Beginning jOOQ: Learn to Write Efficient and

Effective Java-Based SQL Database Operations 1st

Edition Tayo Koleoso download

https://ebookmeta.com/product/beginning-jooq-learn-to-write-
efficient-and-effective-java-based-sql-database-operations-1st-
edition-tayo-koleoso-3/

Download more ebook from https://ebookmeta.com

We believe these products will be a great fit for you. Click
the link to download now, or visit ebookmeta.com
to discover even more!

Beginning jOOQ: Learn to Write Efficient and Effective

Java-Based SQL Database Operations 1st Edition Tayo
Koleoso

https://ebookmeta.com/product/beginning-jooq-learn-to-write-
efficient-and-effective-java-based-sql-database-operations-1st-
edition-tayo-koleoso-3/

Beginning jOOQ: Learn to Write Efficient and Effective

Java-Based SQL Database Operations 1st Edition Tayo
Koleoso

https://ebookmeta.com/product/beginning-jooq-learn-to-write-
efficient-and-effective-java-based-sql-database-operations-1st-
edition-tayo-koleoso/

Effective SQL 61 Specific Ways to Write Better SQL 1st

Edition John L. Viescas & Douglas J. Steele & Ben G.
Clothier

https://ebookmeta.com/product/effective-sql-61-specific-ways-to-
write-better-sql-1st-edition-john-l-viescas-douglas-j-steele-ben-
g-clothier/

History of Arbovirology Memories from the Field Volume

II Virus Family and Regional Perspectives Molecular
Biology and Pathogenesis Nikos Vasilakis Laura D Kramer
Eds
https://ebookmeta.com/product/history-of-arbovirology-memories-
from-the-field-volume-ii-virus-family-and-regional-perspectives-
molecular-biology-and-pathogenesis-nikos-vasilakis-laura-d-
Learning Kali Linux: Security Testing, Penetration
Testing, and Ethical Hacking, 2nd Edition - First Early
Release Ric Messier

https://ebookmeta.com/product/learning-kali-linux-security-
testing-penetration-testing-and-ethical-hacking-2nd-edition-
first-early-release-ric-messier/

Practical Guide to Digital Manufacturing: First-Time-

Right for Design of Products, Machines, Processes and
System Integration Zhuming Bi

https://ebookmeta.com/product/practical-guide-to-digital-
manufacturing-first-time-right-for-design-of-products-machines-
processes-and-system-integration-zhuming-bi/

A Final Family Affair An Extreme Taboo Anthology 1st

Edition A A Davies Yolanda Olson Ally Vance Cole Denton
K Webster Jennifer Bene Winter Paige

https://ebookmeta.com/product/a-final-family-affair-an-extreme-
taboo-anthology-1st-edition-a-a-davies-yolanda-olson-ally-vance-
cole-denton-k-webster-jennifer-bene-winter-paige-3/

Indirect Judicial Review in Administrative Law Legality

vs Legal Certainty in Europe 1st Edition Mariolina
Eliantonio

https://ebookmeta.com/product/indirect-judicial-review-in-
administrative-law-legality-vs-legal-certainty-in-europe-1st-
edition-mariolina-eliantonio/

Patrick White and God 1st Edition Michael Giffin

https://ebookmeta.com/product/patrick-white-and-god-1st-edition-
michael-giffin/
Im politeness and Moral Order in Online Interactions
1st Edition Chaoqun Xie

https://ebookmeta.com/product/im-politeness-and-moral-order-in-
online-interactions-1st-edition-chaoqun-xie/
Beginning

jOOQ

Learn to Write Efficient and Effective

Java-Based SQL Database Operations

—

Tayo Koleoso

Beginning jOOQ

Learn to Write Efficient

and Effective Java-Based SQL

Database Operations

Tayo Koleoso

Beginning jOOQ: Learn to Write Efficient and Effective Java-

Based SQL

Database Operations

Tayo Koleoso

Silver Spring, MD, USA

ISBN-13 (pbk): 978-1-4842-7430-9

ISBN-13 (electronic): 978-1-4842-7431-6

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-7431-6

Copyright © 2022 by Tayo Koleoso

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the

Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned,
specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other
physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval,
electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
methodology now known or hereafter developed.
Trademarked names, logos, and images may appear in this book.
Rather than use a trademark symbol with every occurrence of a
trademarked name, logo, or image we use the names, logos, and
images only in an editorial fashion and to the benefit of the
trademark owner, with no intention of infringement of the trademark.

The use in this publication of trade names, trademarks, service

marks, and similar terms, even if they are not identified as such, is
not to be taken as an expression of opinion as to whether or not they
are subject to proprietary rights.

While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true
and accurate at the date of publication, neither the authors nor the
editors nor the publisher can accept any legal responsibility for any
errors or omissions that may be made. The publisher makes no
warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained
herein.

Managing Director, Apress Media LLC: Welmoed Spahr

Acquisitions Editor: Steve Anglin

Development Editor: Matthew Moodie

Coordinating Editor: Mark Powers

Cover designed by eStudioCalamar

Cover image by Josh Rose on Unsplash (www.unsplash.com)

Distributed to the book trade worldwide by Apress Media, LLC, 1 New

York Plaza, New York, NY

10004, U.S.A. Phone 1-800-SPRINGER, fax (201) 348-4505, e-mail

orders-ny@springer-sbm.com, or visit www.springeronline.com.
Apress Media, LLC is a California LLC and the sole member (owner) is
Springer Science + Business Media Finance Inc (SSBM Finance Inc).
SSBM Finance Inc is a Delaware corporation.
For information on translations, please e-mail
booktranslations@springernature.com; for reprint, paperback, or
audio rights, please e-mail bookpermissions@springernature.com.

Apress titles may be purchased in bulk for academic, corporate, or

promotional use. eBook versions and licenses are also available for
most titles. For more information, reference our Print and eBook Bulk
Sales web page at http://www.apress.com/bulk-sales.

Any source code or other supplementary material referenced by the

author in this book is available to readers on GitHub via the book’s
product page, located at www.apress.com/

9781484274309. For more detailed information, please visit

http://www.apress.com/

source- code.

Printed on acid-free paper

Table of Contents

About the Author

�������������������������������
�������������������������������
������������������vii

About the Technical Reviewer

�������������������������������
������������������������������ix

Chapter 1: Welcome to jOOQ

�������������������������������
�������������������������������
���1

Database Operations in Java: The Good Parts

�������������������������������
�����������������������2

Database Operations in Java: The…Not So Good Parts

�������������������������������
���������4

You Have Got to Be jOOQing

�������������������������������
�������������������������������
��������������9

jOOQ Feature Tour

�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
��10

Database Aware
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������1
1

Code Generation
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
������������������������������11

Type Safety
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������12

Domain-Specific Language
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������12

Tooling
Support����������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
����13

JVM Languages
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������1
4

Chapter 2: Getting Started with jOOQ

�������������������������������
������������������15

Eden Auto Mart

�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
������19

Setting Up jOOQ
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�����20

Install Dependencies for Commercial-Licensed jOOQ

�������������������������������
����22

CRUD with jOOQ

�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�����24

Your SQL Dialect and You

�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�����������������25

Tools of CRUD in jOOQ

�������������������������������
�������������������������������
���������������������28

iii

Table of ConTenTs

Select Statements
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
���������������������������34

Insert Statements
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
����������������������������63

Update Statements
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
��������������������������66

Delete Statements
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
���������������������������67
Alternative Data Access Modes
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������69

Transactions
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�����������73

With Locking
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�����76

Configuration�������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
����������������78

Connection Management
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�����������������79

Schema, Catalog, and Multi-tenant Deployment

�������������������������������
������������81

Query Management
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������84
Query Lifecycle Integration
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
��������������86

Chapter 3: Working with jOOQ

�������������������������������
�����������������������������89

Generating
Code�����������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������89

