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 Contents vii
Turning the Tide 56 Unilateralism and Multilateralism 99
The End of World War II 58 HISTORY LAB How Much Does Public Opinion Affect
HISTORY LAB The United Nations Security Council  58 ­Foreign Policy?  100

2.5 The Cold War 59 3.5 Comparing Realism and

Liberalism 102
The Origins of the Cold War 59
DEBATE To Be or Not to Be Predictable?  64 3.6 Critical Applications of Realism and
Liberalism 104
2.6 The Post–Cold War Era 70
Realism Applied 104
Changing Transnational Norms 70
HISTORY LAB What If NATO Did Not Exist?  106
The Twenty-First Century 71
Liberalism Applied 106
CASE STUDY: THE WHAT-IFS OF HISTORY  73
CASE STUDY: THE EUROPEAN UNION AS A
CHAPTER 2 REVIEW  76 LIBERAL EMPIRE  110
CHAPTER 3 REVIEW  114
CHAPTER
Realism and
3 Liberalism 78 CHAPTER
Alternative
3.1 Realism 80 4 Views 116
The Roots of Realism 81 4.1 Why Alternative Interpretations? 118
The Rise and Influence of Realpolitik 81
4.2 Constructivism 119
Neorealism 82
Socially Constructed Meanings 120
3.2 Realist Arguments about Power
and Sovereignty 83 Three Types of International Environments 121
Historical Lessons 122
Power Distribution 83
Sovereignty in Realist Thinking 85 4.3 Marxism, Postcolonial Studies, and
Feminism 123
The Security Dilemma 86
DEBATE Will the Global Power Struggle Ever End?  87 Marxism (and Leninism) 123
Offensive Realism and Defensive Realism 88 Neo-Marxism and Dependency Theory 124
Nonmilitary Responses in Realism 89 Postcolonial Studies 126
Feminism 127
3.3 Liberalism 90
The Roots of Liberalism 91 4.4 Political Culture and Identity
Factors 128
DEBATE Are Humans Inherently Selfish and Violent?  92
Neoliberalism 93 Political Culture 128
Identity Factors 130
3.4 Liberal Arguments 94
DEBATE What does it mean to be a Patriot or a
HISTORY LAB Diplomatic Efforts in an India–Pakistan Nationalist?  134
Conflict 95 4.5 Political Psychology 135
Democratic Peace Theory 96
Rational Decision Making 135
Soft Power 97
viii Contents

Biased Decision Making 136 5.4 Critical Applications: Levels

Life Experiences 138 of Analysis 177

4.6 Critical Applications of Alternative Individual Decisions 177

Views 139 DEBATE And the Spiral of Insecurity  179
State Policies 180
Alternative Views at the Individual Level 139
Global Factors 182
Alternative Views at the State Level 143
HISTORY LAB Two-Level Games  145 CASE STUDY: ENDING THE COLD WAR  184
Alternative Views at the Global Level  147 CHAPTER 5 REVIEW  187
CASE STUDY: THE CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS  149
CHAPTER
CHAPTER 4 REVIEW  153 International Law
6 and International
PART II. Organizations 189
THREE FACETS OF INTERNATIONAL 6.1 International Law and the Role
RELATIONS of International Organizations 191
Principles of International Law 193
CHAPTER Sources of International Law 194
International
5 Security 155 6.2 Development of International Law 195
Laws of the Sea 196
5.1 Security Principles 157
Laws of War 196
National and International Security 157 Humanitarian Issues 198
Conflict and War 159 Human Rights 198
Types of War 160 Early International Legal Institutions 199
HISTORY LAB War in Angola  161 From the League of Nations to the United Nations 200
5.2 Security Policies 163 6.3 Approaches to International Law 201
Unilateral versus Multilateral Foreign Policy 164 The Realist View of International Law 201
Isolationism 164 HISTORY LAB U.S. Involvement with the International
Criminal Court  203
Interventionism 165
The Liberal View of International Law 204
Cooperation 165
DEBATE Why Can’t We Outlaw War?  206
5.3 Realist, Liberal, and Alternative Alternative Views of International Law 208
Approaches to Security 166
DEBATE From Kosovo to the Russian-Ukrainian Conflict  210
Realist Approaches to Security 167
6.4 Applications of International Law 212
The Security Dilemma 168
Nuclear Deterrence 169 Individual Choices 212

The Domino Theory 169 State Policies 213

Security Regimes 170 Global Factors 215

HISTORY LAB Rwanda and Belgium Law  217
Liberal Approaches to Security 170
Alternative Approaches to Security 172 CASE STUDY: THE LEGACY OF THE
NUREMBERG TRIALS  218
DEBATE “Americans are from Mars, Europeans from
Venus”  175 CHAPTER 6 REVIEW  221
 Contents ix

CHAPTER International Political CASE STUDY: CHINA AND LIBERAL

Economy and GLOBALIZATION  251
7 Development 223 CHAPTER 7 REVIEW  256

7.1 Elements of International Political

Economy 225 PART III.

Production and Consumption 226 TWENTY-FIRST-CENTURY

CHALLENGES
Finances 227
Financial Globalization 229
Trade 229 CHAPTER
Terrorism and Evolving
8
DEBATE Global Interdependence, Prices,
and Jobs  230 Security Challenges 258
Economic Development 230
Main Economic Actors 230 8.1 Terrorism and Counterterrorism 260
Defining Terrorism 261
7.2 Principles of Mercantilism 231
HISTORY LAB The Terrorism Label Can Be Misused  263
Protectionism 232 How Terrorism Works 263
Economic Sanctions 233 Terrorism: In the Name of What? 266
Autarky 233 DEBATE Do Violent Groups Change?  269

7.3 Economic Liberalism and the Cyberwarfare and the Threat of Cyberterrorism 269
Formation of IPE 234 Artificial Intelligence and Warfare  271
DEBATE Information Warfare  273
Keynesian Economics 234
Economic Liberalism: The Origins 235 8.2 Traditional Views of Evolving Security
DEBATE National Pride and Foreign Threats 273
Ownership  235
International Economic Organizations 237 Realism 273

Regional Trade Agreements 238 Liberalism 277

7.4 Constructivism and IPE 239 8.3 Alternative Views of Evolving Security
Threats 280
Nationalism and Economic Politics 240
Constructivism 280
Economic Climate 241
HISTORY LAB Northern Ireland  281
7.5 Marxism and Conflict Theories: DEBATE On Moral Relativism and Terrorism  283
Radical Criticisms of IPE 241 Marxism and Conflict Theories 284
Marxist Views 241
8.4 Contexts and Applications 284
Economic Dependency 242
Individual Decisions 284
7.6 Critical Applications 242 State Policies 287
Individual Decisions 243 Global Factors 290
HISTORY LAB Discoveries and Innovations  246 CASE STUDY: FROM AL-QAEDA TO THE
State Policies 246 ISLAMIC STATE  293
Global Factors 248 CHAPTER 8 REVIEW  296
x Contents

CHAPTER Environmental 10.3 Traditional Approaches to

Issues 298 Humanitarian Policies 354
9 Realist Humanitarian Policies 354

9.1 Environmental Problems, Disasters, Liberal Humanitarian Policies 355

and Policies 300 DEBATE The UN Global Compact  358

Environmental Problems 301 10.4 Alternative Views of Humanitarian

HISTORY LAB A Disappeared Sea  302
Policies 358
Disasters and Accidents 306
10.5 Critical Applications 360
Environmental Policies Today 307
Individual Decisions 360
9.2 Approaches to Environmental State Policies 361
Issues 312
Global Factors 362
Realist Approaches to the Environment 312
CASE STUDY: CELEBRITIES IN ACTION  365
Liberal Approaches to the Environment 314
CHAPTER 10 REVIEW  368
Values and Interests 318

9.3 Critical Applications 320 Glossary 371

Individual Decisions 320 References 379
DEBATE Alarming and Skeptical Voices  323
Credits 415
State Policies 324 Index 417
The Global Level 326
CASE STUDY: A GREENPEACE STORY  329
CHAPTER 9 REVIEW  332

CHAPTER
Humanitarian
10 Concerns 334
10.1 Humanitarian Challenges 336
Types of Humanitarian Challenges 337
HISTORY LAB Rwanda: A Massacre as the World
Watched  340
Causes of Humanitarian Crises 341

10.2 Humanitarian Policies 348

Humanitarian Intervention 348
Relief Efforts 349
Crisis Prevention 350
Population and Migration Policies 350
DEBATE Regulating Migration  352
Preface

Students today have unprecedented access to global political information. Statistics, video clips,
tweets, maps, eyewitness reports, scholarly articles, and biographies—all are just a click away. Yet
many students struggle with contextualizing and evaluating what they encounter. They lack the
background to even begin studying international relations.
We have designed this book as an accessible guide to help every student understand the essen-
tials of this dynamic and vital field. Students should leave the course with a more engaged attitude
and a more analytical mindset—attributes that will serve them well for the rest of their lives. This third
­edition of International Relations offers a clear learning framework as well as a wide variety of ­engaging
­pedagogical tools. We introduce key concepts, actors, and issues; summarize major international events
and developments; systematically present contending theories and approaches; and consider real-world
applications of theory. Students will come away not only with a broad and deep understanding of key
information and concepts but with the ability to think critically and communicate more effectively.
In approaching the complexities of global issues, our goal is to foster an open mind and a willingness to
take on new perspectives.

