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Contents

Preface .............................................................................................................................................xv
Acknowledgment ........................................................................................................................ xix
Authors ......................................................................................................................................... xxi

1. Introduction to MATLAB, Simulink, and Simscape ......................................................1

1.1 MATLAB Command Window and Command Prompt .......................................... 1
1.2 Vectors and Matrices .................................................................................................... 2
1.2.1 Linspace.............................................................................................................3
1.2.2 Matrices .............................................................................................................4
1.2.3 Determinant, Transpose, and Inverse ...........................................................5
1.2.4 Slash Operators ................................................................................................5
1.2.5 Element-by-Element Operations .................................................................... 6
1.3 Symbolic Math Toolbox ................................................................................................ 7
1.3.1 Anonymous Functions ....................................................................................7
1.3.2 MATLAB Function ..........................................................................................8
1.3.3 Differentiation ..................................................................................................8
1.3.4 Integration .........................................................................................................9
1.3.5 Differential Equations ................................................................................... 10
1.4 Plotting ......................................................................................................................... 11
1.4.1 Subplot ............................................................................................................. 11
1.4.2 Plotting Analytical Expressions .................................................................. 12
1.4.3 Multiple Plots.................................................................................................. 12
1.5 User-Defined Functions and Script Files ................................................................. 13
1.5.1 Creating a Script File ..................................................................................... 14
1.6 Simulink ....................................................................................................................... 14
1.6.1 Block Library .................................................................................................. 15
1.6.2 Building a New Model .................................................................................. 16
1.6.3 Simulation ....................................................................................................... 19
1.7 Simscape ....................................................................................................................... 20
1.7.1 Block Library .................................................................................................. 21
1.7.2 Building a New Model ..................................................................................22
1.7.3 Simulation ....................................................................................................... 24
Review Problems ................................................................................................................... 26

2. Complex Analysis, Differential Equations, and Laplace Transformation ............... 31

2.1 Complex Analysis ....................................................................................................... 31
2.1.1 Complex Numbers in Rectangular Form ................................................... 31
2.1.1.1 Magnitude ....................................................................................... 32
2.1.1.2 Complex Conjugate ........................................................................ 33

vii
viii Contents

2.1.2
Complex Numbers in Polar Form................................................................34
2.1.2.1 Complex Algebra Using the Polar Form ..................................... 36
2.1.2.2 Integer Powers of Complex Numbers ......................................... 38
2.1.2.3 Roots of Complex Numbers .......................................................... 38
2.1.3 Complex Variables and Complex Functions .............................................. 39
2.2 Differential Equations ................................................................................................ 40
2.2.1 Linear, First-Order Differential Equations ................................................. 40
2.2.2 Second-Order Differential Equations with Constant Coefficients ......... 41
2.2.2.1 Homogeneous Solution .................................................................42
2.2.2.2 Particular Solution .........................................................................42
2.3 Laplace Transformation ............................................................................................. 45
2.3.1 Linearity of Laplace and Inverse Laplace Transforms ............................. 48
2.3.2 Differentiation and Integration of Laplace Transforms ........................... 48
2.3.2.1 Differentiation of Laplace Transforms ........................................ 48
2.3.2.2 Integration of Laplace Transforms ............................................... 49
2.3.3 Special Functions ........................................................................................... 50
2.3.3.1 Unit-Step Function ......................................................................... 50
2.3.3.2 Unit-Ramp Function ...................................................................... 52
2.3.3.3 Unit-Pulse Function ....................................................................... 53
2.3.3.4 Unit-Impulse (Dirac Delta) Function ........................................... 53
2.3.3.5 The Relation between Unit-Impulse and Unit-Step
Functions ..................................................................................... 54
2.3.3.6 Periodic Functions..........................................................................54
2.3.4 Laplace Transforms of Derivatives and Integrals ..................................... 55
2.3.4.1 Laplace Transforms of Derivatives .............................................. 56
2.3.4.2 Laplace Transforms of Integrals ................................................... 56
2.3.5 Inverse Laplace Transformation .................................................................. 57
2.3.5.1 Partial-Fraction Expansion Method............................................. 57
2.3.5.2 Performing Partial-Fraction Expansion in MATLAB ............... 60
2.3.5.3 Convolution Method ...................................................................... 61
2.3.6 Final-Value Theorem and Initial-Value Theorem ......................................64
2.3.6.1 Final-Value Theorem ......................................................................64
2.3.6.2 Initial-Value Theorem ....................................................................65
2.4 Summary ...................................................................................................................... 70
Review Problems ................................................................................................................... 71

3. Matrix Analysis..................................................................................................................... 75
3.1 Vectors and Matrices .................................................................................................. 75
3.1.1 Special Matrices .............................................................................................77
3.1.2 Elementary Row Operations ........................................................................77
3.1.3 Rank of a Matrix ............................................................................................ 78
3.1.4 Determinant of a Matrix ............................................................................... 79
3.1.4.1 Properties of Determinant ............................................................80
3.1.4.2 Rank in Terms of Determinant ....................................................80
3.1.4.3 Block Diagonal and Block Triangular Matrices ......................... 81
3.1.5 Inverse of a Matrix ......................................................................................... 82
3.1.5.1 Adjoint Matrix ................................................................................ 82
Contents ix

3.2 Solution of Linear Systems of Equations ................................................................. 86

3.2.1 Gauss Elimination Method .......................................................................... 87
3.2.2 Using the Inverse of the Coefficient Matrix ............................................... 87
3.2.2.1 MATLAB Built-in Function "\" ..................................................... 87
3.2.3 Cramer’s Rule ................................................................................................. 88
3.2.4 Homogeneous Systems ................................................................................. 89
3.3 Matrix Eigenvalue Problem ....................................................................................... 92
3.3.1 Solving the Eigenvalue Problem .................................................................. 92
3.3.1.1 Eigenvalue Properties of Matrices ............................................... 92
3.3.2 Algebraic Multiplicity and Geometric Multiplicity .................................. 94
3.3.2.1 Generalized Eigenvectors ............................................................. 96
3.3.2.2 Generalized Eigenvectors in MATLAB ....................................... 96
3.3.2.3 Similarity Transformations ........................................................... 97
3.3.2.4 Matrix Diagonalization ................................................................. 97
3.3.2.5 Defective Matrices .......................................................................... 98
3.4 Summary .................................................................................................................... 100
Review Problems ................................................................................................................. 101

4. System Model Representation ......................................................................................... 105

4.1 Configuration Form .................................................................................................. 105
4.1.1 Second-Order Matrix Form ........................................................................ 106
4.2 State-Space Form ....................................................................................................... 108
4.2.1 State Variables, State-Variable Equations, and State Equation .............. 108
4.2.1.1 State-Variable Equations .............................................................. 109
4.2.1.2 State Equation ............................................................................... 110
4.2.2 Output Equation and State-Space Form ................................................... 111
4.2.2.1 Output Equation ........................................................................... 112
4.2.2.2 State-Space Form .......................................................................... 113
4.2.2.3 State-Space Form in MATLAB® ........................................... 114
4.2.3 Decoupling the State Equation................................................................... 115
4.3 Input–Output Equation and Transfer Function ................................................... 119
4.3.1 Input–Output Equations from the System Model .................................. 119
4.3.2 Transfer Functions from the System Model ............................................. 120
4.4 Relations between State-Space Form, Input–Output Equation, and
Transfer Matrix .......................................................................................................... 125
4.4.1 Input–Output Equation to State-Space Form........................................... 125
4.4.1.1 Controller Canonical Form .................................................. 127
4.4.2 State-Space Form to Transfer Matrix......................................................... 129
4.4.2.1 MATLAB Command "ss2tf" ............................................ 130
4.5 Block Diagram Representation ............................................................................... 134
4.5.1 Block Diagram Operations ......................................................................... 134
4.5.1.1 Summing Junction ....................................................................... 134
4.5.1.2 Series Combinations of Blocks ................................................... 135
4.5.1.3 Parallel Combinations of Blocks ................................................ 136
4.5.1.4 Integrator ....................................................................................... 137
4.5.1.5 Closed-Loop Systems................................................................... 138
x Contents