Tools of jOOQ Code Generation

�������������������������������
�������������������������������
��������90

Working with Generated Code

�������������������������������
�������������������������������
������������109

CRUD with Generated Code

�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�����������109

Advanced Database Operations

�������������������������������
�������������������������������
����������117

Joins
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
���������������117

Batch Operations
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
���������������������������128

Advanced Query Syntax

�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�����������������137

Chapter 4: Integrating with jOOQ

�������������������������������
�����������������������145

Java Persistence API with jOOQ

�������������������������������
�������������������������������
����������146

Generate JPA Entities

�������������������������������
�������������������������������
��������������������147

Generate from JPA Entities

�������������������������������
�������������������������������
������������151

Generate SQL
Queries����������������������������
�������������������������������
�����������������������153
iv

Table of ConTenTs

Spring Boot and jOOQ

�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������162

Configure jOOQ in Spring Boot

�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������163

Quarkus and jOOQ

�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������1
68

Chapter 5: Packaging and Testing jOOQ

�������������������������������
������������173

Package Code with jOOQ

�������������������������������
�������������������������������
��������������������174

When You Don’t Need Code Generation

�������������������������������
������������������������175

When You Don’t Have an Active Database Connection

�������������������������������
�177
When Your Schema Needs to Incrementally Evolve
�������������������������������
�����178

Testing with jOOQ

�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�185

Tools of the (SQL) Testing Trade

�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�����187

Unit Testing with jOOQ

�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������191

Integration Testing with Docker and TestContainers

�������������������������������
����198

Index
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
����211

v
About the Author

Tayo Koleoso is the Founder and CEO of

LettuceWork (www.lettucework.io), the

platform dedicated to engineering culture.

He created the Better Managed Development

method for building and sustaining an effective

product engineering culture. He's a lifelong

learner, engineer, and engineering leader

committed to building people and software in

a healthy, sustainable, and effective ecosystem.

Outside of tech, comedy is the only thing he

consumes in large quantity. King of the Hill,

Peep Show and 30 Rock are his comfort telly,

I tell you what.

He got his start in software engineering as a teenage database

programmer with Oracle 8i. The jOOQ platform is therefore a natural
fit and a return to his roots: his love affair with SQL.

vii

About the Technical Reviewer

Vishwesh Ravi Shrimali graduated in 2018

from BITS Pilani, where he studied mechanical

engineering. Currently, he is working at

Mercedes Benz Research and Development

India Pvt. Ltd. as an ADAS Engineer. He has

also co-authored Machine Learning for

OpenCV 4 (Second Edition), The Computer

Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
HOME STUDIES IN CHEMISTRY AND
PHYSICS.

BY PROF. J. T. EDWARDS, D.D.

Director of the Chautauqua School of Experimental Science.

CHEMISTRY OF FIRE.—ANCIENT FANCIES.

In all ages, and among all nations, fire has been regarded with
peculiar interest. Of the four great elements so essential to life—
earth, air, water, fire—the last has often been considered as divine in
its origin and influence. To the unscientific observer it seems more
than matter, and little less than spirit. Contemplating a flame, he
sees that while it has form, it lacks solidity. He may pass a sword
through it, but like the ghost of the story, no wound is made in its
ethereal substance. Its touch is softer than down, but it penetrates
the hardest substances. The diamond carves glass, but flame
destroys the diamond.
Men early found that fire was directly connected with their
comfort and progress, and even essential to their existence. How
they first obtained it is still matter of conjecture; whether it was
brought down from the skies, as the ancient Greeks supposed,
struck out from the flinty rock, evolved by the friction of dry wood,
kindled by the lightning, or obtained from the flaming torch of the
volcano, we can not tell.
Certain it is, that having once been obtained, all the early races
were very careful to preserve it. Among many it was regarded as
sacred, and kept perpetually burning, both in their places of worship
and in their homes. The officers appointed for its preservation were
of the highest rank and influence. Among the titles assumed by
Augustus Cæsar was that of keeper of the public fire. Whenever by
accident the fire in the temple of Vesta, at Rome, was extinguished,
all public business was at once suspended, because the connection
between heaven and earth was believed to be severed, and must be
restored before business could properly proceed.
Grecian colonists carried fire to their new homes from the altar of
Hestia. The “Prytaneum”[1] of the ancient Greeks and Romans was a
place where the national fire was kept always burning; it was here
the people gathered, foreign ambassadors received, and hospitalities
of the state were offered. Here, too, heads of families obtained coals
for lighting their household fires, which in turn became sacred, so
that every hearth was an altar, where resided the Lares and Penates,
the gods who presided over the welfare of the home.
Fancies akin to these beliefs of olden time may still be found
among the nations of the East and in northern Europe.

MODERN FALLACIES.
No correct ideas of combustion were attained until the time of
Lavoisier.[2] This great French savant gave precision and accuracy to
the investigations of chemical science by the introduction of the
balance. He disproved the theory that “water is the ultimate principle
of all things,” and prepared the way for a clear apprehension of the
truth that matter, though constantly changing its form, is never
destroyed. He also announced the correct theory of combustion.
Until this time scientists had held what was called the “Phlogiston[3]
Theory.” We can but smile at the absurdity of this belief, and yet no
hypothesis was ever taught more positively, or maintained more
tenaciously. It declared, in brief, that when substances burned, they
parted with a certain material called phlogiston. When, at length, its
advocates were asked to explain the fact, discovered by Dr. Priestly,
[5] that quicksilver, when burned, weighed more than before, they
were forced to put forward the ridiculous statement that phlogiston
possessed the property of “buoyancy” so that when it was contained
in a body its weight was lessened; which was as wise as the brilliant
supposition that a person can lift himself over a fence by tugging at
his boot straps. After a fierce struggle they were forced to confess
that they had placed “the cart before the horse.” The truth was
precisely opposite to their statement. Substances when they burn
take up something instead of giving it off. That something is oxygen,
and a body when burned, if it can be weighed, will be found to
weigh as much more as the added weight of the oxygen which has
united with it. Example: Iron-rust is iron, plus oxygen.

MAGNESIUM RIBBON BURNING, AND PRODUCING

MAGNESIC OXIDE (MgO).[4]

THE TRUE EXPLANATION.

We shall here confine ourselves to the consideration of the heat
and light produced by chemical action. It will be remembered that by
this term (chemical action) is meant the process of uniting two or
more different elements to form a compound different from either.
We usually consider air essential to combustion, but this is not
necessarily the fact. Gold foil or powdered antimony, dropped into a
jar of chlorine, spontaneously ignites. Even in the interior of the
earth, heat must be produced by the uniting of any elements that
have an affinity for each other.

BORACIC ACID IMPARTS A GREEN COLOR TO THE

FLAME OF ALCOHOL.[6]

The most common agent of combustion is oxygen. Of this

interesting gas some description has been given in a preceding
article. It is the fruitful source of almost all of our artificial heat.
The fallen tree in the forest is slowly consumed by it, not less
surely than the flaming wood and coal in our stoves. The human
body is a furnace. In the minute corpuscles[7] of the blood, carbon is
uniting with oxygen as certainly as are the particles of carbon in the
flame of our lamps.
Oxygen is the scavenger that partially cleans our gutters. It is a
bird of prey that devours the offal in our fields and woods. It is
nothing less than the gnawing tooth of old Father Time himself,
which crumbles cities and destroys all things.
Combustion, as we now know it, consists simply in the union of
some combustible material with oxygen. The generic term for all this
action is “oxidation.” For convenience, special names are given to
particular modes. When metallic oxidation occurs we call the product
“rusting.” When oxygen unites with vegetable matter we call it
decaying or rotting; when with animal substances we term it rotting
or putrefaction. When flame is produced, the word combustion or
burning is used. The amount of heat generated is, in all cases,
proportioned to the amount of chemical action. Great ingenuity and
skill have been shown in the discovery and utilization of materials
best calculated to combine readily with oxygen. To these, as a class,
has been applied the term

HYDRO-CARBONS.
All substances composed essentially of the elements, hydrogen
and carbon, would come under this designation. These would
include coal, wood, petroleum, the fats, resins, wax and many
others, with some of the gases, among which may be named light
and heavy carburetted hydrogen, CH₄ and C₂H₄ respectively.

