke” of

business. Every arrival from the mining district brought more or less
gold dust, the major part of which immediately passd into the hands
of the merchants for goods, &c. Immense quantities of merchandize
were conveyd to the mines, until it became a matter of astonishment
where so much could be disposd of. During the first eight weeks of
the “golden times” the receipts at this place in gold dust amounted
to $250,000. For the eight weeks ending at this date, they were
$600,000.

The number of persons now engagd in gold hunting, will probably

exceed 6000, including Indians, and one ounce per day, is the lowest
average we can put for each person, while many collect their
hundreds of dollars, for a number of days in succession, and
instances have been known where one individual has collected from
$1500, to $1800 worth of pure gold in a day.

Explorations have been progressing, and it is now fully ascertaind

that gold exists on both sides of the Sierra Nevada from lat. 110
41 North, to as far South, as the head waters of the San
Joaquin river, a distance of 400 miles in length, and 100 in breadth.
Farther than this has not been explord, but from the nature of the
country beyond the sources of the San Joaquin, we doubt not gold
will also be found there in equal abundance. The gold region already
known, is however sufficiently extensive to give profitable
employment to 100,000 persons for generations to come. The ore is
in a virgin state, disseminated in small doses, and is found in three
distinct deposits,—sand and graveld beds, on decomposd granite,
and intermixd with a kind of slate.

For a long time subsequent to the discovery of the mines,—the only

implements usd in washing the gold, were large tin pans, or Indian
baskets. Latterly, ‘machines were usd—at first, a rough log hollowd
out (in some, instances,) by burning and scraping with a butcher
knife—afterwards, more finishd ones made their appearance, built of
red wood boards, in the shape of an ordinary trough, about ten feet
long, and two feet wide at the top, with a riddle or sive at one end
to catch the larger gravel, and three or four small bars at the
bottom, about ½ an inch high, to keep the gold from going out with
the dirt and water at the lower end. This machine is set upon
rockers,—which gives a half rotary motion to the dirt and water
inside.’—Four men are requisite to work one of these machines
properly.

Within the past month, many sick persons from the mines have
arrivd at this place, and scarcely a launch comes down the
Sacramento, without more or less sick persons on board,—while
some die on the river. The very natural inference drawn from this, by
those who have never been at the mines, is, that they lie in a sickly
section of the country, and those at work there, are in daily
expectation of being sick. In our opinion,—however, nothing can be
farther from the truth. As far as our experience goes, it is on the
large rivers only, where disease prevails, and in passing up and
down upon them, the person not in perfect health is almost
invariably the one to become sick.—We have observd but few, very
few cases of sickness in the immediate neighborhood of the 111
mines, but such as we believe would have occurd under
similar circumstances in any other climate. Let the miner pass the
Sacramento safely, (and we would almost insure any person’s doing
so that was perfectly regular and temperate in all his habits,)—let
him not, when he arrives at the mines, work as though he was
privilegd to operate for a limited time only, but poco poco, resting at
proper intervals,—let him abstain from the free use of intoxicating
drinks, living upon wholesome food,—avoiding, for instance, half
baked bread—let him sleep under the shelter of a tent, with warm
bedding,—and if, after following our advice in all these particulars,
the gold hunter becomes sick, why—we do not know anything about
the matter.

113
CALIFORNIA GOLD MINES
DESCRIBED.
 CHAPTER XVIII.
Geography of the Gold District of Alta California.

From recent searches for gold in Northern California, it appears that

the present gold district is comprisd, nearly all of it, within the
following boundary. It lies on the western declivity of the Sierra
Neveda range of mountains, and gold is sought for along the
tributaries of the great Sacramento river in the northern, and the St.
Waukeen river in the southern part of Northern or Upper California.

The names of the tributaries of the St. Waukeen, beginning with the
most northern one, are as follows. Makelemas, which unites with the
Saint Waukeen, near its confluence with the Sacramento. Next
south, is Calaveras. South of this, is Stanislaus. The next important
river, is Twalamy. Still farther south, a distance of 20 or 25 miles, is a
considerable stream, calld Merced, or River of Mercy. South of
Merced, is another, calld Mereposa, though I believe this is dry part
of the year. These constitute the principal mountain streams,
tributary to the St. Waukeen.

