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Fundamentals of Financial Accounting
Fifth Edition
Fundamentals of Financial Accounting
Fifth Edition
Volume Editor
A MOHAMMADALI HAJI
CA(SA), RA(SA)
University of Johannesburg, College of Business and Economics
Co-workers
T Mohohlo
CA(SA)
University of Johannesburg, College of Business and Economics
T Mutshutshu
CA(SA)
University of Johannesburg, College of Business and Economics
B Sibiya
CA(SA)
University of Johannesburg, College of Business and Economics
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© 2022
Copyright subsists in this work. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means without the publisher’s
written permission. Any unauthorised reproduction of this work will constitute a copyright infringement and render the doer
liable under both civil and criminal law.
Whilst every effort has been made to ensure that the information published in this work is accurate, the editors, publishers and
printers take no responsibility for any loss or damage suffered by any person as a result of the reliance upon the information
contained therein.
The language of International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS Standards) is the predominant
globally recognised accounting language in most major capital markets. The application of IFRS
Standards in the preparation of financial statements is a legal requirement for all public com-
panies and certain private companies in South Africa. These IFRS Standards bring transparency,
accountability and efficiency to financial markets in South Africa and around the world. With
increased globalisation, a recognised standard accounting language makes South African com-
panies comparable with companies around the world.
Fundamentals of Financial Accounting deals with the concepts in the Conceptual Framework for
Financial Reporting (Conceptual Framework) and with key principles from selected IFRS Stand-
ards, to the degree that is possible in an introductory work on financial accounting. This work is
written for an introductory course in financial accounting and is aimed at delivering a responsible
and proficient accounting student with a desire for life-long learning.
Relevant routine transactions and events of a profit-orientated entity are contextualised, and the
recognition thereof is repeatedly and consistently traced back to the Conceptual Framework and
represented by means of a journal entry. This work is unique in how it integrates concepts and
principles with the accumulation of transactions and events in accordance with the double-entry
system.
Certainly, the most important value that a textbook such as this one contributes to an introductory
course in financial accounting is that it equips students with the ability to journalise a selection of
relevant routine transactions and events with understanding, to accumulate these in accounts
and to present and disclose them. It follows a contextualised learning experience and does so by
using relevant routine transactions which students can relate to. It also encourages students to
think critically by teaching them to apply accounting knowledge correctly.
Accounting records are mainly maintained by means of computers and applicable software pack-
ages. This makes journalising with understanding an essential component of the pedagogical
approach followed in this work.
The authors
November 2022
vi
Contents
Page
Chapter 1 Financial accounting – an introduction .............................................................. 1
Chapter 2 Conceptual Framework for financial reporting ................................................... 11
Chapter 3 Financial statements framework for a company ................................................. 57
Chapter 4 Double-entry rules and the application thereof .................................................. 83
Chapter 5 Recognition of transactions and events in the accounting records and the
presentation of account balances in the financial statements ........................... 115
Chapter 6 Review and adjustments .................................................................................... 227
Chapter 7 The closing off process ...................................................................................... 269
Chapter 8 Value added tax ................................................................................................. 281
Chapter 9 Property, plant and equipment........................................................................... 301
Chapter 10 Non-current assets: Intangible assets – trademarks, computer software
purchased and cryptocurrencies ....................................................................... 353
Chapter 11 Trade payables and trade receivables .............................................................. 365
Chapter 12 Cash and cash equivalents ................................................................................ 393
Chapter 13 Revenue from contracts with customers ............................................................ 413
Chapter 14 Inventories .......................................................................................................... 429
Chapter 15 Share-related transactions and other concepts ................................................. 473
Chapter 16 Loans and leases ............................................................................................... 511
Chapter 17 Non-current assets: Investment property ........................................................... 555
Chapter 18 Provisions, contingent liabilities and contingent assets ..................................... 565
Chapter 19 Events after the reporting period........................................................................ 579
Chapter 20 Non-current assets: Investment in subsidiary and other
financial investments .......................................................................................... 591
Chapter 21 Statement of cash flows ..................................................................................... 609
vii
1
CHAPTER
Contents
Paragraph
The nature of financial accounting ................................................................................................. 1
The development of financial accounting ...................................................................................... 6
Origin of accounting .................................................................................................................. 6
The influence of technological development ........................................................................... 10
The influence of the development of forms of entities ............................................................. 16
Sole Proprietorship ............................................................................................................. 19
Partnership ......................................................................................................................... 22
Company ............................................................................................................................ 26
The influence of the professional movement ........................................................................... 29
Related fields of study .................................................................................................................. 36
Management accounting ......................................................................................................... 37
Financial management ............................................................................................................ 39
Auditing ................................................................................................................................... 40
Internal control ......................................................................................................................... 42
Taxation ................................................................................................................................... 45
Sustainability accounting ......................................................................................................... 47
International Financial Reporting Standards ................................................................................ 48
Preface to International Financial Reporting Standards .......................................................... 48
The objectives of the IASB ...................................................................................................... 49
Scope and authority of International Financial Reporting Standards ...................................... 50
International Reporting Standards and this work..................................................................... 55
Why study accounting? ................................................................................................................ 58
1
Fundamentals of Financial Accounting
Origin of accounting
6 Modern financial accounting had its origin in the form of the double-entry system in Italy
towards the end of the 15th century.