PHOSPHORUS BURNING
IN OXYGEN.[8]

In the days of our grandfathers tallow candles were almost

universally employed for lighting houses, and wood for warming
them. It would not be impossible to find even now, in our own
country, homes illuminated (?) by a rag burning in a saucer of fat.
Some of us are not too young to remember the bundle of candle-
rods—nice, straight sticks used in dipping candles—snugly put away
for that purpose, alas! sometimes summoned forth to assist in
enforcing family discipline!
 GREEN FIRE COLORED BY A SALT OF
BARIUM.[9]

Strands of twisted cotton wick were suspended from these sticks,

and successively dipped into a kettle of hot tallow, until external
additions made them of the requisite size. Tin candle moulds finally
superseded these. Then the wick was suspended in the center and
the fat poured in. In cooling, the candles contracted, and so slipped
easily from the moulds. Wax candles can not be cast in moulds, as
they expand in cooling. They are made by pouring successive
additions upon them. They are afterward given symmetrical form by
rolling and shaping. Along the sea coast I have seen women and
children gathering bay berries,[10] a fruit about as large as a grain of
black pepper and covered with a grayish-white, fragrant wax. When
these seeds are placed in hot water the wax dissolves and serves the
same purpose as tallow, making delightfully aromatic candles.
Many of the hydro-carbons possess an agreeable odor. Sometimes
the woodmen gather the bark and chips of the hickory to smoke
hams and shoulders on account of the peculiarly pleasant flavor they
impart. In burning, a candle or lamp becomes a gas factory,
manufacturing and consuming its own product. The flame consists of
three cones. The first, that next to the wick, is composed solely of
gas. It is not hot, as can be shown by thrusting the end of a match
into it, the match will not ignite. If the match be placed across the
flame at the same point it will burn at the edges, but not in the
center. A more striking illustration of the fact that the flame is hot
only where it comes in contact with the air, can be shown in the
following manner: Place on the bottom of an inverted plate some
alcohol, in the center set a tiny saucer containing powder; ignite the
alcohol, and the powder will remain undisturbed in the center of the
surrounding flame until a draft brings the edge of the flame against
the powder, when it will at once explode.
Look steadily at the flame of an ordinary candle and you can
readily discern the three cones; the first is gas, the second gas in
rapid combination with the oxygen of the air, the third the products
of this combination—watery vapor, carbonic anhydride, and, possibly,
some unconsumed carbon.

RED FIRE COLORED BY A SALT OF

STRONTIUM.[11]

The process that goes on in our stoves is essentially the same.

The carbon and hydrogen of the wood or coal unite with the oxygen
that passes through the draft. Now note a wonderful provision for
our comfort. It has already been remarked that the product of
combustion consists of the thing burned, plus oxygen. Suppose, in
the case of our fires, this product were a solid, we should then be
forced to take out of the stove more material than we put in. The
Creator has, however, provided that these resulting materials shall
take the form of gas or vapor, so that they can float away. The ashes
that remain form but a small part of the whole. The two most
common products of combustion are watery vapor and carbonic
anhydride.
The illumination of our towns and cities has long been
accomplished by the use of gas manufactured from coal. Bituminous
coal is used for this purpose, and the process consists in heating it
to destructive distillation, and afterward condensing and absorbing
such portions of the volatilized materials as might clog the gas pipes
or interfere with perfect combustion.
Nature, it is now known, has her own gas works, on an immense
scale. Thirty-five years ago the village of Fredonia, N. Y., was
partially lighted with gas, and the supply is still unexhausted.
Indeed, of late, many private individuals have sunk pipes two or
three hundred feet, and thus supplied their homes with gas for
illuminating, heating, and cooking purposes. In Butler and McKean
counties, Pennsylvania, the production of these gas wells is
enormous. Many have been burning day and night for years, while
others have been utilized for heating and lighting towns and cities.
Gas is now extensively used in rolling mills for smelting iron.
Petroleum, or rock oil, which is usually associated with this natural
gas, has now become of immense value to this and other lands. It is
one of the chief articles of export from this country, ranking perhaps
as fourth. Wells have recently been struck in Pennsylvania that
flowed 5,000 and 6,000 barrels per day.
 SODIUM BURNING ON HOT WATER.[12]

There is reason to believe that this material is the product of

distillation of organic matter in the earth. It is found in porous rock,
usually coarse sand, at depths varying from three hundred to two
thousand feet. When the rock above the sand containing oil is tight,
the gas is often retained, which by its expansion presses upon the oil
and forces it to the surface through the pipes put down for this
purpose. This produces a flowing well. When the gas has escaped a
pump is necessary.
The most useful hydro-carbon now employed is coal. Its use was
first introduced in the latter part of the twelfth century, and as late
as the thirteenth century petitions were made by residents of
London demanding its exclusion, on account of its injurious effect on
the health. But now, Great Britain mines annually more than one
hundred million tons of coal. Its uses are manifold. By it England has
multiplied her power a thousand fold. It is almost always employed
in generating steam, and the aggregate steam power of England is
equal to the productive laboring force of four hundred millions of
men, or “twice the power of the adult working population of the
globe.” Most countries know its value.
 POURING CARBON DI-OXIDE FROM
ONE VESSEL INTO ANOTHER TO
EXTINGUISH FLAME.[13]

Coal is the key that unlocks for us the treasures of the iron ore. It
seizes upon the oxygen in the ore, and liberates the pure metal. By a
wonderful provision they often exist in the same mountain, side by
side. I have seen in Pennsylvania, running out of the same tunnel in
the hills, car loads of coal and iron ore.
Among the many advantages possessed by our own country is
our immense store of this precious hydro-carbon. With an area of
300,000,000 miles of territory, we have more than 200,000 square
miles of known coal producing area, or one in fifteen.
Great Britain has one-half of the coal fields of all Europe, but even
she has but one square mile of coal to twenty square miles of
territory. Beside, our coal seams are of great thickness, and lie
comparatively near the surface. In the far West, vast fields of
lignite[14] have been discovered, so that there seems no prospect of
our exhausting our fuel supply for ages to come.
The diamond is crystallized carbon, and can be burned, though
one would hardly care to be warmed by so costly a fire.
 Cleopatra, in a freak of extravagance, dissolved a wonderful pearl,
but who could think of the wise queen of England using in so
wasteful a manner her Kohinoor.[15] Six of the great diamonds of the
world are called, by way of eminence, “The Paragons,” and a
romantic interest has been attached to this form of carbon among all
nations. In point of fact, however, the black diamonds of the coal pit
are more interesting, and of far greater value to mankind than these
glittering gems from Golconda,[16] Brazil and the Dark Continent.[17]
 TEMPERANCE TEACHINGS OF
SCIENCE;
OR, THE POISON PROBLEM.

BY FELIX L. OSWALD, M.D.