The names of the rivers in the northern mining district, tributaries to

the Sacramento, are, first and nearest the confluence of the
Sacramento with the St. Waukeen, the Cosumnes. Next northward,
the American river, the largest tributary to the Sacramento. It has
several forks, calld North, South and Middle forks of the American
river. Next, Rio de los Plumos or Feather river. Still farther north, are
Bear, Quesnels and Sycamore rivers.

The length from north to south, of the present gold district, 114
cannot well be computed at more than 400 miles, lying
within the latitudes of 36 and 42 deg. north. In its width, which is
mostly containd within a distance of from 20 to 30 miles, it traverses
the middle portion of the western declivity of the aforementiond
range of mountains, though miners assert that gold has been found
sparingly, high up some of the mountain streams, toward its axis.

The whole surface of the gold district presents one continud scene of
uneven country. Much of it, the hills soar far above the intervening
valleys below—and along some of the principal tributaries, for miles
in length, very deep kanions are formd.

The water of the large streams is very pure and healthy, being
mostly from the melted snows of the mountain. During the summer
season it seldom rains, and the rivers continue to fall, till quite along
into the winter season. After the rainy season commences, which is
most powerful toward the summit of the mountains, floods are often
witnessd low down the streams, where not a single drop of water
has fallen for months. These floods descend with a mighty rush, and
often surprise the miner before he is able to remove his mining
implements from the bed of a stream.

The mining district is coverd with a thin growth of scrub oaks and
yellow pine. The earth is divested of soil, except sparingly in some of
the valleys, being of a reddish color, by the decomposition of rocks
containing iron.

The climate is so dry during summer, that little grass grows in any
part of the mines. Nauseous exhalations are therefore excluded, and
the atmosphere is quite healthy. In some parts of the mines the
miners become sick, but it is mostly attributable to their treatment
with themselves. Through the summer months, the days are warm
but the nights are cool, and but few nights occur in which a man
does not need considerable night clothing toward morning.

115
 CHAPTER XIX.
The Geology of the Gold District of California, with the probable cause of the
production of Gold to the surface of the earth.

The rocks of Golden California, in common with the whole western

declivity of the Sierra Neveda mountains, are principally composd of
primary, stratified, slate rocks. Some of these rocks are talcose slate.
Others are more silicious, approaching even to coarsish sandstone
slate, of various colors.

Before confining the reader expressly to the gold district, a few

remarks relative to that portion of California lying west of the
Neveda mountains to the valley of the great Sacramento and St.
Waukeen, may afford some light on the subject of that part of the
western declivity lying within the seat of mining operations. The
slate rock on the western side of the mountain range, from its axis
to its base, is tilted up a little more than perpendicularly outward
from the axis of the mountain, a distance of more than 60 miles in
width, and traverses the whole range, as far north and south as the
present mines extend, in lines parallel to the course of the
mountain’s axis.

At the base of the mountain, commences a tertiary deposit of about

20 miles in width, which, with an alluvial deposit of about 20 more in
width, to the great rivers of the valley, hides from sight the
remaining portion of tilted rocks, so that the entire width of the tilted
strata can never exactly be ascertaind. But if a mountain range like
the one under consideration, is formd by the furrowd and ridgd
condition of the earth’s crust, by conforming to a diminishd molten
nucleus within, from refrigeration of its heat, it may be expected that
the whole declivity, from its axis or highest point to its lowest or mid
valley, may be all of it tilted up in the same manner as that portion
which is presented to sight. If this be fact, we are then apprizd that
a portion of the earth’s crust must have had a thickness of full 100
miles, by measuring across the tilted rocks, from the central valley,
to the top of the mountain, eastward,—a fact not hitherto believd by
geologists, from experiments made upon the increase of downward
heat, to where the crust must necessarily become molten.