4.5.2
Block-Diagram Reduction Techniques...................................................... 139
4.5.2.1 Moving a Branch Point ................................................................ 139
4.5.2.2 Moving a Summing Junction ..................................................... 139
4.5.2.3 Mason’s Rule ................................................................................. 142
4.5.3 Block Diagram Construction from System Model .................................. 144
4.5.3.1 State-Space Block in Simulink ........................................ 146
4.6 Linearization .............................................................................................................. 151
4.6.1 Linearization of a Nonlinear Element ...................................................... 151
4.6.1.1 Functions of Two Variables ......................................................... 153
4.6.2 Linearization of a Nonlinear Model ......................................................... 153
4.6.2.1 Operating Point ............................................................................ 153
4.6.2.2 Linearization Procedure.............................................................. 154
4.6.2.3 Small-Angle Linearization .......................................................... 157
4.6.3 Linearization in Simulink .................................................................... 158
4.7 Summary .................................................................................................................... 162
Review Problems ................................................................................................................. 164

5. Mechanical Systems ........................................................................................................... 169

5.1 Mechanical Elements ................................................................................................ 169
5.1.1 Mass Elements .............................................................................................. 169
5.1.2 Spring Elements ........................................................................................... 171
5.1.3 Damper Elements......................................................................................... 173
5.1.4 Equivalence ................................................................................................... 174
5.2 Translational Systems ............................................................................................... 182
5.2.1 Degrees of Freedom..................................................................................... 182
5.2.2 Newton’s Second Law ................................................................................. 183
5.2.3 Free-Body Diagrams.................................................................................... 183
5.2.4 Static Equilibrium Position and Coordinate Reference .......................... 188
5.2.5 Massless Junctions ....................................................................................... 192
5.2.6 D’Alembert’s Principle ................................................................................ 193
5.3 Rotational Systems .................................................................................................... 200
5.3.1 General Moment Equation ......................................................................... 200
5.3.2 Modeling of Rigid Bodies in Plane Motion.............................................. 201
5.3.3 Mass Moment of Inertia .............................................................................. 204
5.3.4 Pure Rolling Motion .................................................................................... 208
5.4 Mixed Systems: Translational and Rotational ...................................................... 216
5.4.1 Force and Moment Equations .................................................................... 216
5.4.2 Energy Method.............................................................................................223
5.5 Gear–Train Systems .................................................................................................. 236
5.6 System Modeling with Simulink and Simscape................................................... 241
5.6.1 Translational Systems .................................................................................. 241
5.6.2 Rotational Systems....................................................................................... 248
5.7 Summary .................................................................................................................... 253
Review Problems ................................................................................................................. 255
Contents xi

6. Electrical, Electronic, and Electromechanical Systems............................................... 263

6.1 Electrical Elements .................................................................................................... 263
6.1.1 Resistors ........................................................................................................ 265
6.1.2 Inductors ....................................................................................................... 267
6.1.3 Capacitors...................................................................................................... 267
6.2 Electric Circuits ......................................................................................................... 272
6.2.1 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law .............................................................................. 272
6.2.2 Kirchhoff’s Current Law ............................................................................. 274
6.2.3 Node Method................................................................................................ 277
6.2.4 Loop Method ................................................................................................ 280
6.2.5 State Variables of Circuits ........................................................................... 282
6.3 Operational Amplifiers ............................................................................................ 288
6.4 Electromechanical Systems ..................................................................................... 294
6.4.1 Elemental Relations of Electromechanical Systems................................ 294
6.4.2 Armature-Controlled Motors .................................................................... 295
6.4.3 Field-Controlled Motors.............................................................................. 299
6.5 Impedance Methods ................................................................................................. 303
6.5.1 Impedances of Electric Elements ...............................................................304
6.5.2 Series and Parallel Impedances .................................................................304
6.5.3 Mechanical Impedances .............................................................................308
6.6 System Modeling with Simulink and Simscape...................................................309
6.6.1 Electric Circuits ............................................................................................ 310
6.6.2 Operational Amplifiers ............................................................................... 315
6.6.3 Direct Current Motors ................................................................................. 316
6.7 Summary .................................................................................................................... 323
Review Problems ................................................................................................................. 325

7. Fluid and Thermal Systems.............................................................................................. 329

7.1 Pneumatic Systems ................................................................................................... 329
7.1.1 Ideal Gases .................................................................................................... 329
7.1.2 Pneumatic Capacitance ............................................................................... 331
7.1.3 Modeling of Pneumatic Systems ............................................................... 332
7.2 Liquid-Level Systems................................................................................................ 335
7.2.1 Hydraulic Capacitance ................................................................................ 335
7.2.2 Hydraulic Resistance ................................................................................... 337
7.2.3 Modeling of Liquid-Level Systems............................................................ 339
7.3 Thermal Systems .......................................................................................................348
7.3.1 First Law of Thermodynamics ...................................................................348
7.3.2 Thermal Capacitance ................................................................................... 349
7.3.3 Thermal Resistance...................................................................................... 350
7.3.4 Modeling of Heat Transfer Systems ..........................................................354
7.4 System Modeling with Simulink and Simscape................................................... 362
7.5 Summary .................................................................................................................... 367
Review Problems ................................................................................................................. 369
xii Contents

8. System Response ................................................................................................................ 373

8.1 Types of Response ..................................................................................................... 373
8.1.1 Transient Response and Steady-State Response...................................... 373
8.2 Transient Response of First-Order Systems .......................................................... 374
8.2.1 Free Response of First-Order Systems ...................................................... 375
8.2.2 Impulse Response of First-Order Systems ............................................... 375
8.2.3 Step Response of First-Order Systems ...................................................... 376
8.2.4 Ramp Response of First-Order Systems ................................................... 378
8.2.4.1 Steady-State Error ......................................................................... 378
8.3 Transient Response of Second-Order Systems ..................................................... 380
8.3.1 Free Response of Second-Order Systems ................................................. 382
8.3.1.1 Free Response in MATLAB.................................................. 383
8.3.2 Impulse Response of Second-Order Systems ..........................................384
8.3.2.1 Impulse Response in MATLAB ........................................... 385
8.3.3 Step Response of Second-Order Systems ................................................. 387
8.3.3.1 Step Response in MATLAB.................................................. 387
8.3.4 Response Analysis Using Simulink ................................................... 390
8.3.4.1 The lsim Command .................................................................... 390
8.4 Frequency Response ................................................................................................. 399
8.4.1 Frequency Response of Stable, Linear Systems ....................................... 399
8.4.1.1 Frequency Response of First-Order Systems ...........................400
8.4.1.2 Frequency Response of Second-Order Systems....................... 401
8.4.2 Bode Plot .......................................................................................................404
8.4.2.1 Bode Plot in MATLAB ..........................................................404
8.4.2.2 Bode Plot of First-Order Systems ............................................... 405
8.4.2.3 Bode Plot of Second-Order Systems .......................................... 406
8.5 Analytical Solution of the State Equation .............................................................. 413
8.5.1 Formal Solution of the State Equation ...................................................... 414
8.5.1.1 Matrix Exponential ...................................................................... 414
8.5.1.2 Properties of the Matrix Exponential ........................................ 414
8.5.1.3 Formal Solution in MATLAB ............................................... 416
8.5.2 Solution of the State Equation via Laplace Transformation .................. 417
8.5.3 Solution of the State Equation via State-Transition Matrix .................... 418
8.6 Response of Nonlinear Systems ....................................................................... 420
8.6.1 Numerical Solution of the State-Variable Equations............................... 420
8.6.1.1 Fourth-Order Runge-Kutta Method .......................................... 421
8.6.2 Response Using Simulink Models ............................................................ 424
8.7 Summary .................................................................................................................... 429
Review Problems .................................................................................................................430

9. Introduction to Vibrations ................................................................................................ 433

9.1 Free Vibration ............................................................................................................433
9.1.1 Logarithmic Decrement ..............................................................................434
9.1.2 Coulomb Damping ...................................................................................... 437
Contents xiii

9.2 Forced Vibration ...................................................................................................... 441