CHAPTER V.—PROHIBITION.
“Rugged or not, there is no other way.”—Luther.
The champions of temperance have to contend with two chief
adversaries—ignorance and organized crime. The well-organized
liquor league can boast of leaders whose want of principles is not
extenuated by want of information, and who deliberately scheme to
coin the misery of their fellowmen into dollars and cents. But the
machinations of such enemies of mankind would not have availed
them against the power of public opinion, if their cunning had not
found a potent ally in the ignorance, not of their victims only, but of
their passive opponents. We need the moral and intellectual support
of a larger class of our fellow-citizens, before we can hope to secure
the effectual aid of legal remedies, and in that direction the chief
obstacles to the progress of our cause have been the prevailing
misconceptions on the following points:
1. Competence of Legislative Power.—There can be no doubt that the
legislative authority even of civilized governments has been
frequently misapplied. The most competent exponents of political
economy agree that the state has no business to meddle in such
affairs as the fluctuation of market prices, the rate of interest, the
freedom of international traffic. On more than one occasion
European governments, having attempted to regulate the price of
bread-stuffs, etc., were taught the folly of such interference by
commercial dead-locks and the impossibility of procuring the
necessaries of life at the prescribed price, and were thus compelled
to remedy the mischief by repealing their enactments. Usury laws
tend to increase, instead of decreasing, the rate of interest, by
obliging the usurer to indemnify himself for the disadvantage of the
additional risk. The attempt to increase national revenues by
enforcing an artificial balance of trade has ever defeated its own
object. It is almost equally certain that compulsory charities do on
the whole more harm than good. On the other hand, there are no
more undoubtedly legitimate functions of government than the
suppression, and the, if possible, prevention, of crime, and the
enforcement of health laws; and it can be demonstrated by every
rule of logic and equity that the liquor traffic can be held amenable
in both respects. The favorite argument of our opponents is the
distinction of crime and vice. For the latter, they tell us, society has
no remedy, except in as much as the natural consequences (disease,
destitution, etc.) are apt to recoil on the person of the perpetrator;
the evil of intemperance therefore is beyond the reach of the law.
We may fully concede the premises without admitting the cogency of
the conclusion. The suspected possession or private use of
intoxicating liquors would hardly justify the issue of a search
warrant, but the penalties of the law can with full justice be directed
against the manufacturer or vender who seeks gain by tempting his
fellowmen to indulge in a poison infallibly injurious in any quantity,
and infallibly tending to the development of a body and soul
corrupting habit; they may with equal justice be directed against the
consumer, stupefied or brutalized by the effects of that poison. The
rumseller has no right to plead the consent of his victim. The
absence of violence or “malice prepense,”[1] is a plea that would
legalize some of the worst offenses against society. The peddler of
obscene literature poisons the souls of our children without a
shadow of ill-will against his individual customer. The gambler, the
lottery-shark, use no manner of force in the pursuit of their prey. By
what logic can we justify the interdiction of their industry and
condemn that of the liquor traffic? By the criterion of comparative
harmlessness? Have all the indecencies published since the invention
of printing occasioned the thousandth part of the misery caused by
the yearly and inevitable consequences of the poison vice? The
lottery player may lose or win, but the customer of the liquor vender
is doomed to loss as soon as he approaches the dram-shop. The
damage sustained by the habitual player may be confined to a loss
of money, while the habitual drunkard is sure to suffer in health,
character and reputation, as well as in purse. And shall we condone
the conduct of the befuddled drunkard on account of a temporary
suspense of conscious reason? That very dementation constitutes his
offense.
His actions may or may not result in actual mischief, but he has
put the decision of that event beyond his control. The man who
gallops headlong through crowded streets is punished for his
reckless disregard of other men’s safety, though the hoofs of his
horse may have failed to inflict any actual injury. A menagerie
keeper would be arrested, if not lynched, for turning a city into a
pandemonium by letting loose his bears and hyenas, and for the
same reason no man should be permitted to turn himself into a wild
beast.
“Virtue must come from within,” says Prof. Newman;[2] “to this
problem religion and morality must direct themselves. But vice may
come from without; to hinder this is the care of the statesman.” And
here, as elsewhere, prevention is better than cure. By obviating the
temptations of the dram-shop a progressive vice with an incalculable
train of mischievous consequences may be nipped in the bud. Penal
legislation is a sham if it takes cognizance of moral evils only after
they have passed the curable stage. “It is mere mockery,” says
Cardinal Manning,[3] “to ask us to put down drunkenness by moral
and religious means, when the legislature facilitates the
multiplication of the incitements to intemperance on every side. You
might as well call upon me as a captain of a ship and say: ‘Why
don’t you pump the water out when it is sinking,’ when you are
scuttling the ship in every direction. If you will cut off the supply of
temptation, I will be bound by the help of God to convert drunkards,
but until you have taken off this perpetual supply of intoxicating
drink we never can cultivate the fields. Let the legislature do its part
and we will answer for the rest.”
All civilized nations have recognized not only the right but the
duty of legislative authorities to adopt the most stringent measures
for the prevention of contagious disease; yet all epidemics taken
together have not caused half as much loss of life and health as the
plague of the poison vice.
2. Magnitude of the Evil.—Since health and freedom began to be
recognized as the primary conditions of human welfare, the
conviction is gaining ground that the principles of our legislative
system need a general revision. It was a step in the right direction
when the lawgivers of the Middle Ages began to realize the truth
that the liberty of individual action should be sacrificed only to
urgent consideration of public welfare, but the modified theories on
the comparative importance of these considerations have
inaugurated a still more important reform. Penal codes gradually
ceased to enforce ceremonies and abstruse dogmas and to ignore
monstrous municipal and sanitary abuses. The time has passed
when legislators raged with extreme penalties against the
propagandists of speculative theories and ignored the propagation of
slum diseases, yet, after all, there is still a lingering belief in the
minds of many contemporaries that intemperance, as a physical evil,
a “mere dietetic excess,” does not justify the invasion of personal
liberty. They would consent to restrict the freedom of thought and
speech rather than the license of the rum-dealer, yet the tendency of
a progressive advance in public opinion promises the advent of a
time when that license will appear the chief anomaly of the present
age. The numberless minute prescriptions and interdicts of our law
books and their silence on the crime of the liquor traffic will make it
difficult for coming ages to comprehend the intellectual status of a
generation that could wage such uncompromising war against
microscopic gnats and consent to gratify the greed of a monstrous
vampire.
3. Self-correcting Abuses.—Modern physicians admit that various
forms of disease which were formerly treated with drastic drugs can
be safely trusted to the healing agencies of nature. Many social evils,
too, tend to work out their own cure. High markets encourage
competition and have led to a reduction of prices. Luxury leads to
enforced economy by reducing the resources of the spendthrift.
Dishonest tradesmen lose custom, and a German government that
used to fine editors for publishing unverified rumors might have left
it to the subscribers to withdraw their patronage from a purveyor of
unreliable news. But there are certain causes of disease that
demand the interference of art. Poisons, especially, require artificial
antidotes. If a child has mistaken arsenic for sugar, its life commonly
depends on the timely arrival of a physician. The organism may rid
itself of a surfeit, but is unable to eliminate the virus of a skin
disease. Alcoholism belongs to the same class of disorders. We need
not legislate against corsets; the absurdities of fashion change and
vanish like fleeting clouds, and their votaries may welcome the
change; but drunkards would remain slaves of their vice though the
verdict of public opinion should have made dram-drinking extremely
unfashionable. The morbid passion transmitted from sire to son, and
strengthened by years of indulgence, would defy all moral restraints
and yield only to the practical impossibility to obtain the object of its
desire.
“A number of years ago,” says Dr. Isaac Jennings, “I was called to
the shipyard in Derby, to see John B., a man about thirty years of
age, of naturally stout, robust constitution, who had fallen from a
scaffold in a fit, head first upon a spike below. In my visit to dress
the wounded head, I spoke to him of the folly and danger of
continuing to indulge his habit of drinking, and obtained from him a
promise that he would abandon it. Not long after I learned that he
was drinking again, and reminded him of his promise. His excuse
was, that it would not do for him to abandon the practice of drinking
suddenly. A few weeks after this he called at my office and
requested me to bleed him, or do something to prevent a fit, for he
felt much as he did a short time before having the last fit. I said to