As so many and various opinions of the tilted condition of 116

primary stratified rocks have been advancd among the
visitants of the gold district of California, a few conflicting opinions
may serve in some degree to satisfy the mind of the curious.

It is the belief of some, that rocks cannot have become tilted

without the expansive powr of volcanic agency. Hence, on viewing
the country around, they imagine they see successions of craters,
formd all over the western declivity of the Neveda mountains, and in
some places, profusions of scoria bestrewing the ground. For my
own part, I must confess that I have seen nothing in my ramblings
to justify a belief that volcanic agency any where has existed so as
to produce the present appearance of those rocks.

Those persons imagining volcanic agency in those parts, are not

aware that intense heat destroys stratification, for in the middle of
the craters of some of their imaginary volcanoes, the stratification is
as perfect as in any other portion of the tilted district, and they are
not apprizd that in such case a discrepancy must therefore exist.

After the tilting of those rocks had occurd, it would not be

improbable, with such an enormous crust resting entirely upon a
liquid, molten nucleus, that many undulations in it should occur, and
in many instances the crust should become weakend and even
sunderd apart by the severe strain. Into fissures so formd, granite,
sandstone and conglomerated rocks, may have subsequently been
intruded, presenting, therefore, to persons unacquainted with such
rocks, the appearances of craters, scoria, &c. In some parts of New
England, primary stratified rocks are tilted up confusedly, having no
regular line of strike. In some cases, the dynamics employd may
have been volcanic, or they may have been paroxysmal, acting from
time to time, till those rocks were thrown into their present
condition. But tilted rocks that have a regular line of strike, must
have a regular agency to place them in such condition. Hence, then,
considering the perfect parallelism of the tilted rocks of Golden
California with the mountain axis, it seems to follow, that an
exceedingly slow and regular movement of the tilting of those rocks
must have occurd.

Another consideration of the western declivity of the Neveda 117

mountains, is in relation to the formation of its rivers.

Almost invariably, the rivers of Oregon were formd by an expansive

force from beneath, but the rivers of California were formd by
undulations in the earth’s crust, which is well proven by the entire
passage of unbroken strata across the beds of streams. Such
condition of its rocks, is also another proof against volcanic agency
in those parts.

* * * * * * * *

The inquiring mind may now be led to the subject of Quartz Rock,
containd among the slate rock of the gold district.

The quartz rock of the gold region is mostly white, though some of it
is of the carnelian order, whilst some is translucent, and other
specimens are entirely transparent. The carnelian appearance of
some of the quartz seems to have been nothing more than the
circulation of water containing the red oxide of iron, through the
cracks of the broken quartz, till the rock became tingd with it. The
transparent variety is crystalizd, and is found only sparingly.

Quartz is found interstratified amongst the tilted slate, varying from

less than one quarter of an inch in thickness to several feet, and in
some places even to rods, penetrating the slate indefinitely
downward.
Although quartz is mostly seen lying in a position parallel with the
stratified slate rock, yet in some instances it is found crossing it
diagonally.

To account for the formation of quartz and its occupying its present
position in the gold district, is to account also for the formation and
production of gold to the surface of the earth, as is satisfactorily
believd by all. It is hard to account for much of the works of nature.
If it be considerd, that the quartz veins of the gold district be of
aqueous origin, that is, formd by infiltration, or the percolation of
silicious water into unoccupied spaces, till they are completely filld
with silicious sediment, so as to become rock, we then have to
account for its existing there in a friable state, which is hard to
conceive, since a formation by aqueous agency would most likely
produce solid rock.

It is equally hard to see how gold can be found imbedded in 118

solid masses in those quartz veins, since, if by the percolation
of the water, quartz was producd there, so also must the gold have
been producd by infiltration—and in such case, it must have been
disseminated through the whole rock, giving hues of various shades,
as is the case with iron in a soluble state.

Another objection to the formation of the quartz of the gold district

by infiltration, is, that it is not generally transparent, since the
percolation of silicious water through cold and silent places will most
naturally produce such result. It is most probable that the crystalizd
portion of those rocks was formd from silicious water, after the
original deposit.