9.2.1 Half-Power Bandwidth ...........................................................................442
9.2.2 Rotating Unbalance .................................................................................445
9.2.3 Harmonic Base Excitation....................................................................... 447
9.3 Vibration Suppressions .......................................................................................... 451
9.3.1 Vibration Isolators .................................................................................... 451
9.3.2 Vibration Absorbers.................................................................................454
9.4 Modal Analysis ....................................................................................................... 460
9.4.1 Eigenvalue Problem ................................................................................. 460
9.4.2 Orthogonality of Modes ......................................................................... 465
9.4.3 Response to Initial Excitations ............................................................... 467
9.4.4 Response to Harmonic Excitations........................................................ 470
9.5 Vibration Measurement and Analysis ................................................................. 474
9.5.1 Vibration Measurement .......................................................................... 474
9.5.2 Identification of System Parameters ...................................................... 476
9.6 Summary ..................................................................................................................480
Review Problems ................................................................................................................. 483

10. Introduction to Feedback Control Systems ................................................................... 489

10.1 Basic Concepts and Terminologies ....................................................................... 489
10.2 Stability and Performance ..................................................................................... 493
10.2.1 Stability of Linear Time-Invariant Systems.......................................... 493
10.2.2 Time-Domain Performance Specifications ........................................... 496
10.2.3 Frequency-Domain Performance Specifications ................................. 501
10.2.4 Identification of Transfer Functions ...................................................... 502
10.3 Benefits of Feedback Control .................................................................................505
10.3.1 Stabilization ..............................................................................................505
10.3.2 Disturbance Rejection ..............................................................................508
10.3.3 Reference Tracking ................................................................................... 511
10.3.4 Sensitivity to Parameter Variations ....................................................... 513
10.4 Proportional–Integral–Derivative Control .......................................................... 516
10.4.1 Proportional Control ............................................................................... 517
10.4.2 Proportional–Integral Control ............................................................... 519
10.4.3 Proportional–Integral–Derivative Control ........................................... 520
10.4.4 Ziegler–Nichols Tuning of PID Controllers ......................................... 523
10.5 Root Locus................................................................................................................ 528
10.5.1 Root Locus of a Basic Feedback System ................................................ 529
10.5.2 Analysis Using Root Locus.....................................................................534
10.5.3 Control Design Using Root Locus ......................................................... 537
10.6 Bode Plot...................................................................................................................542
10.6.1 Bode Plot of a Basic Feedback System ...................................................543
10.6.2 Analysis Using Bode Plot........................................................................ 551
10.6.3 Control Design Using Bode Plot ............................................................ 553
xiv Contents

10.7 Full-State Feedback ................................................................................................. 557

10.7.1 Analysis of State-Space Equations ......................................................... 558
10.7.2 Control Design for Full-State Feedback ................................................ 561
10.8 Integration of Simulink and Simscape into Control Design ............................ 566
10.8.1 Control System Simulation Using Simulink ........................................ 567
10.8.2 Integration of Simscape into Control System Simulation .................. 569
10.9 Summary .................................................................................................................. 572
Review Problems ................................................................................................................. 574

Bibliography................................................................................................................................ 577
Appendix A ................................................................................................................................. 579
Appendix B: Useful Formulas ................................................................................................. 581
Index ............................................................................................................................................. 583
Preface

As with the earlier editions of this book, the primary goal of this new edition is to provide
the reader with a thorough knowledge of mathematical modeling and analysis of dynamic
systems. MATLAB, Simulink, and Simscape are introduced at the outset and are utilized
throughout the book to perform symbolic, graphical, numerical, and simulation tasks. The
textbook, written at the junior level, meticulously covers techniques for modeling dynamic
systems, methods of response analysis, and an introduction to vibration and control
systems.
This book consists of 10 chapters and 2 appendices. Chapter 1 provides an introduction of
MATLAB, Simulink, and Simscape to the reader. The essential mathematical background
is covered in Chapters 2 and 3. Different forms of system model representation (state-space
form, transfer function, input–output equation, block diagram, etc.) and linearization are
discussed in Chapter 4. Each topic is also handled using MATLAB, and block diagrams are
constructed and analyzed using Simulink.
Chapter 5 discusses translational, rotational, and mixed mechanical systems. Free-body
diagram approach is emphasized in the derivation of the systems’ equations of motion.
Electrical and electromechanical systems are covered in Chapter 6 and operational
amplifiers and impedance methods are also included in Chapter 6. Chapter 7 presents
pneumatic, liquid-level, and thermal systems. Modeling and analysis of dynamic systems
ranging from mechanical to thermal using Simulink and Simscape are fully integrated in
Chapters 5 through 7.
Time-domain and frequency-domain analyses of dynamic systems are introduced in
Chapter 8. Time-domain analysis entails transient response of first-, second-, and higher-
order systems. The sinusoidal transfer function (frequency response function) is intro-
duced and utilized in obtaining the system’s frequency response as well as Bode diagram.
Analytical solution of the state equation is also included in this chapter. MATLAB and
Simulink play significant roles in determining and simulating system response and are
used throughout the chapter.
Chapter 9 presents an introduction to vibrations and includes free and forced vibrations
of single and multiple degrees-of-freedom systems, vibration suppression including vibra-
tion isolators and absorbers, modal analysis, and vibration testing. Some applications of
vibrations are also included: logarithmic decrement for experimental determination of the
damping ratio, rotating unbalance, and harmonic base excitation.
Chapter 10 gives an introduction to control systems analysis and design in the time
and frequency domains. Basic concepts and terminology are presented first, followed by
stability analysis, system identification, types of control, root-locus analysis, Bode plot,
and full-state feedback. These techniques are subsequently implemented using MATLAB,
Simulink, and Simscape.

xv
xvi Preface

Appendices
Appendix A includes a summary of systems of units and conversion tables. Appendix B
contains useful formulas such as trigonometric identities and integrals.

Examples and Exercises

Each covered topic is followed by at least one example for a better understanding of the
subject matter. More complex topics are accompanied by multiple, thoroughly worked-out
examples. Each section of each chapter is followed by several exercises so that the reader
can immediately apply the ideas that are just learned. The end-of-chapter review exercises
help to learn how a combination of different ideas can be used to analyze a problem.

Chapter Summaries
Chapter summaries provide concise reviews of the key aspects of each chapter.

Instructor’s Solutions Manual

A solutions manual, featuring complete solution details of all exercises, is prepared by the
authors and will be available to instructors adopting the book.

New to This Edition

The main new features of this edition are as follows:

1. System identification is introduced and utilized to construct models of dynamic

systems from observed input–output data.
2. The end-of-chapter exercises (Chapters 4 through 10) now include case studies
that involve the application of most of the concepts and methods covered in the
chapter to real-world problems.
Preface xvii

3. At least 50% of the examples and exercises throughout the book are either new or
have been dramatically revised. The problem sets also include more challenging
exercises.

Ramin S. Esfandiari
Bei Lu

MATLAB® is a registered trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. For product information,

please contact:

The MathWorks, Inc.

3 Apple Hill Drive
Natick, MA 01760-2098 USA
Tel: 508 647 7000
Fax: 508-647-7001
E-mail: info@mathworks.com
Web: www.mathworks.com
Acknowledgment

The authors express their deep gratitude to Jonathan Plant (Senior Editor, Mechanical,
Aerospace, Nuclear & Energy Engineering) at Taylor & Francis/CRC Press for his assis-
tance in various stages of the development of this book.

xix
Authors

Dr. Ramin S. Esfandiari is a professor of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering at

California State University, Long Beach (CSULB), Long Beach, California, where he has
served as a faculty member since 1989. He received his BS in Mechanical Engineering, and
MA and PhD in Applied Mathematics (Optimal Control) from the University of California,
Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California. He has authored several refereed research papers
in high-quality engineering and scientific journals, such as Journal of Optimization Theory
and Applications, Journal of Sound and Vibration, Optimal Control Applications and Methods, and
ASME Journal of Applied Mechanics. He is the author of Numerical Methods for Engineers and
Scientists Using MATLAB, 2nd edition (CRC Press, 2017); Applied Mathematics for Engineers,
5th edition (Atlantis, 2013); Matrix Analysis and Numerical Methods for Engineers (Atlantis,
2007); and MATLAB Manual for Advanced Engineering Mathematics (Atlantis, 2007). He
is one of the selected few contributing authors for the Mechanical Engineering Handbook
(Springer-Verlag, 2009) and coauthor (with Dr. H.V. Vu) of Dynamic Systems: Modeling
and Analysis (McGraw-Hill, 1997). He is the recipient of numerous teaching and research
awards including two Meritorious Performance and Professional Promise Awards, TRW
Excellence in Teaching and Scholarship Award, and the Distinguished Faculty Teaching
Award.