7 Benedetto Cotrugli was probably the first writer on accounting. He completed a work on the
commercial function in 1458 and in one chapter presented a brief discussion of bookkeep-
ing. However, the work was published only some time later. The first published work was
the full description of the double-entry system by Luca Pacioli in his Summa de arithmetica
geometria proportioni et proportionalitate that was published in Venice in 1494. His Summa,
which was a mathematical work, contained a section on the Venetian method of double-
entry bookkeeping. Pacioli was an eminent sage and in the course of his career he served
as professor of mathematics at various universities in Italian cities. From 1514 onwards he
was professor at the Sapienza in Rome.
8 In the rest of Europe the first works on double-entry bookkeeping appeared towards the
middle of the 16th century: In Antwerp in 1543, in London in 1547 and in Germany in 1549.
9 In the main, the early literature described the technique of bookkeeping – of how transac-
tions could be recorded in accordance with the double-entry system. The development of
the theory of accounting, the why as opposed to the how, began only in the 19th century.
2
Chapter 1: Financial accounting – an introduction
3
Fundamentals of Financial Accounting
Sole Proprietorship
19 This type of business entity is owned by one person. For small entities this is a popular form
of ownership since there are no formal procedures required to set up the entity. Expansion
in the sole proprietorship is limited by the funding available to the owner.
20 The sole proprietorship or sole trader, as it is often referred to, is not a separate legal entity
apart from its owner. It cannot be involved in any legal relationship or activity except in the
name of the owner.
21 For normal tax purposes, the sole proprietor is not a separate taxable entity. Therefore the
owner is taxed on the activities of the business entity in his or her personal capacity.
Partnership
22 A partnership is used for relatively small business entities that wish to take advantage of
combined financial capital, managerial talent and experience. This form of entity is also fre-
quently found amongst the professions, such as doctors, dentists, lawyers and account-
ants. However, some of the large audit, tax and advisory practices have chosen to
incorporate. There are specific provisions in the existing Companies Act to cater for this.
23 A partnership is a legal relationship which arises as a result of an agreement between two
or more persons, but not exceeding twenty. The membership of organised professions
which are designated by the Minister of Trade and Industries may, however, exceed twenty.
24 No legislation exists in South Africa to control partnerships. The principles of common law
are therefore applicable. A partnership is also not a legal entity and it has no legal standing
apart from the members who constitute it. The individual partners are the joint owners of the
assets and are jointly and severally liable for the liabilities of the partnership. In other words,
each partner could incur unlimited liability for all the debts and obligations of the partner-
ship.
25 A partnership is not taxed in its own right; it is not a taxable entity. The profits are taxed in
the hands of the individual partners.
Company
26 A company is a legal entity distinct from the persons who own it. The shareholders as a
group own the company through ownership of the shares issued by it. They do not person-
ally own its assets. They have no direct claim on the profit of the company. The profit be-
comes due to them only if it is distributed by way of dividends. The shareholders appoint a
board of directors to conduct the activities of the company. A company, being a separate
legal entity, is liable to pay tax on its profits.
27 The two most important types of companies (according to the Companies Act 71 of 2008)
are known as the public company and the private company.
28 Accounting is a necessity in every entity, regardless of type or size. It is so important that a
full-time international body, the IASB, which represents accounting experts from several
countries, exists to provide guidance on how to account for items and transactions, and on
how this information should be communicated (presented). How transactions are recorded/
accounted for and how this information is communicated, is basically the same for all types
of entities. Therefore, in this work, the generic reference to a commercial enterprise as an
entity will mostly be used.