It has been asserted by some miners, that they have seen gold in a
state of formation, by the percolation of water over quartz rock.
Those men are probably such as believe that quartz is the mother of
gold—and by the way, I should like to have them tell me also what
the father was. They say that the yellow appearance of the mud and
other sedimentary matter, which they have seen passing through
quartz veins, is gold in a state of formation. Perhaps they might
allow of a correction in their minds on that subject, if they were told
that the yellow appearance they saw was nothing more than
decomposd iron—probably the chromate of it.

Another view of the subject may be taken, somewhat like the

following. It may be considerd that the quartz of the gold district
was formd previous to the tilting up of the slate rock, by alternations
of tabular masses with the slate.

Some objections to this mode also naturally arise. One objection is,
that there are instances of quartz veins traversing the stratified slate
rock diagonally. Another is, that it cannot well be conceivd that so
thin layers, as is the case with some of the quartz rock, can well be
formd in a tabular way. And if the quartz had been formd by
alternate layers with the stratified slate, it must of necessity have
been of aqueous origin, and also the gold.

The last view I shall take of the quartz, as found interstratified with
the slate rock, is, that the slate rock is of aqueous origin, and the
quartz rock of igneous origin, intruded from beneath after the tilting
up of the slate.

In the formation of stratified rocks, the planes of 119

stratification, or sides facing each other, are never firmly
united together, being formd by depositions from water at different
times, so that by subsequent movements they are liable to be
sunderd apart. If it now be considerd the enormity of a massive
crust of earth resting upon a molten nucleus, it becomes easy to see
how intrusions upward of melted matter can take place amongst
stratified rocks, and the many undulatory movements of the rocks,
as appear in the mining district, only give facility to its
accomplishment.

If it be taken for fact, that the quartz of the mining district was
intruded in a melted state, it must also be considerd that gold was
intruded with it. To account for the friable state of the quartz,
moisture must be supposd to have been present, whilst the quartz
was in a heated state.

Such a state of things would produce a disintegration of the quartz

rock, and set at liberty the imbedded gold, to be carrid downward by
gravitation from the hills into ravines, creeks and rivers. To account
next, for the difference between massive imbedded gold in quartz
rock, and gold disseminated in small particles, needs only to
consider the quartz acting as a flux during a state of fusion, to bring
the gold together, in the same manner as borax, glass or quartz will
do in the artist’s crucible—and the only probable difference between
the gold of California and that of Georgia, is, during a melted state
of the quartz, a higher degree of heat existed in the quartz of
California than that of Georgia, thereby bringing about a more
perfect work of separation between the quartz and the gold.
 CHAPTER XX.
Three varieties of Gold, with their distinctions, and the reasons given why they are
found in separate localities.—Philosophy of running water.

FIRST VARIETY.

The first variety of Gold may be considerd as that which is in 120

dry ravines, or between hills, where there is no running
water, except in the time of showers, or the melting of snows.—This
variety is calld dry ravine or angular gold, from the fact that
whatever be its form, whether in plates or heavy solid masses, or in
thin scales,—the edges are all sharp and angular, as nature formd it,
having never been rounded off by attrition among moving pebbles or
sand, in violent streams of water. The agent of deposit seems to
have been mostly that of gravitation during the decomposition of the
rocks of the hills containing gold, aided probably by the moistening
influences of rains upon the alluvium of the hills, and the general
movement of alluvium from higher to lower levels. When once
deposited in these situations, it never after receives a secondary
removal, except by the hand of the miner.

Dry ravine deposits vary in their advantages for obtaining gold,

according to the slope of the hills, through which the ravine passes.
At the heads of ravines, where the country is but an undulating one,
of moderate hills, and wide-spread valleys, the deposits are
generally so disseminated, that but little advantages are gaind, by
searching for gold in such situations.