What’s New in This Edition?

Responding to feedback from both instructors and students, we have made several significant updates
in this edition of International Relations:
• A new chapter on the evolution of global politics (Chapter 2) provides essential historical context
in one place for ease of reference.
• Realism and liberalism are now covered in a single chapter (Chapter 3) to more efficiently and ef-
fectively compare and contrast these two major theories.
• Chapter 1 includes a new discussion of both globalization and anti-globalization.
• A heavily revised Chapter 8 focuses on asymmetric threats, covering evolving forms of terrorism,
cyberwarfare, and insurgency.
• New tables outline applications at different levels of analysis.

xi
xii Preface

Throughout, we have incorporated discussions of both historical and

contemporary developments, including the Syrian Civil War, the Russian-­
Ukrainian conflict, trade tensions between the United States and China,
chronic instability in the Middle East and North Africa, and Brexit.

A Clear and Consistent Learning

Framework
The chapters are organized by learning objectives so that students know what
to expect. After the foundational Part I, each chapter presents material in the
following order:
1. Ideas. We begin by covering basic concepts and definitions, key facts
and developments, and major international problems related to the
chapter’s theme.
2. Arguments. Next, we present the main frameworks and approaches
used to analyze these facts, events, and problems. We include a wealth
of conceptual discussions, including major alternatives to realism and
liberalism.
3. Contexts and Applications. After presenting key concepts, actors,
issues, and theories, we show students how to apply a variety of ap-
proaches at individual, state, and global levels of analysis.
Each chapter closes with an extended Case Study that focuses on real-life ram-
ifications and poses new questions. Chapter Reviews then revisit the learning
objectives to help students structure what they are learning.

A Critical-Thinking Approach
We introduce the critical-thinking approach in Chapter 1 and carry it
through every chapter. Rather than merely presenting facts and theories of
international relations, we show students how to explain and evaluate them
critically:
• Debate, History Lab, and Case Study sidebars all engage students in a dia-
logue and include questions to prompt in-class discussions and activities.
• Check Your Knowledge questions at the end of each main section not
only help students track their progress but encourage deeper reflection.
• Chapter Reviews incorporate higher-level questions to help students
achieve each learning objective.
This approach helps students extract more valuable, complex informa-
tion from a collection of facts. In addition, it teaches them to be informed
skeptics.
We know from experience that students need substantial context to
fully understand contemporary issues and to apply analytical frameworks.
In our new chapter on history as well as in abundant examples throughout
 Preface xiii
the book (e.g., in History Lab sidebars), we give students the background to
make connections. We examine parallels between past and present while
considering the limits of historical analogies. This carefully integrated con-
text not only gives students a way to frame information but also helps correct
misconceptions.

An Emphasis on Engagement
International Relations engages students with the content through a robust set
of pedagogical tools:
• Learning Objectives focus students on the key information to look for in
each chapter.
• History Lab boxes present current or historical events and issues and con-
tain Critical-Thinking questions that can easily be used for class discus-
sions or written assignments.
• Debate boxes prompt students to consider their own views on a controver-
sial question (What’s Your View?).
• Icons point to relevant videos, simulations, readings, or links available at
www.oup.com/he/shiraev-zubok3e.
• Check Your Knowledge questions appear toward throughout, checking
student comprehension at key points.
• Key Terms are boldfaced, listed at the end of each chapter, and defined
both in the margin and in the glossary at the back of the text.
• The extended analytical Case Studies at the end of every chapter feature
in-depth explorations of noteworthy developments from the past several
decades (such as the Cuban Missile Crisis, “misperceptions and reali-
ties” in the War on Terror, and “celebrity interventions” in humanitarian
issues).
• In the Chapter Reviews, we map out the key concepts by learning objective
and associate them with critical thinking questions.
• An online appendix on international relations (IR) careers provides de-
scriptions of the major career categories as well as resources for finding
positions in the field of IR.

Teaching and Learning Support

Oxford University Press offers instructors and students a comprehensive
teaching and learning package of support materials for adopters of Interna-
tional Relations, Third Edition.

Ancillary Resource Center

The Ancillary Resource Center (ARC) at www.oup.com/he/shiraev-zubok3e is
a convenient single destination for resources to accompany this book. ­Accessed
online through individual user accounts, the ARC provides instructors with
xiv Preface

up-to-date ancillaries while guaranteeing the security of grade-­ significant

­resources. In addition, it allows OUP to keep instructors i­nformed when new
content becomes available. Register for access and create your individual user
account by clicking on the Instructor’s Resource link at www.oup.com/he/
shiraev-zubok3e.
The ARC for International Relations contains a variety of materials to aid
in teaching:
• Instructor’s Resource Manual with Test Item File—The Instructor’s Re-
source Manual includes chapter objectives, detailed chapter outlines,
lecture suggestions and activities, discussion questions, video resources,
and Web resources. The Test Item File includes more than eight hundred
test questions selected and approved by the authors, including multiple-
choice, short-answer, and essay questions.
• Computerized Test Bank—Instructors can create and edit questions
within the Computerized Test Bank, create randomized quizzes and
tests with an easy-to-use drag-and-drop tool, publish quizzes and tests to
online courses, and print quizzes and tests for paper-based assessments.
• PowerPoint-Based Slides—Each chapter’s slide set includes a succinct
chapter outline and incorporates relevant chapter graphics.

Course Cartridges
For qualified adopters, OUP will supply the teaching resources in course
cartridges designed to work with your preferred Online Learning Platform.
Please contact your Oxford University Press sales representative at (800)
280-0280.

Ebook
This text is also available as an ebook, which can be read on any browser-­enabled
computer or mobile device and comes with the ability to transfer individual
chapters or the entire book offline.

Digital Learning Tools

International Relations comes with an extensive array of digital learn-
ing tools to ensure your students get the most out of your course. Several
­a ssignment types help teach core concepts, promote data literacy, and simu-
late ­real-world political challenges. Activities are optimized for mobile and
include auto-graded assessments to immediately show students their results.
Within a range of supported learning management systems, results can be
recorded to gradebooks. Access to these activities is free with the purchase
of a new print or electronic textbook. These and additional study tools are
available at www.oup.com/he/shiraev-zubok3e, through links embed-
ded in the ­e nhanced ebook, and within course cartridges. The activities are
­described below.
 Preface xv

Interactive Activities: Several simulations allow students to take the per-

spective of decision makers. Designed to be assigned as homework, these ac-
tivities take approximately 5 to 20 minutes to complete. They conclude with
assessments, and results can be automatically recorded in an interoperable
LMS gradebook. Contact your local Oxford University Press sales representa-
tive for more information. Topics include:
Stopping an Epidemic
Building the USS Relief
Intervening in Bhutan
Preventing World War
Keeping the Peace in Gineau-Bissau
Negotiating with China
Negotiating the Lisbon Protocol
Free Trade
Climate Change

Video Activities: Links to relevant, timely videos show students the real-
world applications of what they are studying. Each video includes a brief as-
sessment to make the connection between course content and contemporary
global issues. Topics include:
Kinds of Bias That Shape Your Worldview
In Praise of Conflict
How China Is (and Isn’t) Fighting Pollution and Climate Change
How Nationalism and Globalism Can Coexist
The Rise of Isolationism
A Feminine Response to Iceland’s Financial Crash
Why Nations Should Pursue Soft Power
The Need for Hackers to Prevent Cyberwarfare
The Intricate Economics of Terrorism
Keynesian Theory
Terrorism as a Failed Brand
Inside the Mind of a Former Radical Jihadist
The Case for Optimism on Climate Change
100 Solutions to Reverse Global Warming

Additional Online Study Tools: Many additional online study tools are
available at www.oup.com/he/shiraev-zubok3e for students’ self-paced learn-
ing and assessment. For each chapter, these include interactive flashcards,
chapter review PowerPoint slides, key terms quizzes, chapter quizzes, chapter
exams, short answer essay tests, videos, web activities, and web links.