4
Chapter 1: Financial accounting – an introduction
Management accounting
37 Management accounting is a process of collecting, analysing, summarising and evaluating
various alternative courses of action. Its goal is to advise the management on the most ap-
propriate course of action based on the cost efficiency and capability. Cost accounting
provides the detailed cost information that management needs to control current operations
and plan for the future.
5
Fundamentals of Financial Accounting
Financial management
39 Financial management entails the planning, monitoring and controlling of the monetary
resources of an organisation in order to maximise shareholders wealth.
Auditing
40 In terms of the Companies Act 71 of 2008, certain companies are required to appoint an
auditor. It is the responsibility of the board of directors to have financial statements pre-
pared which fairly present the company’s financial position, performance and cash flows.
The role of the auditor is to express an opinion on the fair presentation of the information
and whether or not it has been prepared in accordance with IFRS Standards.
41 An audit is carried out by a firm of independent auditors and, as such, adds credibility to
the financial statements.
Internal control
42 A sound system of internal control is important to ensure that the business organisation is
effectively and efficiently run, that the assets are safeguarded, and that the financial state-
ments faithfully present the information which they purport to present.
43 A system of internal control ensures that:
x the information the directors need to make decisions is available;
x the delegated authorities are properly exercised;
x the data needed for the control of costs is accurate and complete; and
x the data needed for the preparation of financial statements is accurate and complete.
44 The internal control system is integral to ongoing business operations and is as important to
the continuation of the business as are market opportunities and cash flows. Internal control
is a subdivision of the subject Auditing.
Taxation
45 Accountants who are specialists in taxation assist their clients in planning their affairs in
order to minimise taxes payable. The taxes may, depending on the nature of the transac-
tion, include any of the following taxes: income tax, donations tax, estate duty, VAT and
transfer duty.
46 Tax specialists may also assist clients with the rendering of tax returns, the review of as-
sessments, objections to assessments with which the client disagrees and generally assist-
ing with any tax-related problems which might arise.
Sustainability accounting
47 Sustainability accounting is about measuring, analysing and reporting on a company’s
social and environmental impacts. Stakeholders are interested in more than financial mat-
ters: they are also interested in the company’s ESG. ESG refers to the environmental, social
and governance information about a company.
6
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
INTERMEZZO
—«Non, c’est une autre raison qui me fait agir,» répondit Barrès
à Jules Renard, qui essayait de lui démontrer que c’était besogne
inutile d’écrire le commentaire d’un livre qu’on avait publié. «Si je
veux expliquer la route que mon esprit a suivie, route dont Sous l’œil
des Barbares et Un Homme libre sont les étapes tandis que le Jardin
de Bérénice en représente la station finale, ce n’est point par amour-
propre d’auteur qui veut forcément occuper le public de lui, mais
pour venir en aide à la génération qui nous suit et qui a le droit de
savoir notre pensée entière. Je veux indiquer la direction générale à
laquelle a obéi l’évolution de mes idées; sans quoi on s’attache trop
aux détails ou à quelques expressions plus ou moins singulières. Et
c’est la vue d’ensemble qui importe avant tout.»
Telles furent les premières paroles que j’entendis prononcer à
Barrès après les politesses banales de l’introduction et elles me
frappèrent non seulement par leur sérieux, mais aussi par le
contraste avec l’air jeune et le ton de voix très jeune de l’homme qui
parlait. Il était là, assis nonchalamment devant sa table de travail,
jouant avec sa cigarette, sa figure un peu maladive d’adolescent
illuminée par un sourire d’enfant gâté et volontaire, dominée par
deux beaux yeux tendres, qui vous imploraient et vous captivaient.
Le premier sentiment qu’on éprouvait pour lui était un mouvement
de sympathie; puis venait la conviction qu’on avait devant soi une
puissance intellectuelle d’une souplesse et d’une agilité
remarquables et comme acquises par une gymnastique perpétuelle
de l’esprit, mais une puissance qui se faisait respecter, désireuse,
impatiente même de se faire respecter. Un tout composé de
simplicité et de vigueur avec une petite, mais très petite pointe de
fatuité.