Downward, towards the mouths of ravines, where the hills are in

close contiguity, gold is deposited in a line along the center of
ravines, varying somewhat in richness, according to the richness of
the adjoining hills that deposited it, or the inclination, or basin-shapd
appearance of the ravine along its course to its mouth. If ravines are
of rapid descent from their sources to their outlets, they mostly
contribute their gold to the streams into which they empty
themselves.

SECOND VARIETY

The second variety of gold is that which is creek-washd,—the

corners and edges of which are rounded off by attrition among
moving pebbles and sand of the tertiary deposits of creeks, during
the time of freshets. This gold, whether found in plates, or rounded
masses, is most of it too heavy to float in running water, being carrid
onward to its place of rest, by the united agency of gravitation,
moving water, and the tertiary sediment.

The creeks and large rivers receive their gold from the 121
mouths of ravines and hills contiguous to the creeks and
rivers.

Gold is found in dry ravines, creeks, and in basins of rivers, weighing

several ounces.

In some places along the creeks, the miner finds angular gold
deposited in the banks of the streams at the foot of a hill, where it
had not slidden down sufficiently far to reach the power of the
waters of the stream.

Lost, or erratic gold is sometimes found in the creeks among the

creek-washd sand and gravel of the stream, being subject to
occasional removals, by subsequent freshets. Such gold seems to be
on its way to its final deposit or resting place in situations where
subsequent freshets can take no effect upon it for further removal.

Some of this gold is in pieces of several dollars value, but most of it

is in fine grains, with a mixture of floating gold.
The fine gold is found in situations above the rock, in deposits of
loose sand, where every violent freshet gives it another removal, till
it is ultimately carrid downward and deposited in the bars of the
large rivers.

THIRD VARIETY.

The third variety of gold is that which may be denominated bar,

scale, or floating gold. This gold is found in the tertiary deposits,
commonly calld bars of the large streams flowing down from the
Neveda range of mountains. Hence the name of bar gold.

Its form is that of very thin scales, which causes it to float in waters
that are highly agitated. Hence also, the names of scale, and floating
gold.

This gold is seldom found in pieces worth more than a dollar, and is
rounded off by attrition, the same as the creek-washd gold.

The several varieties here describd, were the same, only differing in
form, in the original rock—but the several agents of deposit, have
separated them into separate classes, according to the several
capacities of gold to receive the power of the several depositing
agents. Hence, the finest floating gold is found lowest down 122
the principal rivers, where it is deposited. Creek-washd gold,
being heavy, is never movd very far down the stream, from where it
was first deposited into it—and dry ravine gold, having still a little
different agent from the others, has never been movd but a very
short distance.

* * * * * * * *

If no more could be said of water, than of other matter of the earth,

that it seeks rest by gravitation, in common with the harder portions
of matter, but little of its influences could ever be known, to what is
now apparent, when viewd in all its bearings. But the fluidity of
water, gives it advantages over other matter, in possessing
movements, which the latter can never receive—such as lateral
motion, capillary attraction, great expansion by heat, aerial passages
from rare to dense mediums, thereby giving a new preparation to
descend in the form of rain or snow, to restore again its former
equilibrium.

Running water, in the light here intended to be explaind, is that

which flows down rivers and creeks, from higher to lower levels.
Water, like all other substances, will fall perpendicularly from higher
to lower levels, if there be no interposing obstacle. But as the beds
of streams descend like an inclind plane, from their sources to their
mouths, water is forcd over them by the power of gravitation, till it
arrives at a level with other surrounding water, and is thereby
prevented from descending further. Now in the movement of water,
along its downward passage, many considerations arise.

First, if water were made to pass downward thro’ a straight duct or

channel, whose lateral and vertical sides were perfectly smooth, so
that no friction could exist between the water and the trough or duct
that containd it, there would be no eddy formd along its sides, for
the water would all of it have a straight forward, and downward
movement.

But as the bottom and edges of streams are rough and uneven, very
frequent obstructions to water occur. Places so obstructed, are the
eddies or partial eddies, so commonly observable in streams of
running water.