him, ‘John, sit down here with me and let us consider your case a
little.’ I drew two pictures and held before him; one presented a wife
and three little children with a circle of friends made happy and
himself respectable and useful in society; the other, a wretched
family, and himself mouldering in a drunkard’s grave; and appealed
to him to decide which should prove to be the true picture. The poor
fellow burst into tears and wept like a child. When he had recovered
himself from sobbing so that he could speak he said: ‘Doctor, to tell
you the truth, it is not that I am afraid of the consequences of
stopping suddenly that I do not give up drinking. I can not do it. I
have tried and tried again, but it is all in vain. Sometimes I have
gone a number of weeks without drinking, and I flattered myself
that the temptation was gone, but it returned, and now if there was
a spot on earth where men lived and could not get spirits, and I
could get there, I would start in a minute.’ I thought I had
understood something of the difficulties of hard drinkers before, but
this gave me a new impression of the matter, and most solemnly did
I charge myself to do what I could to make a spot on earth where
men could live and couldn’t get spirits.”
4. Lesser Evils.—Even in a stricter form than any rational friend of
temperance would desire its enforcement, prohibition would not
involve any consequences that could possibly make the cure a
greater evil than the disease. The predicted aching void resulting
from the expurgation of beer-tunnels could be filled by healthier
means of recreation. The grief of the superseded poison-mongers
would not outweigh the mountain-load of misery and woe which the
abolishment of their cursed trade would lift from the shoulders of
the nation. When the state of Iowa declared for prohibition the
opponents of that amendment bemoaned the loss entailed by the
departure of “so many industrious and respectable citizens,” i. e.,
from the exodus of the rumsellers! We might just as well be asked to
bewail the doom of the Thugs[4] as the subversion of a prosperous
industry. We might as well be requested to sympathize with the
respectable bloodhound-trainers and knout-manufacturers whom the
abolition of slavery threw out of employment. The liquor dealer has
no right to complain about the rigor of a law that permits him to
depart with the spoils of such a trade. We are told that the mere
rumor of Maine laws has deterred many foreigners from making their
homes with us; that the Russian peasants decline to come without
their brewers and distillers, and that by general prohibition we would
risk to reduce our immigration from every country of northern
Europe. We must take that risk, and let Muscovites rot in the bogs of
the Volga if they can not accept our hospitality without turning our
bread corn into poison. Our utilitarian friends would hardly persuade
us to legalize cannibalism in order to encourage a larger immigration
of Fiji islanders. The absence of such guests might not prove an
unqualified evil. I shall not insult the intelligence of my readers by
repeating the drivel of the wretches who would weigh the reduction
of revenues against the happiness of a hell-delivered nation, and I
will only mention the reply of a British financier who estimates that
the increase of national prosperity would offset that reduction in less
than five years.
5. Efficacy of Prohibition.—Will prohibition prevent the use of
intoxicating liquor? Not wholly, but it will answer its purpose. It will
banish distilleries to secret mountain glens and hidden cellars. It will
drive the man-traps of the poison-monger from the public streets. It
will save our boys from a hundred temptations; it will help
thousands of reformed drunkards to keep their pledge; it will restore
peace and plenty to many hundred thousand homes. More than a
century ago the philosopher Leibnitz[5] maintained that the plenary
suppression of the liquor traffic would be the most effectual means
for reforming the moral status of civilized nations, and experience
has since fully demonstrated the correctness of that opinion. A
memorandum endorsed by a large number of statistical vouchers
describes the effect of prohibition in Sweden: “The nation rose and
fell, grew prosperous and happy, or miserable and degraded, as its
rulers and law-makers restrained or permitted the manufacture and
sale of that which all along the track of its history has seemed to be
the nation’s greatest curse.” … “The vigorously maintained
prohibition against spirits in 1753-1756, and again in 1772-1775,
proved the enormous benefits effected in moral, economical, and
other respects, by abstinence from intoxicating spirits.” … “This it is
which has so helped Sweden to emerge from moral and material
prostration, and explains the existence of such general indications in
that country of comfort and independence among all classes.”
From the Edinburgh Review for January, 1873, we learn that in
eighty-nine private estates in England and Scotland, “the drink traffic
has been altogether suppressed, with the happiest social results.
The late Lord Palmerston[6] suppressed the beer shops in Romsey as
the leases fell in. We know an estate which stretches for miles along
the romantic shore of Loch Fyne,[7] where no whiskey is allowed to
be sold. The peasants and fishermen are flourishing. They have all
their money in the bank, and they obtain higher wages than their
neighbors when they go to sea”—a proof that a small oasis of
temperance can maintain its prosperity in the midst of poison-
blighted communities.
Here and there the wiles of the poison-mongers will undoubtedly
succeed in evading the law, but their power for mischief will be
diminished as that of the gambling-hell was diminished in Homburg
and Baden,[8] where temptation was removed out of the track of the
uninitiated till the host of victims dwindled away for want of recruits.
Not the promptings of an innate passion, but the charm of artificial
allurements is the gate by which ninety-nine out of a hundred
drunkards have entered the road to ruin. It would be an
understatement to say that the temptation of minors will be reduced
a hundred fold wherever the total amount of sales has been reduced
as much as five fold—a result which has been far exceeded, even
under the present imperfect system of legal control. “In the course
of my duty as an Internal Revenue officer,” says Superintendent
Hamlin of Bangor, “I have become thoroughly acquainted with the
state and extent of the liquor traffic in Maine, and I have no
hesitation in saying that the beer trade is not more than one per
cent. of what I remember it to have been, and the trade in distilled
liquors is not more than ten per cent. of what it was formerly.” “I
think I am justified in saying,” reports the Attorney-General, “that
there is not an open bar for the sale of intoxicating liquor in this
county” (Androscoggin, including the manufacturing district of
Lewiston—once a very hotbed of the rum traffic). “In the city of
Biddeford, a manufacturing place of 11,000 inhabitants, for a month
at a time not a single arrest for drunkenness has been made or
become necessary.” And from Augusta (the capital of the state): “If
we were to say that the quantity of liquor sold here is not one-tenth
as large as formerly, we think it would be within the truth; and the
favorable effects of the change upon all the interests of the state are
plainly seen everywhere.”
“It is perhaps not necessary,” says the Boston Globe, of July 29,
1875, “to dwell on the evils of intemperance, and yet people seldom
think how great a proportion of these might be prevented by driving
the iniquity into its hiding places, and preventing it from coming
forth to lure its victims from among the unwary and comparatively
guileless. Few young men who are worth saving, or are likely to be
saved to decency and virtue, would seek it out if it were kept from
sight. But when it comes forth in gay and alluring colors, it draws a
procession of our youth into a path that has an awful termination.
Nor does the evil which springs from an open toleration of the way
in which this vice carries on its traffic of destruction fall only on men.
A sad proportion of its victims is made up from shop girls and
abandoned women who are not so infatuated at the start that they
would plunge into a life of infamy if its temptations were strictly
under the ban, and kept widely separated from the world of
decency. But it intruded itself upon them. Its temptations and
opportunities are before their eyes, and the way is made easy for
their feet to go down to death.”
“To what good is it,” says Lord Brougham,[9] “that the legislature
should pass laws to punish crime, or that their lordships should
occupy themselves in trying to improve the morals of the people by
giving them education? What could be the use of sowing a little seed
here and plucking up a weed there, if these beer shops are to be
continued to sow the seeds of immorality broadcast over the land,
germinating the most frightful produce that ever has been allowed to
grow up in a civilized country, and, I am ashamed to add, under the
fostering care of Parliament.”
The prohibition of the poison traffic has become the urgent duty
of every legislator, the foremost aim of every moral reformer. The
verdict of the most eminent statesmen, physicians, clergymen,
patriots and philanthropists, is unanimous on that point. We lack
energy, not competence, nor the sanction of a higher authority, to
gain the votes of the masses.
“We can prove the success of prohibition by the experience of our
neighboring state,” writes Dr. Herbert Buchanan, of Portsmouth, New
Hampshire; “all the vicious elements of society are arraigned against
us, but I have no fear of the event if we do not cease to agitate the
subject.”
Agitation, a ceaseless appeal to the common sense and
conscience of our fellowmen can, indeed, not fail to be crowned with
ultimate success. The struggle with vice, with ignorance and mean
selfishness may continue, but it will be our own fault if our
adversaries can support their opposition by a single valid argument,
and the battle will be more than half won if a majority of our fellow-
citizens have to admit that we contend no longer for a favor, but for
an evident right.
STUDIES IN KITCHEN SCIENCE AND
ART.