Dr. Bei Lu is a professor in the School of Aeronautics and Astronautics at Shanghai

Jiao Tong University (SJTU), China. Before joining SJTU in 2017, she was a professor of
Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering at California State University, Long Beach
(CSULB), Long Beach, California, where she has served as a faculty member since 2005.
She received her BS and MS degrees in Power and Mechanical Engineering from SJTU,
China, in 1996 and 1999, respectively, and the PhD degree in Mechanical Engineering
from North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, in 2004. Her main research
interests include robust control, linear parameter-varying control of nonlinear systems,
and application of advanced control and optimization techniques to aerospace, mechani-
cal, and electromechanical engineering problems. She has published nearly 40 research
papers in high-quality and recognized journals such as AIAA Journal of Guidance, Control,
and Dynamics and IEEE Transactions on Control Systems Technology, Automatica, Systems and
Control Letters, and international conference proceedings. She is the recipient of Northrop
Grumman Excellence in Teaching Award in 2011.

xxi
1
Introduction to MATLAB, Simulink, and Simscape

This chapter introduces the fundamental features of MATLAB®, Simulink®, and Simscape™
that are pertinent to modeling and analysis of dynamic systems. These include the
descriptions and applications of several commonly used built-in functions (commands)
in MATLAB and the basics of building block diagrams for the purpose of simulation of
dynamic systems by using Simulink and Simscape. MATLAB, Simulink, and Simscape
are fully integrated throughout the book, and the fundamental features and capabilities
presented in this chapter will play an important role in better understanding the more
advanced applications in the subsequent chapters.

1.1 MATLAB Command Window and Command Prompt

Once a MATLAB session is opened, commands can be entered at the MATLAB command
prompt ">>"; see Figure 1.1. For example, cos( 61 π) may be calculated as

>> sqrt(cos(pi/6))
ans =
0.9306

The outcome of a calculation can be stored under a variable name and suppressed by using
a semicolon at the end of the statement:

>> sc = sqrt(cos(pi/6));

Commands such as sqrt (square root) and cos (cosine of an angle in radians) are MATLAB
built-in functions. Each of these functions is accompanied by a brief but sufficient descrip-
tion through the help command. For example,

>> help sqrt

sqrt Square root.
sqrt(X) is the square root of the elements of X. Complex
results are produced if X is not positive.
See also sqrtm, realsqrt, hypot.
Overloaded methods:
sym/sqrt
Reference page in Help browser
doc sqrt

For a variable "x," other elementary functions include abs(x) for x , sin(x) for sin x,
log(x) for ln x, log10(x) for log x, exp(x) for e x , and many more. Descriptions of these
functions are available through the help command.
1
2 Modeling and Analysis of Dynamic Systems

FIGURE 1.1
Screen capture of a MATLAB session.

1.2 Vectors and Matrices

Vectors can be created and handled in various ways in MATLAB. A row vector is created
as

>> v = [-2 3 0 4 8];

Commas may be used instead of spaces between elements. Column vectors are created
when semicolons separate the vector components.

>> w = [-2;3;0;4;8];

The length of a (row or column) vector is determined by using the length command:

>> length(v)
ans =
5
Discovering Diverse Content Through
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 Remarks upon the motion of the Black Abdominal Blood.

This uniformity in the course of the motion of this black blood, is

not merely the result of the absence of the agent of impulse, but
also of this, that the liver does not present as many obstacles to it,
as the lungs do to the preceding black blood. Observe also that the
liver occupies in regard to this system, the same place as the lungs
in regard to the other; it is the termination of the circulation of
which we are treating. Having no dilatation or contraction, deprived
of the fluid which acts incessantly upon the lungs, and which, loaded
with different foreign substances, can often alter the vital forces of
these organs, so as to interrupt the passage of the blood, &c. The
liver, having a solid and granulated substance, in which no
extraordinary motion can take place, except those of the general
locomotion of the organ, is evidently incapable of frequently
interrupting the course of the black blood, which the abdominal
system sends there. Add to this the want of the agent of impulse,
and you will understand, 1st. why, when the abdomen is open, we
never see a pulsation, a reflux in the veins of the abdominal system,
as we observe in those of the other system; 2d. why we always find
there nearly the same quantity of blood; 3d. why, consequently, we
do not discover, either in the common trunk that corresponds to the
heart, or in its branches, the numberless varieties of dilatation and
contraction, which the right side of the heart, and all the great
venous trunks so frequently exhibit, so that scarcely two subjects
are alike in this respect, whilst here the arrangement is always
nearly the same; 4th. why the liver is not subject to the innumerable
varieties in size that the lungs are. This deserves a particular
consideration. You will rarely find the lungs twice containing the
same quantity of blood; the weight varies enormously in this
respect. Now this arises from the greater or less obstacles the blood
has met with in passing through these organs in the last moments of
life. We can make them more or less heavy in an animal, by making
him die of asphyxia or hemorrhage, consequently by filling with
blood, or emptying the extremities of the pulmonary artery.
Whatever on the contrary is the kind of death, the hepatic
extremities of the abdominal system, contain always nearly the same
quantity of blood; suppose, that more remains than usual in this
system at the moment of death, it is generally distributed, because
there is no agent of impulse, which, at the last moments, drives the
greatest quantity to the liver, as happens to the lungs. We
understand from this, why the liver exhibits a firm, resisting texture,
not extensible like that of the lungs. Sometimes the blood enters it
in greater or less quantity, it is even, more or less heavy according
to the kind of death. But these varieties belong only to the hepatic
veins, which enter into the vena cave inferior just below the heart;
they arise from the greater or less reflux of blood that takes place
there, as in all the great venous trunks; they consequently arise
almost always from the lungs; so that when we see that they are
loaded with blood, the right auricle consequently distended, we may
also be sure that the liver contains more of this fluid than usual. But
this phenomenon, of which I shall speak when treating of the liver, is
wholly disconnected with the system which I am describing.
The mechanism of the circulation of the abdominal part of this
system, is precisely the same as that of the veins. As to that of the
hepatic part, it is unlike that of any other part of the economy. It has
no analogy to that of the arteries, for in them the heart is almost
every thing, and here there is nothing to correspond to that system;
for certainly there is no kind of contraction in the common trunk of
the two trees, as I have been frequently convinced. It is then the
same motion, which is continued from the gastric viscera to the liver.
There is still much obscurity to be removed concerning this motion,
as well as the preceding. Every judicious mind perceives that there is
a great void, in reading what has been written upon the motion of
the general venous blood, and upon this.
We cannot deny but that external agents do much in this last
circulation as in the first. The uniform elevation and depression of
the diaphragm, the corresponding motion of the abdominal parietes,
the alternate dilatation and contraction of the hollow viscera of the
abdomen, the constant locomotion of the small intestines, &c. all
these causes certainly have an influence upon the motion of the
black abdominal blood; and I even think, that the absence of most
of them contributes to retard this motion in the hemorrhoidal veins,
and to occasion varices in them.
This influence is not however such as Boerhaave thought, that the
circulation could not go on without it. In fact, when the abdomen of
an animal is opened, the blood is transmitted the same to the liver,
and spouts in the same manner from an open vessel; but we
observe a sensible weakness in a short time, and this before the
general circulation is enfeebled.

Remarks upon the Liver.