Learning Management System integration: OUP offers the ability to in-

tegrate OUP content into currently supported versions of Canvas, D2L, or
Blackboard. Contact your local rep or visit oup-arc.com/integration for more
information.
xvi Preface

Packaging Options
Adopters of International Relations can package ANY Oxford University Press
book with the text for a 20 percent savings off the total package price. See our
many trade and scholarly offerings at www.oup.com, then contact your local
OUP sales representative to request a package ISBN. In addition, the follow-
ing items can be packaged with the text for free:
• Oxford Pocket World Atlas, sixth edition—This full-color atlas is a handy
reference for international relations students.
• Very Short Introduction Series—These very brief texts offer succinct intro-
ductions to a variety of topics. Titles include Terrorism, second edition, by
Charles Townshend, Globalization, third edition, by Manfred Steger, and
Global Warming, second edition, by Mark Maslin, among others.
• The Student Research and Writing Guide for Political Science—This brief
guide provides students with the information and tools necessary to con-
duct research and write a research paper. The guide explains how to get
started writing a research paper, describes the parts of a research paper,
and presents the citation formats found in academic writing.
• Current Debates in International Relations—This volume presents forty-
nine readings drawn from major scholarly journals, magazines, and
newspapers including Foreign Affairs, Foreign Policy, International Relations,
and The Wall Street Journal. It provides a broad selection of articles—both
classical/theoretical and practical/applied—and steers students through
major international issues, offering contending yet complementary
approaches.

Acknowledgments
Invaluable contributions, help, and support for this book came from many
individuals. We are grateful for the insightful feedback and critical advice of
colleagues and reviewers, the thorough efforts of research assistants, and the
patience and understanding of family members. We also take this opportu-
nity to acknowledge the tremendous support we received at virtually every
stage of this project’s development from the team at Oxford University Press.
Executive Editor Jennifer Carpenter championed this project from the start;
editorial assistant Patrick Keefe saw to the details; the Development Edito-
rial team under Thom Holmes provided constant support and good ideas
before and during the writing stage; and Senior Production Editor William
Murray guided the book through production. Thank you for your care and
professionalism.
Special thanks to William Wohlforth from Dartmouth University; Mark
Pollack, Richard Immerman, and Petra Goedde from Temple University; Mark
Kramer and Mary Sarotte from USC; Norman Naimark, David Holloway,
and Mikhail Bernstam from Stanford University; Thomas Blanton from the
 Preface xvii
­ ational Security Archive; William Taubman from Amherst College; Odd Arne
N
Westad and Mike Cox from the London School of Economics; John Ikenberry
from Princeton University; Ted Hopf from the National University of Singa-
pore; David Sears from UCLA; James Sidanius from Harvard University; David
Levy from Pepperdine University; Bob Dudley, Colin Dueck, Eric McGlinchey,
and Ming Wan from George Mason University; Cheryl Koopman from S­ tanford
University; Philip Tetlock from the University of Pennsylvania; Christian Os-
termann, Robert Litwak, and Blair Ruble from the Woodrow Wilson Center;
Andrew Kuchins from the Center for Strategic and International Studies; Alan
Whittaker from the National Defense University; and Scott Keeter from the
Pew Research Center for inspiring us early and throughout our careers.
We received constant help, critical advice, and validation from our col-
leagues and friends in the United States and around the world. We express
our gratitude to John Haber, Mark Katz, Dimitri Simes, Paul Saunders, Henry
Hale, James Goldgeier, Eric John, Peter Mandaville, Jason Smart, Richard
Sobel, Henry Nau, Martijn Icks, Stanislav Eremeev, Konstantin Khudoley, and
Vitaly Kozyrev. A word of appreciation to Olga Chernyshev, Elena Vitenberg,
Michael Zubok, John and Judy Ehle, Dmitry Shiraev, Dennis Shiraev, and
Nicole Shiraev. We can never thank them enough.
We also thank the reviewers commissioned by Oxford University Press for
this third edition:

Emily Acevedo, California State Theresa Schroeder, Radford

­University, Los Angeles University
Michael Allison, University of Daniel C. Tirone, Louisiana State
Scranton University
Thomas Lefebvre, Trinity College Robert Weiner, University of
­Massachusetts, Boston

We continue to be grateful to the reviewers of the first and second editions

as well for their insightful and valuable comments.
Second edition reviewers:

Richard Aidoo, Coastal Carolina ­Sean Ehrlich, Florida State

University University
Juliann Emmons Allison, University Vaidyanatha Gundlupet, University
of California–Riverside of Texas at San Antonio
Leslie Baker, Mississippi State Marcus Holmes, College of William
University & Mary
­Teh-Kuang Chang, Ball State Mir Zohair Husain, University of
University South Alabama
David Claborn, Olivet Nazarene Colin D. Pearce, Clemson
University University
Mariam Dekanozishvili, Coastal Marc Schwerdt, Lipscomb
Carolina University University
Laura Dodge, George Mason Daniel Tirone, Louisiana State
University University
xviii Preface

First edition reviewers:

Victor Asal, State University of New Eric A. Heinze, University of

York at Albany Oklahoma
Abdalla Battah, Minnesota State Marcus Holmes, Fordham University
University, Mankato Lisa Kissopoulos, University of
Dylan Bennett, University of Cincinnati Clermont College
­Wisconsin–Washington County Tobias Lanz, University Of South
Austin Carson, Ohio State Carolina–Columbia Jeffrey Lewis,
University Cleveland State University
Suheir Daoud, Coastal Carolina Patrice McMahon, University of
University Nebraska–Lincoln
José de Arimatéia da Cruz, Andrea Neal-Malji, University of
­A rmstrong Atlantic State Kentucky
University James Rae, California State
Daniel Friedheim, Drexel University ­University–Sacramento
Nathan Gonzalez, California State ­Christopher J. Saladino, Virginia
University, Long Beach Commonwealth University
Gregory Granger, Northwestern
State University of Louisiana

We would be remiss if we did not express a word of gratitude to the

a­ dministration, faculty, staff, and students at our academic institutions where
we have consistently been provided with an abundance of encouragement,
­assistance, and validation.
Maps of the World

WORLD MAP, xx–xxi

MAP OF ASIA, xxii

MAP OF AFRICA, xxiii

MAP OF EUROPE, xxiv

MAP OF NORTH AMERICA, xxv

MAP OF SOUTH AMERICA, xxvi

MAP OF AUSTRALIA, xxvii

xix
xx Maps of the World
Discovering Diverse Content Through
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The Project Gutenberg eBook of Bible animals
 This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
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included with this ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you
are not located in the United States, you will have to check the
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eBook.

Title: Bible animals

being a description of every living creature mentioned
in the Scripture, from the ape to the coral.

Author: J. G. Wood

Illustrator: Friedrich Wilhelm Keyl

E. A. Smith
T. W. Wood

Release date: June 17, 2013 [eBook #42964]

Most recently updated: October 23, 2024

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BIBLE ANIMALS

***
Transcriber's note:
Spelling and punctuation inconsistencies have been
harmonized. The original hyphenation and use of
accented words has been retained. Obvious printer
errors have been repaired. Bible references are as they
are in the original book.
 THE OSTRICH.
"What time she lifteth up herself on high, she scorneth the horse and his
rider."—Job xxxix. 18.
 BIBLE ANIMALS;

BEING A DESCRIPTION OF
EVERY LIVING CREATURE MENTIONED IN THE SCRIPTURES,
FROM THE APE TO THE CORAL.