If an observer stands on the bank of a creek, during a time of high

water, where there is much irregularity and unevenness of its 123
bottom, he will see in some places, that the water is nearly
motionless—in others, a whirling round of the water,—in others, a
retrograde or up stream motion. Under all the circumstances of
these several appearances of the water, those places that are the
most quiet, approach nearest to the most perfect eddies.
Wherever a bend in a creek occurs, the water, by an opposing bank,
is forcd to take a new direction, passing downward, along on its
inclind, though uneven bottom. The opposing bank stops a portion
of the flowing waters, and causes them to turn back, along the
shore of the creek, producing, thereby,—a section of inactive waters,
between those of the downward and those of the upward course.

Again, if a lateral stream of water flows into a creek, similar or

nearly so in magnitude, the two partially opposing currents form an
eddy in the upper angle of the two, and an eddy of less magnitude,
is also formd in the angle of the two, on the lower side of the lateral
stream.

When water passes over a reef of rock, that traverses entirely across
the stream, like a mill dam, the central waters or current cannot well
form an eddy immediately below the reef, on account of its
impetuous movement—though laterally, towards the banks, partial
quietness of the water may exist.

If an obstacle, as a rock or other body, protrude in the current of a

creek, so high that water is forcd around it, instead of running over
it, an eddy is formd immediately below it, in magnitude according to
the size of the obstacle.
 CHAPTER XXI.
Mode of searching for Gold in California.

Rock gold, or that which is disseminated in dust or fine particles

amongst quartz rock, being so rare in California, but little attention is
paid to searching for it in such situations.

124
Mode of Searching for the First Variety.

The miner, in prospecting for the first variety, or dry ravine gold,
selects a situation where, judging from the appearance of the hills,
or the slope of the ravine likely to contain gold, it may be found
most abundant. He commences his excavation at the center of the
ravine, by digging downward till he arrives in most cases at the rock
on which the deposit was made, which varies from 2 to 10 or 15 feet
in depth. He then prospects outward toward the hills till he arrives at
the line of deposit, in case any deposit there exists.

After having found a lead of gold, he excavates upward and

downward the ravine, being careful whilst progressing along, to
watch the several meanderings of the lead, which are likely to occur
even in very short distances.

The miner never need be long at a loss to determine whether there

be gold in the place where he is prospecting. If gold exists only in
moderate quantities, the pick will generally detect it by occasionally
throwing out into view pieces of gold, even when they are quite
small. In digging in dry ravines, the miner, after having arrivd within
a few inches of the rock where he expects to find gold, tries the
earth by washing some of it. If he finds no gold, all of the earth
above this place is thrown away as useless. He then continues to dig
downward, trying the dirt at short intervals, till he finds gold in his
washings. He then is careful to save and wash all of the remainder
that lies above the rock, and even to pick off a few inches from the
top of some rocks that are loose and open enough to receive gold in
some of their crevices, carefully saving and washing the whole.

In some instances in dry ravines, where slate rock occurs, it is

decomposd into clay, to a considerable depth, from the vast amount
of time elapsd since it has been placd in its present situation. Where
such decomposition has occurd, it is useless to penetrate downward
into it, in search of gold, as the gold was deposited most generally in
a strong iron deposit, previous to the decomposition of the rock.
This strong iron deposit is formd of soluble iron, amongst which the
gold is mechanically entangld and there held, unless the iron
becomes again soluble and leaves the gold to settle down by 125
gravitation into the decomposd rock below. Cases of the
second solubility of the iron do not often occur in dry ravines.

Mode of Searching for the Second Variety.

It is more difficult to point out a successful mode of searching for

gold of the second variety than either of the other two. Yet
notwithstanding the difficulties attending it, some hints may be
given, useful to the miner, who has previously become in some
degree acquainted with the philosophy of running water and the
nature of tertiary deposits.

Those creeks of intermediate size between dry ravines, and the large
rivers flowing down from the mountains, though dry or nearly so at
some seasons of the year, are powrful in times of heavy rains or the
rapid melting of snows, as is evident from the position of some
heavy rocks in those streams, which none other agent the powr of a
mighty stream could have placd there.