The use of the liver, in being the termination of the black

abdominal blood, as the lungs are that of the black blood of all the
rest of the body, gives it an importance unknown to all the other
secretory organs. Some authors, in observing the enormous size of
this viscus compared to the quantity of fluid secreted by it, have
suspected that it had another use, besides the secretion of this fluid.
This suspicion appears to me, to amount almost to certainty.
Compare the hepatic excretories and reservoirs, with the same parts
in the kidnies, the salivary glands, the pancreas even, and you will
see that they hardly surpass them, and that they are inferior to
those of the first. Then compare the size of the liver with that of the
kidnies, of the salivary glands, &c. and you will see the difference. If
on the other hand, we examine the bile, voided with the stools
which it colours, if we open the intestines at the different periods of
digestion, as I have done, to see the quantity of this fluid that is
poured out; if we keep an animal without food in order to let it
accumulate by itself in the intestines; if we tie the ductus
choledochus to retain the bile, &c. it is impossible not to be
convinced, that the quantity of this fluid is disproportioned to the
size of the liver. This viscus is alone equal in size to all the other
glands united; now, place on one side, the bile, and on the other, all
the secreted fluids, the urine, the saliva, the pancreatic juice, the
mucous juices; &c. you will see how enormous the difference is.
Since then the secretion of bile is not the only object of the liver, it
must have some other use in the economy. What this is we are
ignorant; it is however undoubtedly connected with the existence of
the system with black blood of which it is the termination, and is
especially relative to this system. The following considerations
appear to prove that this use is among the most important.
1st. The liver exists in all classes of animals. In those even in
which most of the other essential viscera are very imperfect, it is
well developed. 2d. Most of the passions affect it particularly, many
of them have an exclusive effect upon it, whilst a great number of
the other glands hardly perceive them at all. 3d. In diseases, it takes
as evident a part as the first viscera in the economy. In many
nervous affections, in hypochondria, melancholy, &c. it has a great
influence compared to other glands. We know how easily its
functions are deranged. It has undoubtedly no connexion with some
affections called bilious, and which are seated exclusively in the
stomach, but it certainly has a part in most of them. Since there is
no doubt that the jaundice depends wholly upon a serious affection
of this viscus, we ought certainly to conclude that the yellow tinge of
the face in many of these affections, arises from a cause existing in
this viscus, and which is not sufficiently powerful to produce
jaundice. Whether in order to produce this tinge, the bile circulates
or not with the blood, is of no consequence; it is incontestible that it
is occasioned by affections of the liver; now the numerous cases in
which it takes place, prove how much this viscus is often affected;
there is certainly no gland in the animal economy so frequently. 4th.
Shall I speak of organic affections? compare in the examination of
bodies, those of the liver, with those of all the other organs of the
same class, and you will see that there is no one equal to it in this
respect; the kidney approaches it, in the frequency of the alteration
of its texture, but it is far from being equal to it. 5th. Who does not
know the influence of the liver upon temperaments? Who does not
know that its predominance gives to the external appearance, the
functions, the passions, the character even, a peculiar shade which
the ancients have noticed, and which modern observations have
confirmed? Now see if the other glands have a similar influence in
the economy. 6th. The liver is, with the heart and the brain, the
organ that is first formed; it precedes all the other organs in its
development; it is incomparably superior, in this respect, to all the
glands.
From all these considerations, and from many others that I might
add, we may conclude, I think, that the unknown part which the
liver performs in the animal economy, besides the secretion of bile,
is among the most important. The study of this part, is one of the
points most worthy of arresting the attention of physiologists.
It has been said latterly, that the liver corresponded to the lungs
in their functions of removing from the blood its hydrogen and
carbon. I know not how this fact can be proved by experiment; but I
am positive that the liver does not turn the black blood of the
abdominal system into red. 1st. The blood of the right auricle is of
the same colour as that of the vena cava inferior; now if the blood
went red from the hepatic veins, it would certainly give a brighter
tinge to that of the auricle. 2d. Having opened the abdomen and
thorax of a dog, I tied with a curved needle the vena cava at its
entrance into the heart and above the kidney, then by detaching the
liver from behind, I cut the portion intercepted between the two
ligatures, and where the hepatic veins opened; the blood came out
as black as that of the rest of the system. 3d. Tear out the liver of a
living animal, examine immediately its veins, you will see that they
contain a blood analogous to that of the others. 4th. This viscus, cut
in slices in a living animal, pours out behind an analogous fluid,
except some small red streams furnished by the last small branches
of the hepatic artery; this is wholly different in the same experiment
made upon the lungs.
If the black abdominal blood receives any modifications of its
nature in the liver, they certainly have no influence upon its colour,
its consistence, or sensible qualities.
The general opinion is that the black abdominal blood serves for
the secretion of bile, and that the hepatic artery is only destined to
nourish the liver; this is what Haller has adopted; I have also
admitted it; but I am far from considering it as clearly demonstrated
as it has generally been thought to be; the following observations
prove, that we ought to consider it as an hypothesis somewhat
uncertain.
1st. It is said that the hepatic blood, blacker, more oily,
impregnated with the vapours of the excrements, of a bitter taste
even, approaches nearer the nature of bile than the arterial blood,
and that it is consequently more proper to form it. I do not know
whether this blood has been analyzed comparatively; but I have
certainly not found any difference in its external attributes; I did
think that in an experiment I observed fatty drops swimming in it;
different experiments have convinced me that it was an error. I
doubt whether it could ever be demonstrated that the alkaline
particles of aliments and of excrements pass into the vena porta;
this passage is a gratuitous supposition. 2d. It is said that the
volume of the liver is considerable compared to the hepatic artery;
this is true; but it is not with the size of this viscus that we should
compare that of this artery, to know if it furnishes the materials of
secretion, since we have seen that it is impossible that the whole
substance of the liver should be destined to secrete bile; it is with
the biliary ducts and their reservoir, that we should make the
comparison; now this artery is exactly proportioned to these ducts;
there is between them nearly the same relation as between the
renal artery and the ureter; on the contrary, the biliary ducts are
manifestly disproportioned to the vena porta. 3d. It is said that the
slow motion in this vein, is favourable to the secretion of bile. But
upon what positive data is this assertion founded? Why is slowness
of motion more necessary for this secretion than for others? 4th. It
is said that the hepatic artery having been tied, the secretion of bile
continued. But when we know the relation of parts, the least
reflection is sufficient to convince us, that a ligature of this kind
cannot be made without producing a derangement that will prevent
us from distinguishing any thing. I attempted it once, but could not
finish it; I was almost persuaded of it before. 5th. It is said that the
black blood is more proper to furnish the materials of the bile than
the red. But what is the reason of it? is it because this blood
contains more carbon and hydrogen? But it is then the black blood
that furnishes the fat also; now all anatomists are agreed, that it is
exhaled from the exhalant extremities of the arteries; the same is
true of the marrow, the wax, and in general of all the oily fluids. 6th.
A fine injection, made in the hepatic portion of the abdominal
system with black blood, passes into the biliary vessels. But a similar
passage takes place in an injection from the hepatic artery. 7th. It is
said that the black abdominal blood in the spleen has qualities
essential to the bile. But the secretion of this fluid can evidently take
place without the spleen; many experiments prove this. 8th. It is
said that at the instant the vena porta is tied, bile ceases to be
secreted; it is undoubtedly less difficult to tie the trunk of this vein
below the duodenum than the hepatic artery. How can we examine
what is going on in the liver? Do we judge by the fluid flowing from
the hepatic duct? But open the duodenum, and you will not very
often see the bile running out at the opening of the ductus
choledochus, undoubtedly because the air contracts and irritates this
duct. This phenomenon, observed after a ligature is applied, is not
then conclusive; moreover there does flow towards the time of
digestion but too little bile by the ductus choledochus, to be able to
estimate it. In fine, what inference can be drawn from an animal
whose abdomen is open?
These different reflections prove, I think, that we have not
sufficiently direct proofs, to decide whether the secretion of bile is
from the abdominal black blood or the red. I do not attribute this
function more to one than the other; I say that these things should
be subjected to a new examination, and that this example is a proof
that the opinions most generally received in physiology, those
consecrated by the assent of all celebrated authors, often rest upon
very uncertain foundations. We are yet far from the time when this
science will be only a series of facts rigorously deduced from each
other.
The hepatic artery has been said to resemble the bronchial, and
the hepatic vena porta the pulmonary artery; this is true in the
general arrangement; but what is the proof of it as it regards the
functions? On the contrary, I have proved above that those of the
two last vessels are not similar. Let us wait, before deciding, for
further and positive researches; let us doubt till then; let us not
attribute the secretion of bile to the hepatic artery, nor the vena
porta, nor to them unitedly. Certainly it is by one of these three
means; but which? what vessel furnishes the secretion of bile? what
part does the black abdominal blood perform in the liver, if it is not
from it that this fluid is secreted? what, in fine, is the function of the
hepatic artery, if it is not connected with this secretion? These are
questions to be resolved.
Physicians have also hazarded opinions upon the influence of the
black abdominal blood in diseases. Undoubtedly the expression,
vena portarum, porta malorum, contains a very true meaning; but
certainly in the present state of our knowledge, it is, in a strict
sense, only a play upon words. If we would express by it the
frequency of affections of the liver, it is without doubt just; but if it is
employed to express the influence of the vena porta in diseases, it is
vague and does not rest upon any positive fact. The more we open
dead bodies, the more we shall be convinced, I think, of the
necessity of a precise and accurate language, freed from all these
ingenious, hypothetical ideas, which do honour, it is true, to their
author, but which retard science, by introducing into it a manner of
seeing hypothetically, and contrary to the spirit of observation.