BY THE

REV. J. G. WOOD, M.A., F.L.S. ETC.,

AUTHOR OF "HOMES WITHOUT HANDS,"
"COMMON OBJECTS OF THE SEA-SHORE AND COUNTRY," ETC.

WITH ONE HUNDRED NEW DESIGNS BY W. F. KEYL, T. W. WOOD,

AND E. A. SMITH.
ENGRAVED BY G. PEARSON.

NEW EDITION.

LONDON:
LONGMANS, GREEN AND CO.
1883./p p
 LONDON:
R. CLAY, SONS, AND TAYLOR, PRINTERS,
BREAD STREET HILL.
 PREFACE.
Owing to the conditions of time, language, country, and race under
which the various books of the Holy Scriptures were written, it is
impossible that they should be rightly understood at the present day,
and in this land, without the aid of many departments of knowledge.
Contemporary history, philology, geography, and ethnology must all
be pressed into the service of the true Biblical scholar; and there is
yet another science which is to the full as important as either of the
others. This is Natural History, in its widest sense.
The Oriental character of the Scriptural books causes them to
abound with metaphors and symbols, taken from the common life of
the time. They embrace the barren precipitous rocks alternating with
the green and fertile valleys, the trees, flowers, and herbage, the
creeping things of the earth, the fishes of the sea, the birds of the
air, and the beasts which abode with man or dwelt in the deserts
and forests. Unless, therefore, we understand these writings as
those understood them for whom they were written, it is evident
that we shall misinterpret instead of rightly comprehending them.
Even with secular books of equally ancient date, the right
understanding of them would be important, but in the case of the
Holy Scriptures it is more than important, and becomes a duty. The
field which is laid open to us is so large that only one department of
Natural History, namely Zoology, can be treated in this work,
although it is illustrated by many references to other branches of
Natural History, to the physical geography of Palestine, Egypt, and
Syria, the race-character of the inhabitants, and historical parallels.
The importance of Zoology in elucidating the Scriptures cannot be
overrated, and without its aid we shall not only miss the point of
innumerable passages of the Old and New Testament, but the words
of our Lord Himself will either be totally misinterpreted, or at least
lose the greater part of their significance.
The object of the present work is therefore to take, in its proper
succession, every creature whose name is given in the Scriptures,
and to supply so much of its history as will enable the reader to
understand all the passages in which it is mentioned. A general
account of each animal will be first given, followed by special
explanations (wherever required) of those texts in which pointed
reference is made to it, but of which the full force cannot be
gathered without a knowledge of Natural History.
The illustrations are all taken from the living animals, while the
accessory details have been obtained either from the Egyptian or
Assyrian monuments, from actual specimens, or from the
photographs and drawings of the latest travellers. They have been
selected and arranged so that each illustration explains one or more
passages of Scripture, and it is hoped that the work will possess
equal interest for the natural historian and the Biblical student.
 CONTENTS.

MAMMALIA.
THE APE.
The Monkey tribe rarely mentioned in Scripture—Why the Ape was
introduced into Palestine—Solomon's ships, and their cargo of Apes,
peacocks, ivory, and gold—Various species of Monkey that might have
been imported—The Rhesus Monkey—The Hoonuman, or Entellus—Habits
of the Monkey, and reverence in which it is held by the natives—The
Egyptians and their Baboon worship—Idols and memorials—The
Wanderoo—Its singular aspect—Reasons why it should be introduced into
Palestine—General habits of the Wanderoo—Its love of curiosities—
Probability that Solomon had a menagerie—Various species of Monkey
that may be included in the term Kophim—The Satyr of Scripture—
Babylon in its glory and fall—Fulfilment of prophecy—Judaic ideas of the
Satyrs, or Seirim 1

THE BAT.
The Bat mentioned always with abhorrence—Meaning of the Hebrew name
—The prohibition against eating Bats—The edible species, their food and
mode of life—The noisome character of the Bat, and the nature of its
dwelling-place—Its hatred of light—Baruch and his prophecy—
Appropriateness of the prophecy—Singular Mahommedan legend
respecting the original creation of the Bat—The legend compared with the
apocryphal gospels—The Bats of Palestine—Mr. Tristram's discoveries—
Bats found in the quarries from which the stone of the Temple was hewn
—Edible Bats in a cave near the centre of Palestine—Another species of
long-tailed Bat captured in the rock caves where hermits had been buried
—Other species which probably inhabit Palestine 11

THE LION.
Frequent mention of the Lion in the Scriptures—Probability that it was once
a common animal, though now extinct—Reasons for its disappearance—
The Lion employed as an emblem in the Bible—Similarity of the African
and Asiatic species—The chief characteristics of the Lion—Its strength,
activity, and mode of seizing its prey—Various names of the Lion—Its
courage when roused—Its roar, and peculiar mode of utterance—
Invisibility of the Lion at dusk—The Lion lying in wait—The dwelling-place
of the Lion—Its restlessness at night—Passages illustrative of these
characteristics—Modes of capturing the Lion—The pitfall and the net—
Lions kept as curiosities—The Lion-hunt as depicted on the buildings of
ancient Nineveh 18

THE LEOPARD.
The Leopard not often mentioned in the Scriptures—Its attributes exactly
described—Probability that several animals were classed under the name
—How the Leopard takes its prey—Craft of the Leopard—Its ravages
among the flocks—The empire of man over the beast—The Leopard at
bay—Localities wherein the Leopard lives—The skin of the Leopard—
Various passages of Scripture explained 29

THE CAT.
The Cat never mentioned by name in the canonical Scriptures, and only
once in the Apocrypha—The Cat domesticated among the Egyptians, and
trained in bird-catching—Neglected capabilities of the Cat—Anecdote of
an English Cat that caught fish for her master—Presumed reason why the
Scriptures are silent about the Cat—The Cat mentioned by Baruch 36

THE DOG.
Antipathy displayed by Orientals towards the Dog, and manifested
throughout the Scriptures—Contrast between European and Oriental Dogs
—Habits of the Dogs of Palestine—The city Dogs and their singular
organization—The herdsman's Dog—Various passages of Scripture—Dogs
and the crumbs—Their numbers—Signor Pierotti's experience of the Dogs
—Possibility of their perfect domestication—The peculiar humiliation of
Lazarus—Voracity of the Wild Dogs—The fate of Ahab and Jezebel—
Anecdote of a volunteer Watch-dog—Innate affection of the Dog towards
mankind—Peculiar local instinct of the Oriental Dog—Albert Smith's
account of the Dogs at Constantinople—The Dervish and his Dogs—The
Greyhound—Uncertainty of the word 39

THE WOLF.
Identity of the animal indisputable—Its numbers, past and present—The
Wolf never mentioned directly—Its general habits—References in
Scripture—Its mingled ferocity and cowardice—Its association into packs
—The Wolf's bite—How it takes its prey—Its ravages among the flocks—
Allusions to this habit—The shepherd and his nightly enemies—Mr.
Tristram and the Wolf—A semi-tamed Wolf at Marsaba 50

THE FOX, OR JACKAL.