In prospecting for gold in those creeks, the miner may select a

position which he judges to be the channel of the creek, or that
portion of it where the greatest powr of water is exerted, and
commence digging downward, till he arrives at the rock over which
various tertiary sediment has flowd, and if he finds the coarse gravel
and sand through which he passes, entirely down to the rock,
cleanly washd of alluvium, he may fairly conclude that he is in the
current of that stream, or where the water passes with greatest
force. In those situations, he rarely finds gold, or if he does, it is in
sparing quantities.

If upon arriving at the rock, he finds a cross reef or ledge rock,

rising one foot or more above the rocks downward stream from his
position, he may then prospect outward either way toward the banks
of the creek, keeping close to the rock on the lower side, till he
arrives a little outward from the current where the waters formd an
eddy, as denoted by a mixture of alluvium with the sand and gravel
of the creek. In those situations, he may expect to find gold. If he
finds gold in such a locality, he may prospect outward toward the
banks of the creek, till he has exhausted the whole deposit.

As the tilted rocks of the gold district have universally one 126
course, and as creeks meander across them in nearly every
possible direction, there are chances in many places for reefs of
rocks to traverse the beds of creeks, directly along their channels.
Under such circumstances, but little gold has been deposited. If the
miner continues his search along the creek downward, till he arrives
at a bend in it, where the water is forcd over such reefs, a little
outward from the channel, gold is often found in great abundance—
watching carefully whilst excavating the earth in such places, to
prospect the lower side of any reefs that may be found there.

If a rock of several feet in hight traverse crosswise the whole width

of a creek, so that the only passage for the water of the stream is
over it, like the fall of a mill-dam, its force seldom allows gold to be
deposited near to it. But a short distance below, where the first quiet
waters occurd, gold may be found in lateral and central pockets and
little basin-shapd hollows of the rock at the bottom of creek
deposits.

Again, if a rock project from any portion of the stream, so high that
water cannot run over it but is forcd around it, an eddy is in such
case formd immediately below it, in which situation gold may be
expected to be found.

In some situations, along some of the creeks, as at Sullivan’s camp,

on one of the tributaries of the St. Waukeen, the slate rock, on
which the gold was deposited, has since been decomposd to a
considerable depth below the tertiary deposit. It would seem that a
second solubility of the iron deposits had taken place, and liberated
the gold to settle down into the decomposd rock. In such situations,
the miner continues to prospect downward, as long as he finds gold
abundant enough to reward his labors.

Creek-washd gold is sometimes found higher up in the banks from

the current of creeks than the experiencd miner is aware of, but the
man acquainted with the appearance of creek-worn pebbles is never
at a loss to determine the agent that placd them there—and if, in
such situations, he finds rounded, creek worn pebbles, he may
conclude that the pebbles and gold also were deposited there by
water. In such cases, it becomes the miner to examine the 127
bearing and level of the creek above such place, and see if
the creek may not some day have formd an eddy there, and
deposited its various contents. If, still higher up in the bank, he finds
gold entirely angular, he may conclude that it has slidden down from
the hill above.

Another thing to be observd by the miner, relative to creek-gold, is,

that in prospecting up and down creeks for gold,—he carefully
observe where a level expanse is formd at the foot of a cascade.
Near the head of such expanse, between the cascade above, and
the next one below, he will find gold more abundant than toward the
lower end of such expanse.
Welcome to our website – the ideal destination for book lovers and
knowledge seekers. With a mission to inspire endlessly, we offer a
vast collection of books, ranging from classic literary works to
specialized publications, self-development books, and children's
literature. Each book is a new journey of discovery, expanding
knowledge and enriching the soul of the reade

Our website is not just a platform for buying books, but a bridge
connecting readers to the timeless values of culture and wisdom. With
an elegant, user-friendly interface and an intelligent search system,
we are committed to providing a quick and convenient shopping
experience. Additionally, our special promotions and home delivery
services ensure that you save time and fully enjoy the joy of reading.

Let us accompany you on the journey of exploring knowledge and

personal growth!

ebookfinal.com