Remarks upon the course of the Bile.

Though this question may be to a certain degree foreign to my

object, yet as the black abdominal blood has perhaps a real
influence upon the secretion of the bile, as my experiments upon
this point determine with precision the course of this fluid, I do not
think it useless to relate them here. All that is known further upon
the uses, mechanism, &c. of this secretion is to be found in works of
physiology, to which I refer.
There has been much discussion to ascertain if there was cystic
and hepatic bile, if one was of a different nature from the other, if
their quantity increased or varied, &c. Contrary and even opposite
opinions have been supported by numerous experiments made upon
living animals, as Haller has observed. These experiments, though at
first view contradictory, are not so, however, as I was convinced by
repeating them at different periods of digestion and during the
abstinence of the animal; it had not been done with precision. The
following is what I have observed in dogs, which I have used in my
experiments.
1st. During abstinence, the stomach and small intestines being
empty, we find the bile in the ductus hepaticus and ductus
choledochus yellowish and clear; the surface of the duodenum and
jejunum tinged by bile which has the same appearance; the gall-
bladder much distended by a greenish, bitter bile, much deeper
coloured and more abundant if the abstinence has been long. 2d.
During digestion in the stomach, which may be prolonged for a
length of time, by giving to a dog large pieces of meat, which he
swallows without masticating, things are nearly in the same state.
3d. At the beginning of the intestinal digestion, we find the bile of
the hepatic duct always yellowish, that of the ductus choledochus
deeper coloured, the gall-bladder less full and its bile already
becoming clearer. 4th. At the end of digestion and immediately after,
the bile of the hepatic duct, of the ductus choledochus, that in the
gall-bladder, and that which is found upon the duodenum, are of
precisely the same colour as the common hepatic bile, that is, of a
clear yellow, and a little bitter. The gall-bladder is about half full; it is
flaccid, not contracted.
 These observations, repeated a great number of times, evidently
prove that this, during abstinence and digestion, is the manner in
which the flow of bile takes place; 1st, it appears that at all times
the liver secretes a certain quantity, which is increased during
digestion; 2d, that which is furnished during abstinence is divided
between the intestine that is always coloured with it, and the gall-
bladder which retains it, without pouring out any portion of it by the
cystic duct, and in which, thus retained, it acquires an acrid
character and a deep colour, necessary, no doubt, to digestion which
is to follow. 3d. When the aliments, having been digested by the
stomach, pass into the duodenum, then all the hepatic bile, which
was before divided, flows into the intestine, and even in greater
abundance. On the other hand, the gall-bladder pours also that
which it contains upon the alimentary mass, which is then
completely penetrated with it. 4th. After intestinal digestion, the
hepatic bile diminishes, and a part begins to flow into the
duodenum, and a part to flow back into the gall-bladder, in which, if
then examined, it is found clear and in small quantity, because it has
had neither time to be coloured or accumulate.
There is then this difference between the two biles, that the
hepatic flows almost in a continued manner into the intestine, and
that the cystic flows back, except during digestion, into the gall-
bladder, and flows, during this function, towards the duodenum; or
rather it is the same fluid, of which a part always preserves the same
character that it had at its exit from the liver, and the other assumes
a different one in the gall-bladder. The diversity of colour in the
cystic bile, according as it has been retained long or not, has much
analogy to the colour of the urine, which is found more or less deep
coloured, as it has been for a longer or shorter time in the bladder.
As to the course of the bile in relation to the stomach, I believe
that this viscus contains a certain quantity of it at all times. When
empty, we find there a mixture of gastric juices and mucus more or
less abundant, sometimes mixed with small bubbles of hydrogen,
which burn when brought in contact with flame, and almost always
tinged with a yellowish colour from the bile that has flowed up
through the pylorus. Haller says that this reflux of bile into the
stomach does not always happen; Morgagni says that it always does
in men. I have never opened a dog, in whom it has not been seen
when the stomach was empty, especially if it had been so for some
time. Human dead bodies are not proper to decide this question,
because the kind of disease alters almost inevitably the course, the
nature, and even the colour of the bile. I shall say in another volume
what conclusion we should draw from this, as it respects bilious
vomitings.
In a state of fulness, it has sometimes appeared to me impossible
to estimate the reflux of the bile; in other states, between the
alimentary mass and the parietes of the stomach, I have seen
yellowish, gastric fluids; but this mass itself never has this colour.
The bile that flows into the stomach has always appeared to me to
be hepatic bile, from its light colour. I think that I have opened a
sufficient number of living animals to convince me, that this bile is
hardly ever found very green, and that it acquires this colour from
the gall-bladder; and that it is this that is brought up by vomiting in
some affections. The reflux of this bile appears to be an effect of the
affection itself. This observation agrees with that made above, viz.
that the hepatic bile alone flows into the duodenum in abstinence. It
alone can then, as we may be convinced, flow into the stomach.
During intestinal digestion, in which the cystic bile flows, it is
evident, that the aliments going continually out of the pylorus,
prevent it from passing there and entering the stomach; that which
we find during fulness, was there then, or entered there before the
peristaltic motion had begun to evacuate this organ.
When we open the gall-bladder in a dead body, we see that the
bile there exhibits, according to its diseases, a variety of shades of
colour, from that which is black as ink to a kind of transparent fluid.
Ought we then to be astonished, if the vomitings in which the cystic
bile is brought up, that has flowed into the stomach against the
ordinary course of things, should contain matters of such various
colours?

Development.