—«C’est naturellement un défaut de l’écrivain, s’il a besoin
d’expliquer après coup ce qu’il a voulu faire,» dit Barrès en
continuant. «On n’a pas été maître absolu de sa pensée et de toutes
les conséquences qui en découlent, au moment d’écrire, et on en a
manqué le point saillant. Voilà pourquoi j’admire tant les gens qui
ont la faculté d’exprimer complètement leur idée avec toutes ses
circonstances et toutes ses nuances. Daudet surtout me paraît avoir
ce génie-là.
«Peut-être aussi ce que j’ai voulu dire est-il plus compliqué qu’un
récit de romancier, mais, tout bien pesé, puisque je ne suis pas clair,
je reste en défaut.
«L’obscurité est toujours signe de faiblesse. On ne le comprend
guère, quand on est jeune et qu’on cherche la formule de l’univers.
On essaye d’exprimer ses idées à force de symboles, qui rendent
peut-être un certain état moral momentané, mais qui ne peuvent
servir à exprimer une conception nette de la vie. Il faut être mieux
préparé pour cela, et c’est l’outillage qui nous fait défaut.
«Pour moi j’ai toujours fait de mon mieux pour donner à chaque
phrase le degré de clarté qu’elle comportait, et je crois bien y avoir
réussi. Quant à poursuivre exactement la ligne logique de ma
pensée par la liaison des phrases, voilà où j’ai failli. La raison en est
très claire pour moi. Aussitôt que je me mets à rédiger ma pensée,
elle fait une évolution dans un sens ou dans l’autre et tout ce qui sur
le papier se trouve fixé dans sa forme définitive pousse l’esprit vers
une direction qui n’était pas dans l’intention originale. Ainsi, à
chaque instant il y a un tournant dans le raisonnement et la
conclusion ne correspond plus au début. Celui qui a pris la peine de
suivre l’idée à travers cette transformation successive ne se récriera
pas contre ce manque de logique, mais les autres jetteront le livre;
et de notre côté nous n’avons pas le droit de leur demander un
effort sérieux qui consisterait à suivre notre pensée dans tous ses
détours.
«Un livre qui n’est pas clair est condamné d’avance, car pour
obtenir du succès, il faut qu’on puisse formuler le contenu du livre
en peu de mots. Il ne faut pas que le journaliste, qui en écrira la
critique, hésite un seul instant sur la position qu’il prendra à son
égard, et surtout il ne doit pas douter que le livre surpasse sa faculté
de compréhension: si tel est le cas, le livre est perdu.
«Une chose encore peut sauver un ouvrage: c’est s’il présente
quelque trait saillant qu’on puisse détacher, mettre en lumière, ou
quelque fait personnel, supposé ou véritable, auquel on puisse
s’attaquer. Cela explique, comme vous savez, la vogue des poésies
de Byron, dans leur temps. Lorsqu’il posait devant le public un de
ses pirates solitaires dans un accès de mélancolie, comme il vous en
arrive dans tous les métiers honnêtes, chaque lecteur faisait
l’entendu. On était assuré dans son for intérieur de bien comprendre
la cause de ce chagrin; on reconnaissait dans le personnage le noble
lord lui-même, et on savait de source certaine que Byron était voué
au désespoir depuis qu’il avait tué sa maîtresse ou violé sa sœur,—
les versions différaient, mais cela n’ôtait rien à la conviction du
public. Et voilà des motifs puissants qui vous mettent un livre dans la
main.
«Il ne devrait pas être question de ces commérages à propos de
l’œuvre d’un artiste; aussi lord Byron aurait percé sans cela; pour lui,
ce fut quelque chose d’accidentel que je cite seulement pour
souligner ma pensée. L’artiste s’empare du succès et de la gloire,
grâce à la vigueur de son talent et du plaisir intellectuel qu’il vient
apporter. Mais, hélas! moi, je ne suis pas artiste; je n’ai pas même
ce sens exclusif de l’art, qui est la première condition d’existence
pour un artiste. Je ne dirai pas non plus que je suis philosophe: c’est
un titre trop haut que je ne veux nullement réclamer; ce que j’avoue
seulement c’est une grande prédilection pour la philosophie.
«Rien ne me charme davantage que de vagabonder dans
l’espace libre des concepts. Croyez qu’il n’existe pas de passe-temps
plus délicieux que de bâtir des systèmes en l’air. On se lance dans
les nuages métaphysiques et on se grise à la contemplation des