The two animals comprehended under one name—The Jackal—Its numbers
in ancient and modern Palestine—General habits of the Jackal—Localities
where the Jackal is found—Samson, and the three hundred "foxes"—
Popular objections to the narrative—The required number easily obtained
—Signor Pierotti's remarks upon the Jackal—An unpleasant position—How
the fields were set on fire—The dread of fire inherent in wild beasts—The
truth of the narrative proved—The Fox and Jackal destructive among
grapes—Allusions to the Fox in the New Testament—Partially tamed Foxes
55

THE HYÆNA.
The Hyæna not mentioned by name, but evidently alluded to—Signification
of the word Zabua—Translated in the Septuagint as "Hyæna"—A scene
described by the Prophet Isaiah—The Hyæna plentiful in Palestine at the
present day—Its well-known cowardice and fear of man—The uses of the
Hyæna, and the services which it renders—The particular species of
Hyæna—The Hyæna in the burial-grounds—Hunting the Hyæna—Curious
superstition respecting the talismanic properties of its skin—Precautions
adopted in flaying it—Popular legends of the Hyæna and its magical
powers—The cavern home of the Hyæna—The Valley of Zeboim 62

THE WEASEL.
Difficulty of identifying the Weasel of Scripture—The Weasel of Palestine—
Suggested identity with the Ichneumon 68

THE FERRET.
Translation of the Hebrew word Anakah—The Shrew-mouse of Palestine—
Etymology of the word—The Gecko or Fan-foot, its habits and peculiar cry
—Repugnance felt by the Arabs of the present day towards the Gecko 69

THE BADGER.
Difficulty of identifying the Tachash of Scripture—References to "badgers'
skins"—The Dugong thought to be the Badger—The Bedouin sandals—
Nature of the materials for the Tabernacle—Habits of the Badger—The
species found in Palestine—Uses of the Badgers' skins—Looseness of
zoological terms 70

THE BEAR.
The Syrian Bear—Identity of the Hebrew and Arabic titles—Its colour
variable according to age—Bears once numerous in Palestine, and now
only occasionally seen—Reason for their diminution—Present localities of
the Bear, and its favourite haunts—Food of the Bear—Its general habits—
Its ravages among the flocks—The Bear dangerous to mankind—The Bear
robbed of her whelps—Illustrative passages—Its mode of fighting—
Various references to the Bear, from the time of Samuel to that of St.
John 75

THE HEDGEHOG, OR BITTERN.

Various readings of the word Kippôd—The Jewish Bible and its object—The
Syrian Hedgehog and its appearance—Its fondness for dry spots—The
prophecies of Isaiah and Zephaniah, and their bearing on the subject—
The Porcupine supposed to be the Kippôd—The Hedgehog and Porcupine
called by the same name in Greek and Arabic—Habits of the Porcupine—
Its quills, and the manner of their shedding 80

THE PORCUPINE.
Presumed identity of the Kippôd with the Porcupine—The same Greek name
applied to the Porcupine and Hedgehog—Habits of the Porcupine—The
common Porcupine found plentifully in Palestine 85

THE MOLE.
The two Hebrew words which are translated as "Mole"—Obscurity of the
former name—A parallel case in our own language—The second name—
The Moles and the Bats, why associated together—The real Mole of
Scripture, its different names, and its place in zoology—Description of the
Mole-rat and its general habits—Curious superstition—Discovery of the
species by Mr. Tristram—Scripture and science—How the Mole-rat finds its
food—Distinction between the Mole and the present animal 86

THE MOUSE.
Conjectures as to the right translation of the Hebrew word Akbar—
Signification of the word—The Mice which marred the land—Miracles, and
their economy of power—The Field-mouse—Its destructive habits and
prolific nature—The insidious nature of its attacks, and its power of
escaping observation—The Hamster, and its habits—Its custom of storing
up provisions for the winter—Its fertility and unsociable nature—The
Jerboa, its activity and destructiveness—Jerboas and Hamsters eaten by
Arabs and Syrians—Various species of Dormice and Sand-rats 91

THE HARE.
The prohibitions of the Mosaic law—The chewing of the cud and division of
the hoof—Identity of the Hare of Scripture—Rumination described—The
Hare a rodent and not a ruminant—Cowper and his Hares—Structure of
the rodent tooth—The Mosaic law accommodated to its recipients—The
Hares of Palestine and their habits 96

CATTLE.
The cattle of Palestine, and their decadence at the present day—Ox-flesh
not used for food in modern times—Oxen of the stall, and oxen of the
pasture—The use of the ox in agriculture—The yoke and its structure—
The plough and the goad—The latter capable of being used as a weapon
—Treading out the corn—The cart and its wheels—The ox used as a beast
of burden—Cattle turned loose to graze—The bulls of Bashan—Curiosity of
the ox tribe—A season of drought—Branding the cattle—An Egyptian field
scene—Cattle-keeping an honourable post—The ox as used for sacrifice—
Ox-worship—The bull Apis, and his history—Persistency of the bull-
worship—Jeroboam's sin—Various names of cattle—The Indian buffalo
101

THE WILD BULL.

The Tô, Wild Bull of the Old Testament—Passages in which it is mentioned—
The Wild Bull in the net—Hunting with nets in the East—The Oryx
supposed to be the Tô of Scripture—Description of the Oryx, its locality,
appearance, and habits—The points in which the Oryx agrees with the Tô
—The "snare" in which the foot is taken, as distinguished from the net
116

THE REÊM, OR "UNICORN" OF SCRIPTURE.

The Reêm evidently known to the Jews—Various theories concerning the
Unicorn—Supposed identity with the Indian Rhinoceros—Passages of
 Scripture alluding to the strength, violent and intractable temper of the
Reêm—The Reêm a two-horned animal—Its evident connexion with the
Ox tribe—Its presumed identity with the now extinct Urus—Mr. Dawkins'
treatise on the Urus—Enormous size and dangerous character of the Urus
—Rabbinical legend of the Reêm—Identity of the Urus with the modern
varieties of cattle—The Bull-hunts of Nineveh 121

THE BISON.
The Bison tribe and its distinguishing marks—Its former existence in
Palestine—Its general habits—Origin of its name—Its musky odour—Size
and speed of the Bison—Its dangerous character when brought to bay—
Its defence against the Wolf—Its untameable disposition 131

THE GAZELLE, OR ROE OF SCRIPTURE.

The Gazelle identified with the Tsebi, i.e. the Roe or Roebuck of Scripture—
Various passages relating to the Tsebi—Its swiftness, its capabilities as a
beast of chase, its beauty, and the quality of its flesh—The Tsebiyah
rendered in Greek as Tabitha, and translated as Dorcas, or Gazelle—
Different varieties of the Gazelle—How the Gazelle defends itself against
wild beasts—Chase of the Gazelle—The net, the battue, and the pitfall—
Coursing the Gazelle with greyhounds and falcons—Mr. Chasseaud's
account of a hunting party—Gentleness of the Gazelle 133

THE PYGARG, OR ADDAX.

The Dishon or Dyshon—Signification of the word Pygarg—Certainty that the
Dishon is an antelope, and that it must be one of a few species—Former
and present range of the Addax—Description of the Addax—The
Strepsiceros of Pliny 141

THE FALLOW-DEER, OR BUBALE.

The word Jachmur evidently represents a species of antelope—Probability
that the Jachmur is identical with the Bubale, or Bekk'r-el-Wash—
Resemblance of the animal to the ox tribe—Its ox-like horns and mode of
attack—Its capability of domestication—Former and present range of the
Bubale—Its representation on the monuments of ancient Egypt—Delicacy
of its flesh—Size and general appearance of the animal 143

THE SHEEP.
Importance of Sheep in the Bible—The Sheep the chief wealth of the
pastoral tribes—Tenure of land—Value of good pasture-land—Arab
shepherds of the present day—Difference between the shepherds of
Palestine and England—Wanderings of the flocks in search of food—Value
of the wells—How the Sheep are watered—Duties of the shepherd—The
shepherd a kind of irregular soldier—His use of the sling—Sheep following
their shepherd—Calling the Sheep by name—The shepherd usually a part
owner of the flocks—Structure of the sheepfolds—The rock caverns of
Palestine—David's adventure with Saul—Penning of the Sheep by night—
Use of the dogs—Sheep sometimes brought up by hand—How Sheep are
fattened in the Lebanon district—The two breeds of Sheep in Palestine—
The broad-tailed Sheep, and its peculiarities—Reference to this peculiarity
in the Bible—The Talmudical writers, and their directions to sheep-owners
146

THE CHAMOIS.
The Zemer or Chamois only once mentioned in the Bible—Signification of
the word Zemer—Probability that the Zemer is the Aoudad—Appearance
of the Aoudad—Its strength and activity—Fierce temper of the adult male
—Horns of the Aoudad—Their probable use as musical instruments—
Habits of the Aoudad—The Mouflon probably classed with the Aoudad
under the name of Zemer—Appearance and habits of the Mouflon 185

THE GOAT.
Value of the Goat—Its use in furnishing food—The male kid the usual animal
of slaughter—Excellence of the flesh, and deception of Isaac—Milk of the
Goat—An Oriental milking scene—The hair of the Goat, and the uses to
which it is put—The Goat's skin used for leather—The "bottle" of Scripture
—Mode of making and repairing the bottles—Ruse of the Gibeonites—The
"bottle in the smoke"—The sacks and the kneading-troughs—The Goat as
used for sacrifice—General habits of the Goat—Separation of the Goats
from the sheep—Performing Goats—Different breeds of Goats in Palestine
189

THE WILD GOAT.