V. TEA, COFFEE, AND CHOCOLATE.

BY BYRON D. HALSTED, SC. D.

We have here to consider the sources of the three leading dietetic

beverages. They are very unlike in general appearance, but all
possess the same vegetable principle, called an alkaloid,[1] though
known under different names. Thus modern chemistry has proved
the identity of the theine of the tea, the caffeine[2] of the coffee and
the theo-bromine[3] of the chocolate. This same vegetable alkaloid,
remarkable for its large per cent. of nitrogen, is found in small
quantities in a few other plants, most of which have been used to
some extent for the making of an exhilarating drink. It answers our
purpose best to treat each of our three subjects under its respective
head.
Tea (Thea viridis[4]).—The tea of commerce is the prepared leaves
of a shrub belonging to the order Camelliaceæ[5] represented in the
United States by loblolly bay[6] and Stuartia.[7] Perhaps the most
familiar near relative of the tea plant is the camellia of our green
houses and window gardens. The wild tea shrub grows from twenty
to thirty feet high, and is found native in China and Japan. When
under cultivation the shrub is pruned so as to not exceed six feet in
height. The flowers are large, white and fragrant; they are produced
in clusters in the axils of the simple, oblong, evergreen, serrate
leaves. China and Japan are among the leading tea-growing
countries, its cultivation being chiefly confined between twenty-five
and thirty-five north latitude. Tea was in general use in China in the
ninth century, but it was not until the seventeenth century that it
was introduced into Europe. About the middle of this century the
East India Company imported tea into England, since which time it
has become the regular beverage of many millions of people in all
parts of the world. The importations of tea into the United States for
the year ending June 30th, 1884, were 67,665,910 pounds. It will be
seen that this gives somewhere near a pound and a quarter of tea
for each man, woman and child in this country. Most of our China
tea trade is carried on with Shanghai, Foo Chow and Amoy.
In China the tea shrub is grown chiefly on the southern slopes of
hills in poor, well watered soil, to which manure is applied. The seeds
are dropped in holes at regular intervals, and during the third year
the first crop is obtained. In from seven to ten years the shrubs are
cut down and shoots spring up from the stumps, which continue to
yield crops of leaves. A single plant produces on an average between
three hundred and three hundred and fifty pounds of dried leaves.
The leaves are picked three times a year, in April, May, and June or
July. The young, tender leaves of the first gathering make the best
tea, and this is very largely consumed in its native country. The older
leaves of the second and third pickings make a poorer quality of tea
which abounds in tannin,[8] and contains but a small per cent. of the
best elements of superior tea. It was long supposed that black and
green sorts of tea were made from distinct varieties, or even species
of plants; in fact, there has been a great deal of mystery
surrounding the culture and preparation of tea until within the past
score of years. Authorities now state that there is only one species
of plant yielding tea leaves, and from this all sorts are made. The
differences are natural, being some of them due to climate and
conditions of soil, etc., while others are the result of the
manipulation of the leaves after they are gathered. Black and green
tea may come from the same shrub, or even the same branch of a
plant. The leaves forming black tea undergo a fermentation before
they are dried, while those designed for green tea are at once
submitted to a high heat in iron pans, and not copper pans, as
generally supposed. After the leaves for black tea have been
gathered they are placed in heaps, when they become flaccid and
turn dark from incipient fermentation. The leaves are then rolled
between the thumb and fingers or upon bamboo tables until the
desired twist is obtained. They next pass to a drying room and are
heated in an iron pan; again twisted, and afterward dried over a
slow fire. The principal difference between the preparation of black
and green tea is that in the latter the freshly gathered leaves go at
once into the heated pans. The repeated twisting and heating is
nearly the same with both classes. The green teas are sometimes
artificially colored by using turmeric[9] with gypsum or Prussian blue.
A flavor is frequently given to the tea by adding aromatic flowers, as
those of the pekoe and caper.[10] Among the leading varieties of
black tea are: Bohea, a small leaf, crisp and strong odor, with
brackish taste; two sorts of Congous—the large leaf with fine flavor,
and the small leaf with a burnt smell. The Souchong is the much
prized “English Breakfast,” made from leaves of three-year-old trees.
Only a small part of the so-called Souchong is genuine. Pekoe is
made from the tenderest leaves gathered from three-year-old plants
while in bloom. Oolongs are common kinds of black teas, much used
for mixing with other sorts. Of the green teas the Gunpowder is
round, like shot, with green color and fragrant taste. The Imperial is
more loosely rolled than the Gunpowder. Young Hyson is in loose
rolls, which easily crumble to the touch; it gives a light green
infusion. Old Hyson is the older leaves in the picking for Young
Hyson. Twankay consists of mixed and broken leaves, and is of
inferior quality. Japan teas are both colored and uncolored, and
come from Japan; they are very largely consumed in this country.
The chemical composition of a fair sample of tea is; Theine, 1. to
3. per cent.; caseine,[11] 15.; gum, 18.; sugar, .3; tannin, 26.;
aromatic oil, .75; fat, 4.; vegetable fiber, 20.; mineral substances, 5.;
and water, 5. per cent.
 The tannin is an astringent, while the theine acts as a gentle
excitant upon the nervous system. This is probably enhanced by the
warmth of the infusion. The best authorities agree that tea is a
valuable article of diet for healthy, grown people. It however is not
suitable for children until growth is completed. Adults with irritable
constitutions may be injured by tea-drinking. Tea is the solace of old
age. Cibber[12] wrote: “Tea! thou soft, thou sober, sage and
venerable liquid … thou female tongue-running, smile-smoothing,
heart-opening, wink-tippling cordial, to whose glorious insipidity I
owe the happiest moments of my life, let me fall prostrate.”
Waller[13] truthfully says:

“Tea doth our fancy aid,

Repress those vapors which the head invade
And keep the palace of the soul.”