In the fœtus, the system of black abdominal blood is not

insulated; it becomes a part of the two others, by means of the
ductus venosus. There is then truly but one vascular system in the
fœtus, whilst after birth, there are three separate ones, two with
black blood and one with red.
In the fœtus, it is especially with the umbilical vein that the
abdominal system with black blood is continued. The liver is a
centre, in which both arrive from two different sides, and in which
they unite, in a common trunk. The two columns of blood that they
circulate, do not meet directly; their course forms a very remarkable
angle.
When we examine attentively the orifice of the ductus venosus in
the trunk, made by the union of these two veins, we see that it
presents itself naturally to the blood of the umbilical vein; that that
of the vena porta, on the contrary, cannot enter there. In fact, there
is a little fold in the form of a valve, less evident, it is true, than
many others, but yet existing. This fold is only a kind of projection,
placed between the end of the vena porta and the ductus venosus,
and which contracts the orifice of this, so that it is evidently
narrower than the caliber of its own canal. The blood coming from
the vena porta and passing at the side of this fold, presses it against
the orifice, and thus forms an obstacle; that coming from the
umbilical vein, falling, on the contrary, perpendicularly on this orifice,
removes this fold, and enters the canal.
It hence follows that the ductus venosus is evidently destined to
carry to the vena cava the residue of the blood of the umbilical vein;
I say the residue; in fact, as this vein is very large and the ductus
small in proportion to it, it is evident that the greatest part of the
blood penetrates the liver, by the different ramifications that enter its
substance.
The abdominal vascular system is less developed in the fœtus
than afterwards; it consequently carries less blood to the liver; this is
the same arrangement as in all the other veins. I would observe,
that the small quantity, however, which the liver receives in this way,
is more than compensated by that of the umbilical vein. This viscus
is, then, habitually entered in the fœtus, by a greater quantity of
fluid than at any of the other ages. Hence, 1st, why its nutrition is so
developed and its size so great; 2d, why it is, in proportion to its
size, heavier than in the after ages; 3d, why when we cut it in slices,
there flows out a greater quantity of blood; 4th, why, when we dry
slices of the liver of a fœtus, of the same thickness as others taken
from the liver of an adult, and especially of an old person, they are
reduced to a less size.
The disproportion of the size of the liver of the fœtus is more
evident, the sooner it is examined after conception; this is the same
as with the brain. As the fœtus advances towards birth, the liver
approximates in its proportions to the other organs, that which it will
have in the adult. From the observations of Portal, it is especially till
the seventh month, that the liver is predominant. This circumstance
appears to arise from this, that the umbilical vein transmits as much
more blood in proportion to the fœtus, as it is less advanced in age.
At this age, the blood of the umbilical vein and that of the vena
porta evidently mix, at least in a great measure, in the common
trunk. Is their nature analogous? There is no experimental
knowledge upon this point. But Baudelocque has many times
observed that that of the umbilical vein is redder, and even
approximates the nature of arterial blood. I have not accurately
observed this fact in any animals except guinea pigs, in whom the
want of transparency in the cord does not allow us to see a great
difference in the blood of the arteries and of the umbilical vein; but
this difference can be in fact more evident in man; now, in this case,
the umbilical blood appears to lose this redness in the liver, for very
certainly it is uniform beyond this viscus in the circulation of the
fœtus, as I have often ascertained.
At the period of birth, the blood ceasing to come by the umbilical
vein, the liver becomes only the termination of the black abdominal
blood. Then a kind of revolution takes place in this viscus. The
different tubes that carried to it umbilical blood do not close up, but
they transmit exclusively that of the vena porta, which increases a
little in size, because digestion, which begins in the gastric organs,
calls to them more arterial blood, and consequently more is returned
by the veins. This slight increase does not compensate for the
absence of the umbilical blood; thus the liver diminishes
proportionally in size in an evident manner.
As to the ductus venosus, it is obliterated by the effect of the
contractility of texture. The blood coming in the vena porta, has not,
as I have said, any tendency to pass through it, because this canal is
not in its direction; it passes rather into the hepatic vessels, and the
circulation of the liver is established then, as it will always continue
to be.
This then is the difference that birth brings to the hepatic
circulation; 1st, less blood and only one kind entering the liver; 2d,
an interruption of all communication between the general and
abdominal black blood; 3d, proportional diminution of the size of the
liver. Hence there is an inverse phenomenon for this organ and for
the lungs. The latter increases, the other diminishes in activity and
size.
The great quantity of blood that enters the liver before birth, and
the size of this organ, compared to the small quantity of bile that
escapes from it, are an evident proof then that it is destined for
other uses besides the secretion of this fluid. There cannot be a
doubt upon this point; it is a proof moreover, that in the adult the
disproportion of the organ to the fluid, though less sensible,
supposes also in it another important function of which we are
ignorant.
 There ought to be a precise relation between the obliteration of
the ductus venosus, of the foramen ovale and the ductus arteriosus,
between the increased activity of the lungs and the diminished
activity of the liver at birth, &c. We judge of this relation, without
knowing it, because a veil is still spread over the circulation of the
fœtus. I would only observe that the predominance of the liver
before birth, does not suppose any in the system of black abdominal
blood; it arises exclusively from the umbilical vein; thus the
proportional volume of this organ is constantly diminishing
afterwards, especially on the left side, where this vein is distributed,
as Portal has observed. It is difficult to name the period, at which
the equilibrium is generally established.
In youth, the abdominal system of black blood, like the general, is
weak. It is towards the thirtieth or fortieth year, that it seems to be
in its greatest activity; this is the age of gastric diseases, of
hemorrhoids, and of melancholy, which is connected with the state
of the liver.
In old age, the dilatation of the system of black abdominal blood is
much less sensible than that of the preceding system; its vessels
have nearly the same caliber as in the adult age; which supposes a
less diminution in the velocity of the course of its blood, from the
principles established above. It never becomes the seat of any kind
of osseous incrustation, a phenomenon that evidently assimilates its
common membrane to that of the veins, and distinguishes it in a
peculiar manner from that of the arteries.
END OF VOL. I.
ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS.
VOLUME FIRST.

PAGE.
Preface by the Translator. 5
Preface by the Author. ib.

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.

Of Animate and Inanimate Beings.—Of their Laws.—Of the

Sciences which treat of their Phenomena. 9
I. General Remarks upon the Physiological and Physical Sciences.
The differences between these sciences are derived from the
properties which preside over the phenomena.—The
necessity of always connecting the second with the first.—
Periods at which this progress commenced in the physical
sciences. False applications made to the physiological
sciences.—The necessity of following in these the same
course as in the others. 9
II. Of the Vital Properties, and their influence upon the phenomena
of the Physiological and Physical Sciences.
Vital properties considered in the series of living beings.—Of 13
those which animate plants.—Consequences in regard to
their diseases.—Of those which belong to animals.—
Consequences in regard to their diseases.—Examination of
each vital property under the relation of the diseases over
which it presides.—Necessity of referring to these properties
the action of medicines.—Uncertainty of the Materia
Medica.—Each vital property has a particular class of
medicines which act upon it.—Proofs.—Inconveniences of
 describing morbid phenomena and those of medicines in
too general a manner.—Consequences of the preceding
remarks.
III. Characters of the Vital Properties, compared with the characters
of the Physical Properties.
Extreme variableness of the first, invariableness of the
second.—Consequences of this principle as it regards the
phenomena.—There can only be diseases where there are
vital properties.—Why.—The progress of the physiological
and physical sciences wholly different in this respect.—
Differences between animate and inanimate solids and
fluids.—The vital properties become exhausted, the physical
do not.—Consequences.—The latter are inherent in matter,
the others are not.—General remarks upon the enumeration
of the differences of animate and inanimate bodies.—
Particular remark relative to sympathies.—Their general
phenomena. 23
IV. Of the Vital Properties and their Phenomena considered in
relation to the Solids and the Fluids.
Division of the fluids into those of composition and those of
decomposition.—The vital properties are seated essentially
in the solids.—These are the seat of almost all the morbid
symptoms.—The fluids however may be affected.—Different
attributes of the fluids of composition and of those of
decomposition in diseases.—How the alterations of the first
may take place.—Of those of the second.—Of the cases in
which the solids and the fluids are primarily affected.—
Division of diseases in this view.—The question must
necessarily be considered in many points of view.—What is
true on one side is not so on another.—Of the vitality of the
fluids.—What it is.—Their alterations affect their vitality.—
New proofs of these alterations.—How the fluids are
assimilated and altered. 29
V. Of the Properties Independent of Life.
Properties of texture.—Of contractility by the horny
hardening.—Of the agents which put it into action.—It is of
two kinds.—Characters of each.—Their differences.—Almost
all the solids undergo the horny hardening.—Condition
which it requires.—Of the horny hardening during life and
after death.—Difference of this contractility from the others.
—General remarks. 38
VI. General Observations upon the Organization of Animals.
Of the simple systems.—Necessity of considering them
abstractedly.—Their difference of forms.—Their variety of
organization, 1st, in the peculiar texture; 2d, in the
common parts.—Manner of knowing these differences.—
Differences of the vital properties and of texture.—Of the
peculiar life.—It cannot be understood of the compound
organs, but of the simple systems.—Examples which prove
this assertion in the different organs. 44
VII. Consequences of the preceding Principles relative to Diseases.
Each texture can be separately affected in an organ.—This
even almost always happens.—Various proofs of this
assertion.—Observations upon different diseases.—
Sympathies do not take place in an organ as a whole, but in
some one texture of this organ.—Why.—Of sympathetic
fevers.—The different inflammations vary in each texture.—
Phenomena of the different kinds of virus variable from the
same cause.—Yet the different textures of the same organ
have a certain dependance upon each other.—Proofs.—
Diseases chronic and acute.—Differences of diseases in
each simple system.—Two classes of symptoms in the local
affections.—Their difference.—Varieties of the pain, heat,
&c. according to the systems.—What should be understood
by acute and chronic affections in the simple systems.—
Influence of these considerations upon morbid anatomy.—
Defects of the old divisions.—New manner of considering
morbid anatomy. 49
VIII. Remarks upon the Classification of the Functions.
Table of this classification. 60

SYSTEMS COMMON TO ALL THE APPARATUS.