The Azelim or Wild Goats of Scripture identical with the Beden or Arabian
Ibex—Different names of the Beden—Its appearance and general habits—
En-gedi, or Goats' Fountain—The Beden formerly very plentiful in
Palestine, and now tolerably common—Its agility—Difficulty of catching or
killing it—How the young are captured—Flesh of the Beden—Use of the
horns at the present day—The Ako of Deuteronomy 203
 THE DEER.
The Hart and Hind of Scripture—Species of Deer existing in Palestine—
Earliest mention of the Hind—The Hart classed among the clean animals—
Passages alluding to its speed—Care of the mother for her young, and her
custom of secreting it—Tameable character of the Deer—The Rabbinical
writers and their theories—Shedding of the Deer's horns—Its fabled mode
of sleeping—The gall in the tail—Curious traditions of the enmity between
Deer and serpents—Virtues of a Deer-skin coat 208

THE CAMEL.
CHAPTER I.
The two species of Camel, and the mode of distinguishing them—Value of
the Camel in the East—Camels mentioned as elements of wealth—Uses of
the Camel—The Jews forbidden to eat its flesh—The milk of the Camel—
Thirst-enduring capability—The internal reservoir—The hump, and its uses
to the animal—The Camel as a beast of draught and burden—How the
Camel is laden—Knowledge of its own powers—Camels for riding—
Difficulty of sitting a Camel—A rough-paced steed—Method of guiding the
Camel—The mesh'ab, or Camel-stick of office—The women's saddle—
Rachel's stratagem—Ornaments of the Camel—The swift dromedary,
Heirie, or Deloul—Its ungainly aspect—Speed and endurance of the Deloul
—The Camel-posts of Bornu—Camel-drivers and their conduct—The
driver's song—Young Camels and their appearance—The deserted Camel
216
CHAPTER II.
The Camel and its master—Occasional fury of the animal—A boy killed by a
Camel—Another instance of an infuriated Camel—Theory respecting the
Arab and his Camel—Apparent stupidity of the Camel—Its hatred of a
load, and mode of expressing its disapprobation—Riding a Camel through
the streets—A narrow escape—Ceremony of weaning a young Camel—
The Camel's favourite food—Structure of the foot and adaptation to
locality—Difficulty in provisioning—Camel's hair and skin—Sal-ammoniac
and desert fuel—The Camel and the needle's eye—Straining at a gnat and
swallowing a Camel 233

THE BACTRIAN CAMEL.

General description of the animal—Its use in mountain roads—Peculiar
formation of the foot—Uses of a mixed breed—Its power of enduring cold
 —Used chiefly as a beast of draught—Unfitness for the plough—The cart
and mode of harnessing—The load which it can draw—Camel-skin ropes—
A Rabbinical legend 244

THE HORSE.
The Hebrew words which signify the Horse—The Horse introduced into
Palestine from Egypt—Similarity of the war-horse of Scripture and the
Arab horse of the present day—Characteristics of the Horse—Courage and
endurance of the Horse—Hardness of its unshod hoofs—Love of the Arab
for his Horse—Difficulty of purchasing the animal—The Horse prohibited
to the Israelites—Solomon's disregard of the edict—The war-chariot, its
form and use—Probable construction of the iron chariot—The cavalry
Horse—Lack of personal interest in the animal 248

THE ASS.
Importance of the Ass in the East—Its general use for the saddle—Riding
the Ass not a mark of humility—The triumphal entry—White Asses—
Character of the Scriptural Ass—Saddling the Ass—The Ass used in
agriculture—The Ass's millstone—The water-wheel and the plough—
Reminiscences of the Ass in the Scriptural narrative—Its value as property
—The flesh of the Ass—The siege of Samaria and its horrors—Various
legends respecting the Ass—The impostor and his fate—Samson and
Balaam 264

THE WILD ASS.

The Arod and Pere of Scripture—Various allusions to the Wild Ass—Its
swiftness and wildness—The Wild Ass of Asia and Africa—Knowledge of
the animal displayed by the sacred writers—How the Wild Ass is hunted—
Excellence of its flesh—Sir R. K. Porter's meeting with a Wild Ass—Origin
of the domestic Ass—The Wild Asses of Quito 279

THE MULE.
Ancient use of the Mule—Various breeds of Mule—Supposed date of its
introduction into Palestine—Mule-breeding forbidden to the Jews—The
Mule as a saddle-animal—Its use on occasions of state—The king's Mule—
Mules brought from Babylon after the captivity—Obstinacy of the Mule—
The Mule as a beast of burden—The "Mule's burden" of earth—Mules
imported by the Phœnicians—Legends respecting the Mule 285

SWINE.
The Mosaic prohibition of the pig—Hatred of Swine by Jews and
Mahometans—A strange use of bacon—The prodigal son—Resistance to
the prosecution of Antiochus—Swine hated by the early Egyptians—
Supposed connexion between Swine and diseases of the skin—
Destruction of the herd of Swine—The locality of the event discovered—
Pigs bred for the monasteries—The jewel of gold in a Swine's snout—The
wild boar of the woods, and the beast of the reeds—The damage which it
does to the vines—General account of the wild boar of Palestine—
Excellence of its flesh 292

THE ELEPHANT.
The Elephant indirectly mentioned in the Authorized Version—Solomon's
ivory throne—Ivory used in Egypt—Horns of ivory—The ivory palaces—
Beds of ivory—The Tyrian ships—Ivory mentioned by Homer—Vessels of
ivory—The Elephant as an engine of war—Antiochus and his Elephants—
Oriental exaggeration—Self-devotion of Eleazar—Attacking the Elephants,
and their gradual abandonment in war—The Talmudical writers on the
Elephant—A funeral and an omen 302

THE CONEY, OR HYRAX.

The Shaphan of Scripture, and the correct meaning of the word—
Identification of the Shaphan with the Syrian Hyrax—Description of the
animal—Its feet, teeth, and apparent rumination—Passages in which the
Coney is mentioned—Habits of the animal—Its activity and wariness—The
South African Hyrax, and its mode of life—Difficulty of procuring it—
Similarity in appearance and habits of the Syrian species—Three species
of Hyrax known to naturalists—The Talmudical writers on the Shaphan—
The jerboa and the rabbit—A curious speculation and a judicious
compromise 312

BEHEMOTH.
Literal translation of the word Behemoth—Various theories respecting the
identity of the animal—The Hippopotamus known to the ancient Hebrews
—Geographical range of the animal—"He eateth grass like the ox"—
Ravages of the Hippopotamus among the crops—Structure of the mouth
and teeth—The "sword or scythe" of the Hippopotamus—Some strange
theories—Haunts of the Hippopotamus—The Egyptian hunter—A valuable
painting—Strength of the Hippopotamus—Rising of the Nile—Modern
hunters—Wariness of the Hippopotamus—The pitfall and the drop-trap
318
 BIRDS.
THE LÄMMERGEIER, OR OSSIFRAGE OF SCRIPTURE.
Difficulty of identifying the various birds mentioned in Scripture—The
Vultures of Palestine—The Lämmergeier, or Ossifrage of Scripture—The
Hebrew word Peres, and its signification—The Ossifrage, or Bone-breaker
—Appearance of the Lämmergeier—Its flight and mode of feeding—How
the Lämmergeier kills snakes and tortoises, and breaks marrow-bones—
Mode of destroying the chamois and mountain sheep—Nest of the
Lämmergeier 333

THE EGYPTIAN VULTURE, OR GIER-EAGLE.

The Râchâm or Gier-Eagle identified with the Egyptian Vulture—Its
appearance on the Egyptian monuments—Signification of the word
Râchâm—Various translations of the word—The shape, size, and colour of
the bird—Its value as a scavenger, and its general habits—The Egyptian
Vultures and the griffons—Its fondness for the society of man—Nest of
the Egyptian Vulture 339

THE GRIFFON VULTURE, OR EAGLE OF SCRIPTURE.