Tea is extensively adulterated in many ways. In China exhausted

tea leaves and foliage of other trees are employed by millions of
pounds each year. Willow leaves are among the principal ones used
for mixing with tea. A British consul once related that at Shanghai
there were at one time 53,000 pounds of willow leaves in
preparation to be sold as tea. Mineral matters are used to color or
“face” the tea. “The common test,” states Mr. Felker, in his work
“What the Grocers Sell Us,” “is by infusion; this is poured off the
leaves and examined for color, taste, and odor, all of which are
characteristic.… Impurities like sand, iron filings and dirt may be
seen among the leaves or at the bottom of the cups. The leaves,
too, betray by their coarseness and botanical character, the nature
and quality of the tea, for although the leaves of the genuine tea
differ much in form and size, yet their venation and general structure
are very distinctive.… ‘Lie tea,’ used to adulterate Gunpowder tea,
consists of tea dust mixed with mineral substances, starch and gum,
and then formed into little masses resembling tea.” Large tea houses
employ professional tea tasters who make steepings and judge upon
the flavor, purity, etc.
 Coffee.—The coffee of commerce is the seed of a shrub, Coffea
Arabica,[14] belonging to the order Rubiaceæ,[15] which is
represented in the United States by the charming little “bluets” of
our pastures in spring. The cape jessamine and bouvardias[16] of the
green house are near relatives of the coffee plant. The name coffee
is probably derived from the Arabic word Kahwah, although some
authorities contend that it is traced to Caffa, a province of Abyssinia,
where the coffee plant flourishes in the wild state. The coffee shrub
is an evergreen, growing to the height of twenty feet, with long,
smooth, shining leaves. The pure white flowers are produced in
clusters in the axils of the leaves and followed by fleshy berries
which, when ripe, resemble small, dark red cherries. Each berry
usually contains two seeds embedded in the yellowish pulp. These
seeds, when separated from the pulp and papery covering, form the
raw coffee of the stores. Each seed—improperly called a berry—is
somewhat hemispherical, with a groove running through the middle
of the flat side. Sometimes one seed is abortive in the berry, and the
other becomes round, as in the Wynaad coffee from India,
sometimes called “male berry” coffee.
Coffee is cultivated in many countries lying between fifteen north
and fifteen south latitude. It may be successfully grown thirty
degrees from the equator. Like the tea plant, the coffee shrub favors
the well watered mountain slopes. The trees are set in long, straight
rows, six feet apart, and six feet from each other in the row. The
coffee tree is naturally a plant with long, straggling shoots, but
under cultivation it is pruned to make a shrub not exceeding six feet
in height, with long, lateral branches. A full crop should be obtained
the third year. The berries are gathered when the pulp begins to
shrivel, and are at once taken to the store-house, where they are
pulped. The berries are passed between large, rough rollers, which
remove the pulp, but not the parchment-like covering of the seeds.
The berries with the pulp removed are heaped up, covered with old
sacking, and allowed to ferment for two days. Water is turned on
and all glutinous matter removed. The seeds are spread out to dry,
after which they are passed between wooden cylinders that remove
the thin, dry covering. The coffee seeds, after being winnowed, are
assorted into various sizes and packed ready for shipment. A thrifty
shrub yields two pounds of marketable coffee. The raw coffee seed
has a horny texture, without the peculiar aroma characteristic of the
roasted berry.
The early history of coffee is obscure. It has been in use for over
a thousand years. The knowledge of its use was first brought into
Arabia from Abyssinia in the fifteenth century. “Its peculiar property
of dissipating drowsiness and preventing sleep was taken advantage
of in connection with the prolonged religious services of the
Mohametans, and its use as a devotional antisoporific stirred up a
fierce opposition on the part of the priests. Coffee was by them held
to be an intoxicant beverage, and therefore prohibited by the Koran;
[17] and the dreadful penalties of an outraged sacred law were laid
over the heads of all who became addicted to its use.
Notwithstanding the threats of divine retribution, and though all
manner of devices were adopted to check its growth, the coffee-
drinking habit spread rapidly among the Arabians, Mohametans, and
the growth of coffee as well as its use as a national beverage
became as inseparably associated with Arabia as tea is with China.”
Coffee reached Great Britain in the seventeenth century. Charles II.
attempted to suppress coffee houses by proclamation, because they
“devised and spread abroad divers false, malicious and scandalous
reports to the defamation of his Majesty’s government and to the
peace and quiet of the nation.” How different is this view from that
held by those interested in good government, peace and prosperity
at the present day! We now rejoice in the establishment of coffee
houses, hoping that they may supplant the much dreaded rum
shops.
It is worthy of note here that the three dietetic beverages treated
in this article were all introduced into Europe at nearly the same
time. Tea came through the Dutch; cocoa was brought from South
America to Spain, and coffee came from Arabia by the way of
Constantinople.
 Coffee was for some time supplied only by Arabia, but near the
beginning of the eighteenth century its culture was introduced into
Java and the West India islands. At the present day its culture is
general within the tropics, Brazil leading the list in amount annually
produced. In the Eastern hemisphere the principal coffee regions are
Java and Ceylon, where a superior article is produced. The amount
of coffee imported into the United States during the year ending
June 30th, 1884, was 534,785,542 pounds, and 18,907,627 pounds
in excess of the previous year. It is seen that these figures give
nearly ten pounds for each individual in this vast country. This
amount per capita is exceeded by only a few countries. Holland
leads all European states, with an average of twenty-one pounds per
head, followed closely by Belgium, Denmark and Norway.
The dietetic value of coffee depends principally upon the alkaloid
caffeine or theine which it contains in common with tea and cocoa or
chocolate. Good coffee contains nearly one per cent. of this
substance. When obtained in a pure state it crystallizes in slender
needles. The peculiar aroma of coffee is due to the presence of
caffeone,[18] which develops in the process of roasting. It may be
isolated as a brown oil, heavier than water, by distilling roasted
coffee with water. The roasting of coffee is an operation requiring
much good judgment, for by carrying the process beyond a certain
point the aroma is destroyed and a disagreeable flavor is produced.
Roasted coffee when ground quickly deteriorates unless kept in
close vessels. Mocha coffee, which is brought from Arabia, is the
best, and that from Java ranks next. Much of the so-called Mocha
coffee is raised in Brazil, or elsewhere, and shipped to Arabia, after
which it finds its way into the markets. The berries of the true Mocha
coffee are small, dark and yellow; those of Java are a paler yellow,
while the West India and Brazilian coffees have a greenish-gray tint.
The last named coffee is usually sold under the name of Rio, an
abbreviation of the leading coffee exporting port of Brazil, namely,
Rio de Janeiro; Martinique and St. Domingo coffees are two other
kinds but little known.
 Coffee is principally valuable for its stimulating effects upon the
system. It produces a buoyancy of feeling, lightens the sensation of
fatigue, and sustains the muscles when under prolonged exertion. A
cup of rich, hot coffee seems to infuse new life into an o’er-tired
body. Equally with tea it is “the cup that cheers, but not inebriates.”

“Coffee which makes the politician wise

And see through all things with his half-shut eyes.”

Coffee is the subject of many adulterations, usually when sold in

the ground state. Several kinds of seeds resembling coffee in size
have been employed to adulterate the whole coffee, some of which
need to be colored before they will pass for the genuine. Many kinds
of roots are sliced, dried and roasted for the adulteration of coffee,
among the leading ones of which are chicory, carrot and the beet.
Spent tanbark and even dried beef’s liver have been thus employed.
Many of these fraudulent additions can be detected with the
microscope. Ground coffee floats on water, while most of the
adulterations will sink or discolor the water. There is said to be a
machine in England for making false berries out of vegetable
substance.
Chocolate.—The chocolate of the shops is derived from a small
evergreen tree, native of South America, Mexico, and West Indias.
This tree, Theobroma cacao, has large, pointed leaves and rose-
colored flowers, which are followed by fruit pods six to ten inches
long. The first part of the botanical name is from the Greek meaning
“food for the gods,” and the second or specific word cacao is the old
Mexican name for the tree. The order Sterculiaceæ[19] to which the
theobroma or chocolate tree belongs is not represented in our flora.
It however is known to many by a species of Mahernia[20] from the
cape of Good Hope, cultivated in conservatories. The order contains
about 520 species, nearly all of which are tropical. The long pods,
while green, resemble cucumbers, and when ripe contain from thirty
to an hundred seeds, arranged in rows, and of the size of sweet
almonds. During the season of ripening the pods are gathered daily,
laid in heaps until they have fermented, when they are opened by
hand and the seeds spread in the sun to dry, after which they are
ready for market. Before the Spaniards visited Mexico the natives
made a beverage from the seeds, which they called chocalat, and
from this we derived our word chocolate. The Spaniards have the
credit of introducing this beverage into Europe. In the manufacture
of chocolate the cocoa (which is a corruption of the original Mexican
cacao) beans are roasted similar to the roasting of coffee, and after
the husk is removed they are reduced to a paste. This paste is
afterward mixed with equal quantities of sugar and heated and
turned into cakes of various shapes familiar to all housekeepers.
Cacao nibs are the bruised and broken seeds, and cocoa shells are
the thin coverings of the seeds or beans which are separated before
the seeds are ground to powder. Broma is chocolate prepared for the
market in a certain way, and is a trade name.
The importations of chocolate for the year ending June 30th were
12,235,304 pounds, being an increase of nearly thirty-five per cent.
over the previous year.
Of the three leading beverages herein briefly described tea is the
only one that has been grown as a crop in the United States. In a
reply to an inquiry recently addressed to the Commissioner of
Agriculture, it was stated that the tea plant is hardy at Washington,
D. C., and that the tea plantations near Summerville, South Carolina,
are doing well. “There is no trouble about growing the plant, but the
question of profitable culture for the manufacture of tea is quite
another thing.… The purpose of the Department of Agriculture … is
to cheapen the present methods or possibly suggest the placing of
the teas on the market in a wholly different shape from what is done
at present.” We may be able to supply our own demands for tea, but
it is not likely that the same will be true of coffee and chocolate.
 HOUSEHOLD BEVERAGES.