General Observations.
Division of the systems.—Systems common to all the
apparatus.—Their characters.—They form the nutritive
parenchyma of the organs.—Remarks upon nutrition.—
Diversity of the nutritive substances. 77

CELLULAR SYSTEM.

General Remarks.—Division. 87

ARTICLE FIRST.

OF THE CELLULAR SYSTEM CONSIDERED IN RELATION TO THE

ORGANS.
I. Of the Cellular System exterior to each Organ.
Division of the organs in relation to the neighbouring texture. 88
Of the Cellular System which adheres only to one side of the
organs.
Sub-cutaneous cellular texture.—Arrangement of this texture,
1st, upon the median line; 2d, in the different regions of
the body.—Varieties of density and laxity. Uses of the sub-
cutaneous texture.—Its fluids. 88
Sub-mucous cellular texture.—Difference of this texture from
the preceding.—The density of that.—Consequences.
Sub-serous cellular texture.—It is in general loose and
abundant.—Why.—Place where it is dense. 92
Cellular texture exterior to the arteries.—Its peculiar nature is
analogous to that of the sub-mucous texture.—Its relations
with the arterial fibres.
Cellular texture exterior to the veins.—It is analogous to the
preceding, only less thick.—Remarks.
Cellular texture exterior to the excretory ducts.—The same
structure and arrangement as in the preceding. 96
Of the cellular system considered in relation to the organs
that it surrounds on all sides.—Cellular atmosphere.—Fluids
of this atmosphere.—Insulation of the vitality of the organs.
—Of this atmosphere considered as a means for the
propagation of diseases.—It favours the motion of the
parts. 96
II. Of the Internal Cellular System of each Organ.
Arrangement of this texture.—Its uses.—Its different
proportions. 102

ARTICLE SECOND.

OF THE CELLULAR SYSTEM CONSIDERED INDEPENDENTLY OF THE

ORGANS.
I. Of the Cellular System of the Head.
Cellular texture of the cranium.—It is almost nothing within.—
Its communications.—Consequences of these
communications.—It is more abundant without.
Cellular texture of the face.—It is very abundant.—Its uses.—
Its communications, &c. 104
II. Of the Cellular System of the Trunk.
Vertebral cellular texture.—It is not abundant in the cavity of
the canal.—On the exterior, there is but little behind, and
more in front.—Consequences.
Cervical cellular texture.—It is abundant.—Its
communications.—Consequences.
Pectoral cellular texture.—It is found especially upon the
median line.—Its communications.—External texture.
Abdominal cellular texture.—Of the parts in which it is most
abundant.—Its communications.
Cellular texture of the pelvis.—It is very abundant.—Why.—
Consequences.—Its communications. 108
III. Of the Cellular System of the Extremities.
Its different proportions in the superior and the inferior. 112

ARTICLE THIRD.

OF THE FORMS OF THE CELLULAR SYSTEM, AND THE FLUIDS IT

CONTAINS.
I. Of the Cells.
Their form.—Their capacity.—Their communication.—-
Experiments.—Of the cellular permeability.—In what sense
it should be understood. 114
II. Of the Serum of the Cellular Membrane.
Proof of its existence.—Its evaporation.—It varies in the
different regions.—Method of ascertaining the proportions
of it.—Experiments.—Nature of this fluid.—Experiments. 117
III. Of the Cellular Fat.
Natural proportions of the fat.—Varieties of its proportions
according to the regions, organs, systems, &c—Its peculiar
arrangement in childhood.—Varieties according to the other
ages. 119
Unnatural proportions of fat.—Its preternatural abundance
indicates weakness.—Different proofs.—Of the causes of
the diminution of fat.—Remark upon this diminution. 121
Different states of the fat.—Its degree of fluidity is not during
life in proportion to temperature.—Its consistence in young
animals.—Consequences.—Its alterations by age, diseases,
&c. 125
Exhalation of fat.—Different opinions.—The fat is exhaled.—
Proofs.—Nature of this fluid.—Relation of its uses with the
places where it exists and with those in which it is wanting. 127

ARTICLE FOURTH.
 ORGANIZATION OF THE CELLULAR SYSTEM.
I. Texture peculiar to the organization of the Cellular System.
Filaments and layers from which it results.—Method of seeing
them to advantage.—Their nature.—Essential difference in
the cellular organization.—There are two species of cellular
texture. 129
Composition of the cellular texture.—Experiments upon this
texture.—Action of the air, water, caloric and the gastric
juices.—Experiments.—Of the gases sometimes extricated
in the cellular texture. 132
II. Parts common to the Organization of the Cellular Texture.
Blood vessels.—The inaccuracy of injections in demonstrating
them.
Exhalants.—Of the cellular exhalations.—Proofs and
phenomena of these exhalations.
Absorbents.—Cellular absorptions.—Proofs.—The cellular
texture is not wholly formed of absorbents.
Nerves. 136
ARTICLE FIFTH.

PROPERTIES OF THE CELLULAR SYSTEM.

I. Properties of Texture.
Extensibility.—Examples of the different distensions.—
Distinctive character of the cellular extensibility.—Its
phenomena.—It becomes nothing in inflammation, chronic
engorgements, &c.
Contractility.—Different examples of this property brought
into action.—Its varieties according to the ages.—General
remarks. 140
II. Vital Properties.
The animal ones are inconsiderable.—The organic are greater,
except sensible contractility, which however exists to a
certain extent.
Sympathies.—It is necessary to distinguish them from the
phenomena of juxta-position.—Various examples.—General
observations.—Vital properties put in action by the
sympathies.
Character of the vital properties.—The vital activity is very
considerable in the cellular texture.—Various proofs.—
Remarks upon the species.—Difference of vitality in the two
species of cellular texture. 143
III. Properties of Reproduction.
Influence of the cellular texture upon the formation of
cicatrices.—Division of the periods of the cicatrices.
First period.—Inflammation.—How it takes place.—Its
advantages.
Second period.—Fleshy granulations.—Experiments.—
Provisional membrane of the cicatrices.—Its uses.—General
phenomena of the internal cicatrices.—Cellular nature of
this membrane and of the granulations.—Different opinions.
Third period.—Suppuration.—What corresponds to it in the
internal cicatrices.—Analogy of these cicatrices with the
external.
Fourth period.—Contraction of the fleshy granulations.—
Adhesions.—Consequences of the preceding principles.—Of
union by the first intention. 148
Influence of the cellular texture in the formation of tumours.
—Cellular nature of all tumours which grow and increase.—
Proofs.—Mode of development of these tumours.—How
they differ from various engorgements, acute and chronic. 157
Influence of the cellular texture in the formation of cysts.—
What is a cyst.—Its analogy with the serous surfaces.—Its
cellular structure.—Mode of its development. 160

ARTICLE SIXTH.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE CELLULAR TEXTURE.

 I. State of the Cellular System in the First Age.
Mucous mass represented by the cellular texture of the
fœtus.—Superabundance of fluid.—This is then the cellular
fluid.—Difficulty of emphysema in the fœtus.—State of the
cellular texture in infancy and youth.—Its vital energy.—
Consequences. 164
II. State of the Cellular System in the After Ages.
Arrangement of the cellular texture in the adult.—Differences
arising from sex.—Degeneracy of this texture in old age.—
Withering that it experiences.—Consequences. 167

NERVOUS SYSTEM OF ANIMAL LIFE.

Division of the nerves into two systems.—Differences of these

two systems.—General arrangement of that of animal life.—
Its symmetry.—Relation of size between the nerves and the
brain. 169

ARTICLE FIRST.

EXTERNAL FORMS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF ANIMAL LIFE.

I. Origin of the Cerebral Nerves.
In what sense this origin must be understood.—It takes
place, 1st, in the brain; 2d, in the tuber annulare and its
dependancies; 3d, in the spinal marrow.—Manner of this
triple origin.—Of the crossing of the nerves.—Phenomena of
paralysis in regard to this.—Peculiar arrangement of the
cerebral membranes at the origin of the nerves.—Extent,
direction and form of the nerves at this origin. 171
II. Course of the Cerebral Nerves.
Communications of the cerebral nerves at their exit from their
osseous cavity.—There are none between the nerves of the
brain properly called.—The communications begin in those
of the tuber annulare.—They are very numerous in those of