The Griffon Vulture identified with the Eagle of Scripture—The word Nesher
and its signification—Geographical range of the Griffon—Its mode of flight
and sociable habits—The featherless head and neck of the bird—The
Vulture used as an image of strength, swiftness, and rapacity—Its powers
of sight—How Vultures assemble round a carcase—Nesting-places of the
Griffon—Mr. Tristram's description of the Griffon—Rock caves of the Wady
Hamâm—Care of the young, and teaching them to fly—Strength of the
Griffon—Its emblematical use in Egypt and Assyria—The god Nisroch—
Noble aspect of the Griffon—Its longevity—Various attitudes assumed by
the bird 344

THE EAGLE.
Signification of the word Asniych—The Golden Eagle and its habits—The
Imperial Eagle—Its solitary mode of life—The Short-toed Eagle common in
Palestine—Its zoological position—Food of the Short-toed Eagle—Its form
and colour 354

THE OSPREY.
The Osprey, or Fishing Eagle—Its geographical range—Mode of securing
prey—Structure of its feet—Its power of balancing itself in the air 356

THE KITE, OR VULTURE OF SCRIPTURE.

The word Dayah and its signification—Dayah a collective term for different
species of Kites—The Common or Red Kite plentiful in Palestine—Its
piercing sight and habit of soaring—The Black Kite of Palestine and its
habits—The Egyptian Kite—The Raah or Glede of Scripture—The Buzzards
and their habits—The Peregrine Falcon an inhabitant of Central Palestine,
and the Lanner of the eastern parts of the country 357

THE HAWK.
The Netz or Hawk—Number of species probably grouped under that name—
Rare occurrence of the word—The Sparrow-Hawk and its general habits—
Its place of nesting—The Kestrel, or Wind-hover—Various names by which
it is known in England—Its mode of feeding and curious flight—The
Hariers—Probable derivation of the name—Species of Hariers known to
inhabit Palestine—Falconry apparently unknown to the ancient Jews 364

THE OWL.
The words which have been translated as "Owl"—The Côs, or Little Owl—
Use made of the Little Owl in bird-catching—Habits of the bird—The Barn,
Screech, or White Owl a native of Palestine—The Yanshûph, or Egyptian
Eagle Owl—Its food and nest—The Lilith, or Night Monster—Various
interpretations of the word—The Kippoz probably identical with the Scops
Owl, or Marouf 370

THE NIGHT-HAWK.
Different interpretations of the word Tachmâs—Probability that it signifies
the Nightjar—Various names of the bird—Its remarkable jarring cry, and
wheeling flight—Mode of feeding—Boldness of the bird—Deceptive
appearance of its size 377

THE SWALLOW.
Identification of the smaller birds—Oriental indifference to natural history—
Use of collective terms—The Swallow—Signification of the word Deror—
The Bird of Liberty—Swallows and Swifts—The Sunbirds and Bee-eaters—
Variety of small birds found in Palestine—The Swallows of Palestine—
Swallows protected by man in various countries—Nesting of the Swallow
 —The Rufous Swallow and Martin—The Sis or Swift—Various species of
Swift inhabiting the Holy Land—Talmudical notions of the Swift or Swallow
—The leper and his offering—The cooking pot and the sacrificial vessel—
Signification of the word Tzippor-deror 381

THE HOOPOE, OR LAPWING OF SCRIPTURE.

The Dukiphath of Scripture—Various interpretations of the word—The
Hoopoe—Its beauty and ill reputation—The unpleasant odour of its nest—
Food of the Hoopoe—Its beautiful nest, and remarkable gestures—A
curious legend of Solomon and the Hoopoe 392

THE SPARROW.
Signification of the word Tzippor—The bird used for the leper's sacrifice—
The Sparrow upon the house-top—Architecture of the East—Proclamation
from the house-tops—The Blue Thrush, its appearance and habits—Little
birds exposed for sale in the market—The two Sparrows sold for a
farthing—Bird-catching—The net, the snare, and the trap—The Sparrow
that builds her nest in the Temple—The Tree Sparrow—Various Sparrows
that inhabit Palestine—Birds kept in cages 395

THE CUCKOO.
The Cuckoo only twice mentioned in Scripture—Difficulty of identifying the
Shachaph—The common species, and the Great Spotted Cuckoo—
Depositing the egg—Conjectures respecting the Shachaph—Etymology of
the word—The various gulls, and other sea-birds 405

THE DOVE.
Parallel between the lamb and the Dove—Derivation of the Hebrew word
Yonâh—The Dove and the olive branch—Abram's sacrifice, and its
acceptance—The sacrifice according to the law of Moses—The Dove-
sellers of the Temple—Talmudical zoology—The story of Ilisch—The Dove
and the raven—The Dove a type of Israel—The Beni-yonâh, or Sons of
Pigeons—Home-finding instinct of the pigeon—The Oriental Dove-cotes—
Voice of the Dove—Its strength of wing—The Dove's dung of Samaria—
Various pigeons of Palestine—The Rock Dove and its multitudes—The
Dove and the Griffon—The Turtle Doves of Palestine, and their
appearance and habits 408

POULTRY.
Poultry plentiful in Palestine at the present day—The Domestic Fowl
unknown in the early times of Israel—The eating and gathering of eggs—
References to Poultry in the New Testament—The egg and the scorpion—
The fatted fowl of Solomon—The hen brooding over her eggs—Poultry
prohibited within Jerusalem—The cock-crowing 421

THE PEACOCK.
The foreign curiosities imported by Solomon—The word Tucciyim and its
various interpretations—Identity of the word with the Cingalese name of
the Peacock—Reasons why the Peacock should have been brought to
Solomon—Its subsequent neglect and extirpation 425

THE PARTRIDGE.
The word Kore and its signification—The Partridge upon the mountains—
David's simile—The Desert Partridge and its habits—Hunting the Partridge
with sticks—Eggs of the Partridge—A disputed reading, and probable
signification of the passage—Egg-hunting in Palestine—The various
species of Partridge—The Francolin and the Sand-grouse 426

THE QUAIL.
Signification of the word Selâv—Various passages in which the word is
mentioned—The locust, the stork, and the sand-grouse—Spreading the
birds around the camp—Migration of the Quail—Drying the Quails for food
—Modes of catching the Quail in the East—The Quail-hunters of Northern
Africa—Quarrelsome nature of the bird—Quail-fighting in the East—How
the Quails were brought to the Israelites 430

THE RAVEN.
Signification of the word Oreb—The Haven tribe plentiful in Palestine—The
Raven and the dove—Elijah and the Ravens—Various explanations of the
circumstance—Feeding the young Ravens—Luis of Grenada's sermon—
The white Raven of ancient times—An old legend—Reference to the
blackness of the Raven's plumage—Desert-loving habits of the Raven—Its
mode of attacking the eye—Notions of the old commentators—Ceremonial
use of the Raven—Return of the Ravens—Cunning of the bird—Nesting-
places of the Raven—The magpie and its character—The starling—Its
introduction into Palestine—The Rabbi perplexed—Solution of the difficulty
439

THE OSTRICH.
Hebrew words designating the Ostrich—Description of the bird in the Book
of Job—Ancient use of Ostrich plumes—Supposed heedlessness of eggs
and young—Mode of depositing the eggs—Hatching them in the sand—
Natural enemies of the Ostrich—Anecdote of Ostriches and their young—
Alleged stupidity of the Ostrich—Methods of hunting and snaring the bird
—The Ostrich in domestication—Speed of the Ostrich—The flesh of the
bird prohibited to the Jews—Ostrich eggs and their uses—Food of the
Ostrich—Mode of drinking—Cry of the Ostrich, and reference made to it in
Micah 450

THE BITTERN.
Signification of the word Kippod—The Bittern and its general appearance—
The bird of solitude—Difficulty of detecting the Bittern in its haunts—
Mudie's description of the Bittern and its home—The strange cry of the
bird—Superstitions connected with it—The Night-raven—Nest of the
Bittern—Scarcity of the bird at the present day—Food of the Bittern—The
bird formerly brought to table 462

THE HERON.
The Heron mentioned as an unclean bird—The Heron used for food in
England, and considered as a delicacy—Sociable character of the bird,
and its mode of feeding—Its enormous appetite—How the Heron fights—
Ancient falconry—Nesting of the Heron—The papyrus marshes and their
dangers—Description of the papyrus—Vessels of bulrushes—The Egret
and its beautiful plumage—Uses of the train feathers 468