At the breakfast table of a friend not long ago I heard the

gentleman of the house remark over his fragrant coffee:
“I laughed at my wife when she went into the cooking school last
summer, I thought her a model cook before; but for some reason
she has improved. I never tasted such coffee as this.”
My hostess answered: “The reason is simple enough. I had
always cooked by rule before. I learned in my studies in cookery to
reason. It makes a great difference.”
It does make a difference, and never a greater than in preparing
tea, coffee and chocolate. There is rarely a cup of any one of these
beverages on our tables which is fit to drink; our coffee is bitter and
muddy, tea is either insipid or too strong, and chocolate has failed to
become the popular drink which it deserves to be, because so rarely
well prepared.
Few cooks understand the nature of either the coffee berry or the
tea leaf, and consequently do not know how to treat them in order
to extract their delicious flavor, aroma, and nerve-bracing qualities.
Few cooks have an idea of the extreme delicacy of these articles,
of how scientifically, even artistically, they must be treated. To
extract an oil or flavor is one of the nicest experiments of the
laboratory, and one for which a chemist selects his materials with
the greatest care, attends strictly to the cleanliness of his vessels,
watches every change in temperature, and counts even seconds in
time. Making these beverages is nothing less than performing a
delicate chemical experiment, and yet we are so ignorant or careless
about this important work that we attend strictly to neither heat nor
time, and often take just what we can most easily get to work with.
If you would have good tea, coffee and chocolate begin your care
with your buying. Tea is a most troublesome article to purchase.
There are so many varieties on the market, and so much
adulteration that the probability is that unless you are taking
extreme precautions you are getting an inferior article. Adulteration
is astonishingly common, poor teas being manipulated to make them
appear like the first-class grades; inferior black teas colored to look
like high-priced green teas, “lie tea” sold in vast quantities, and
made-over teas[1] made to pass for fresh. How to obtain the
genuine article is the housewife’s first problem. Careful examination
may be made under the microscope for coloring matter, the tea may
be soaked to see if it unrolls into true leaves, or after washing it in a
little water the liquid may be tested with chemicals for foreign
substances. But all this means trouble that few housewives care to
take. Probably the most practical plan is to find by careful
experiment a thoroughly reliable[2] tea-house and then confine your
patronage to it. A pound of tea bought here and another there, as
convenience may dictate or some friend advise, will insure you
nothing but adulteration. The only safe plan is to find a house which
sells good tea. Your tea bought, it must be prepared. In making a
cup of tea the chemical composition and the effect of each step in its
preparation must be observed or your draught will be ruined. The
constituents in the leaf which you must look after are the theine, the
aromatic oil, and the tannin. Your tea must be treated in such a way
that the first two, which give to the drink its flavor and aroma, will
be extracted, but that the bitter tannin will be left undeveloped. The
theine and oil are both volatile substances, so that if your tea is
steeped too long, or if it is boiled, they will literally fly away, while
the tannin extracted will turn your cup into a bitter, herby drink. A
rule is easily formulated from this bit of science:
Into a perfectly clean tea-pot, just scalded with boiling hot water,
put a heaping tablespoonful of tea for each person, and upon it pour
a cup and a half of boiling water for each spoonful. Cover your pot
with a “cosy”[3] if you have one, and let it stand on the back of the
range, where it will not boil, for from five to ten minutes. The length
of time required to steep each variety of tea must be determined by
experiment, some varieties taking longer than others. The exact
length each housewife must determine when she tries a new kind;
and it may be said of the exact proportion of tea to water that it as
well must be determined by experiment. No rule in cooking is
inflexible. It must always be modified by the good sense and the
scientific care of the cook.
The English custom of making tea on the table is the prettiest and
the most satisfactory. They pour upon the tea required a small
quantity of boiling water, this is placed upon the table, covered with
the “cosy;” a pot of water taken when boiling from the stove is kept
hot by a spirit lamp, and when the tea is steeped as much boiling
water as the quantity of tea used demands is poured into the tea-
pot. It is allowed to stand about three minutes and then poured into
the cups and on the cream. Remember, cream should always be
poured into the cups first for both tea and coffee, and tea is as much
improved by cream as is coffee.
The purchase of coffee is beset with the same trouble as that of
tea—adulteration. You may get a manufactured berry, you may get
chiccory; to avoid this careful tests must be applied and only reliable
firms patronized. Nothing but unbrowned coffee should be bought;
the roasting should be done at home. This process requires
particular care. The coffee berry is hard and horny, water has no
effect upon it even when it has been ground. It must be roasted in
order that certain constituents may become soluble. These
constituents are a fragrant volatile oil called caffeone, and the
caffeine, which is identical with the theine of tea. By roasting the oil
is distributed through the berry and so made soluble, while the
caffeine is developed so that it may be absorbed by water. Just the
right amount of roasting must be done or the essential constituents
will be expelled and the bitter qualities will be made to predominate.
I have said that the roasting should be done at home. It may be
done in the shops, of course, but the operation there is carried on so
unscientifically that the aroma is lost on the town instead of being
shut up in the berry. Only a few days ago, passing up a business
street of a city, I was astonished to find the air heavy with the
delicious aroma of coffee. It scented the air for a square, and only
when I came to a large grocery store was the mystery explained.
The grocer was browning his coffee, and its odor was serving for an
advertisement, effective, perhaps, among the ignorant, but which
would warn every wise housewife not to purchase roasted coffee.
The process is best carried on in one of the very nearly perfect
coffee roasters to be found in the shops; if these are not at hand an
ordinary dripping pan may be used. It should be covered to prevent
loss of aroma, and should be continually shaken to prevent burning.
The entire attention of one person should be given the coffee during
this operation. When turned to a rich chestnut brown remove,
keeping covered until quite cool. If left open the aroma escapes very
rapidly from warm coffee, but if kept covered much of that made
volatile by the heat is re-absorbed. A tight dish—an air-tight canister
is best—must be ready to keep it in.
When using, grind only what you need, and take care that it is
not left coarse, when the strength can not be extracted, or that it is
not too fine, when the liquor will be muddy in spite of you; in this,
as always, experiment until you know the degree of fineness which
ground coffee should have. A heaping tablespoonful of ground
coffee to a cup and a half of water is the ordinary proportion for
making strong coffee—the only kind which should ever be prepared,
by the way, the diluting ought always to take place in the cup; to the
required amount of coffee add the white and shell of an egg and
cold water to thoroughly wet the whole; stir up these ingredients in
your coffee pot and pour upon them the required amount of boiling
hot water. Let it boil from ten to fifteen minutes, pour in half a cup
of cold water and remove to the side of the stove where it can not
boil. Do not boil longer than the exact time which you have found
necessary for the kind of coffee you are using, if you do you lose