THE CRANE.
Various passages in which the Crane is mentioned—Its migratory habits and
loud voice—Geographical range of the Crane—The bird once plentiful in
the fen districts of England—Its favourite roosting-places—Size of the
Crane, and measurement of the wings—The Crane once used as food—
Plumes of the Crane and their use—Structure of the vocal organs—Nest
and eggs of the Crane. 474

THE STORK.
Signification of the Hebrew word Chasidah—Various passages in which it is
mentioned—The Chasidah therefore a large, wide-winged, migratory bird
—Its identification with the Stork—Derivation of its Hebrew name—The
Stork always protected—Uses of the tail—Its mode of quartering the
ground in search of food—Migratory habits of the Stork—Nesting of the
 bird, and its favourite localities—The fir-trees of Palestine—Love of the
Stork for its young 478

THE SWAN.
Signification of the word Tinshemeth—The Gallinule and the Ibis—
Appearance and habits of the Hyacinthine Gallinule—A strange use for the
bird—The White or Sacred Ibis—The bird mentioned by Herodotus—The
Glossy Ibis, or Black Ibis—Veneration with which the bird was regarded
485

THE CORMORANT.
The word Shâlâk and its signification—The Greek Catarrhactes—Habits of
the Cormorant—The bird trained to catch fish—Mode of securing its prey
—Nests and eggs of the Cormorant—Nesting in fir-trees—Flesh of the bird
490

THE PELICAN.
The Pelican of the wilderness—Attitudes of the bird—Its love of solitude—
Derivation of the Hebrew word—Fantastic interpretation—Mode of feeding
the young—Fables regarding the Pelican—Breeding-places of the bird—
The object of its wide wings and large pouch—Colour of the Pelican 495

REPTILES.
THE TORTOISE.
Reptiles in general—Looseness of the term "creeping things"—The Tzab of
the Scriptures, translated as Tortoise—Flesh and eggs of the Tortoise—Its
slow movements—Hibernation dependent on temperature—The Water-
Tortoises—Their food and voracity—Their eggs—Their odour terrifying the
horses—The Dhubb lizard and its legends—Its armed tail, and the use
made of it—Its food, and localities which it prefers 505

THE LEVIATHAN, OR CROCODILE.

Signification of the word Leviathan—Description in the Book of Job—
Structure and general habits of the Crocodile—The throat-valve and its
use—Position of the nostrils—Worship of the Crocodile—The reptile known
in the Holy Land—Two legends respecting its presence there—Mode of
 taking prey—Cunning of the Crocodile—The baboons and the Crocodile—
Speed of the reptile—Eggs and young of the Crocodile, and their enemies
—Curious story of the ichneumon and ibis—Modes of capturing the
Crocodile—Analysis of Job's description—The Crocodile also signified by
the word Tannin. Aaron's rod changed into a Tannin—Various passages in
which the word occurs—Use of the word by the Prophet Jeremiah 514

THE LETÂÂH OR LIZARD.

Difficulty of identifying the Letââh—Probability that it is a collective and not
a specific term—Various Lizards of Palestine—The Green or Jersey Lizard
—The Cyprius, its appearance and habits—The Glass Snake or
Scheltopusic—Translation of the word Chomet—Probability that it signifies
the Skink—Medicinal uses of the Lizard—The Seps tribe—The common
Cicigna, and the popular belief concerning its habits—The Sphænops and
its shallow tunnel 529

THE CHAMELEON, MONITOR, AND GECKO.

Translation of the word Koach—Signification of the word, and its applicability
to the Chameleon—Power of the reptile's grasp—The prehensile tail—
Demeanour of the Chameleon on the ground—The independent eyes—Its
frequent change of colour—Mode of taking prey—Strange notions
respecting the Chameleon—The Monitor, or Land Crocodile—Its habits and
use to mankind—The Nilotic Monitor, and its habit of destroying the eggs
and young of the Crocodile—The Gecko or Ferret of Scripture 534

SERPENTS.
Serpents in general—Signification of the Hebrew word Nachash—Various
passages in which the Nachash is mentioned—The fiery Serpents of the
wilderness—Explanation of the words "flying" and "fiery" as applied to
Serpents—Haunts of the Serpent—The Cobra, or Asp of Scripture—
Meaning of the word Pethen—The deaf Adder that stoppeth her ear—
Serpent-charming in the East—Principle on which the charmers work—
Sluggishness of the Serpent nature—Ceremony of initiation into Serpent-
charming—Theories respecting the deaf Adder—Luis of Grenada's sermon
—The Cerastes, or Horned Serpent—Appearance and habits of the reptile
—The "Adder in the path" 540

THE VIPER, OR EPHEH.

Passages in which the word Epheh occurs—El-effah—The Sand Viper, or
Toxicon—Its appearance and habits—The Acshub—Adder's poison—The
 Spuugh-Slange—The Cockatrice, or Tsepha—The Yellow Viper—Ancient
ideas concerning the Cockatrice—Power of its venom 552

THE FROG.
The Frog only mentioned in the Old Testament as connected with the
plagues of Egypt—The severity of this plague explained—The Frog
detestable to the Egyptians—The Edible Frog and its numbers—
Description of the Species. 557

FISHES.
CHAPTER I.
Impossibility of distinguishing the different species of fishes—The fishermen
Apostles—Fish used for food—The miracle of the loaves and Fishes—The
Fish broiled on the coals—Clean and unclean Fishes—The scientific
writings of Solomon—The Sheat-fish, or Silurus—The Eel and the Muræna
—The Long-headed Barbel—Fish-ponds and preserves—The Fish-ponds of
Heshbon—The Sucking-fish—The Lump-sucker—The Tunny—The
Coryphene 563

CHAPTER II.
Various modes of capturing Fish—The hook and line—Military use of the
hook—Putting a hook in the jaws—The fishing spear—Different kinds of
net—The casting-net—Prevalence of this form—Technical words among
fishermen—Fishing by night—The draught of Fishes—The real force of the
miracle—Selecting the Fish—The Fish-gate and Fish-market—Fish killed by
a draught—Fishing in the Dead Sea—Dagon, the fish-god of Philistina,
Assyria, and Siam—Various Fishes of Egypt and Palestine 571

INVERTEBRATES.
MOLLUSCS.
The purple of Scripture—Various Molluscs from which it is obtained—The
common Dog whelk of England—The sac containing the purple dye—
Curious change of colour—Mode of obtaining the dye—The Tyrian purple
 —The king of the Ethiopians and the purple robe—The professional purple
dyers—Various words expressive of different shades of purple—Care taken
to keep the preparation of the dye secret 586

THE SNAIL.
The Snail which melteth—Rendering of the Jewish Bible—Theory respecting
the track of the Snail—The Hebrew word Shablul—Various Snails of
Palestine 589

THE ONYCHA.
Ingredients of the sacred incense—The Onyx, or Onycha—Derivation of the
word—The Arabic Dofr—The Doofu of Abyssinia—Odour of the perfume
590

THE PEARL.
The Pearl of Scripture—Wisdom compared to Pearl—Different renderings of
the Hebrew word—Opinions of the Talmudists—Structure of Pearls—The
Pearls of the marine and aquatic mussels—Pearl-fisheries of the Conway—
Metaphorical uses of the Pearl—The Pearl of great price—Casting Pearls
before swine—An ancient proverb 592

INSECTS.
Insects—Beetles not mentioned in Scripture—The Locust—Various species of
the insect, and different words used to signify it—The Arbeh of Scripture,
and its derivation—The two migratory Locusts at rest and on the wing—
The Locust swarms—Gordon Cumming's account—Progress of the insect
hosts—Vain attempts to check them—Tossed up and down as a Locust—
Effect of the winds on the insect—The east and the west winds—Locusts
used for food—Ancient and modern travellers—The food of St. John 596

THE BEE.
The Hebrew word Debôrah—The Honey Bee of Palestine—Abundance of
Bees in the Holy Land—Habitations of the wild Bee—Hissing for the Bee—
Bees in dead carcases—The honey of Scripture—Domesticated Bees and
their hives—Stores of wild honey—The story of Jonathan—The Crusaders
and the honey—Butter and honey—Oriental sweetmeats—The Dibs, or
grape-honey, and mode of preparation—Wax, its use as a metaphor 605

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