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 Exploratory Multivariate Analysis
by Example Using R

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 Exploratory Multivariate Analysis
by Example Using R

François Husson
Sébastien Lê
Jérôme Pagès

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 CRC Press
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Husson, François.
Exploratory multivariate analysis by example using R / François Husson, Sébastien Lê, Jérôme
Pagès.
p. cm. -- (Chapman & Hall/CRC computer science & data analysis)
Summary: “An introduction to exploratory techniques for multivariate data analysis, this book
covers the key methodology, including principal components analysis, correspondence analysis,
mixed models, and multiple factor analysis. The authors take a practical approach, with examples
leading the discussion of the methods and many graphics to emphasize visualization. They present
the concepts in the most intuitive way possible, keeping mathematical content to a minimum
or relegating it to the appendices. The book includes examples that use real data from a range of
scientific disciplines and implemented using an R package developed by the authors.”-- Provided
by publisher.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4398-3580-7 (hardback)
1. Multivariate analysis. 2. R (Computer program language) I. Lê, Sébastien. II. Pagès, Jérôme. III.
Title. IV. Series.

QA278.H87 2010
519.5’3502855133--dc22 2010040339

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Contents

Preface xi

1 Principal Component Analysis (PCA) 1

1.1 Data — Notation — Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2.1 Studying Individuals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.2 Studying Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.3 Relationships between the Two Studies . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Studying Individuals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3.1 The Cloud of Individuals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3.2 Fitting the Cloud of Individuals . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.2.1 Best Plane Representation of NI . . . . . . . 7
1.3.2.2 Sequence of Axes for Representing NI . . . . 9
1.3.2.3 How Are the Components Obtained? . . . . 10
1.3.2.4 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3.3 Representation of the Variables as an Aid for
Interpreting the Cloud of Individuals . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.4 Studying Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.4.1 The Cloud of Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.4.2 Fitting the Cloud of Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.5 Relationships between the Two Representations NI and NK 16
1.6 Interpreting the Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.6.1 Numerical Indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.6.1.1 Percentage of Inertia Associated with a
Component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.6.1.2 Quality of Representation of an Individual or
Variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.6.1.3 Detecting Outliers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.6.1.4 Contribution of an Individual or Variable to
the Construction of a Component . . . . . . 19
1.6.2 Supplementary Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.6.2.1 Representing Supplementary Quantitative
Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.6.2.2 Representing Supplementary Categorical
Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.6.2.3 Representing Supplementary Individuals . . 23

v
vi Exploratory Multivariate Analysis by Example Using R

1.6.3 Automatic Description of the Components . . . . . . . 24

1.7 Implementation with FactoMineR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.8 Additional Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.8.1 Testing the Significance of the Components . . . . . . 26
1.8.2 Variables: Loadings versus Correlations . . . . . . . . 27
1.8.3 Simultaneous Representation: Biplots . . . . . . . . . 27
1.8.4 Missing Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.8.5 Large Datasets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.8.6 Varimax Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.9 Example: The Decathlon Dataset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.9.1 Data Description — Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.9.2 Analysis Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.9.2.1 Choice of Active Elements . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.9.2.2 Should the Variables Be Standardised? . . . 31
1.9.3 Implementation of the Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.9.3.1 Choosing the Number of Dimensions to
Examine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.9.3.2 Studying the Cloud of Individuals . . . . . . 33
1.9.3.3 Studying the Cloud of Variables . . . . . . . 36
1.9.3.4 Joint Analysis of the Cloud of Individuals and
the Cloud of Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
1.9.3.5 Comments on the Data . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
1.10 Example: The Temperature Dataset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
1.10.1 Data Description — Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
1.10.2 Analysis Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
1.10.2.1 Choice of Active Elements . . . . . . . . . . 44
1.10.2.2 Should the Variables Be Standardised? . . . 45
1.10.3 Implementation of the Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
1.11 Example of Genomic Data: The Chicken Dataset . . . . . . 51
1.11.1 Data Description — Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
1.11.2 Analysis Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
1.11.3 Implementation of the Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

2 Correspondence Analysis (CA) 59

2.1 Data — Notation — Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.2 Objectives and the Independence Model . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
2.2.1 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
2.2.2 Independence Model and χ2 Test . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.2.3 The Independence Model and CA . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.3 Fitting the Clouds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.3.1 Clouds of Row Profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.3.2 Clouds of Column Profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.3.3 Fitting Clouds NI and NJ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
2.3.4 Example: Women’s Attitudes to Women’s Work in France
in 1970 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Contents vii

2.3.4.1 Column Representation (Mother’s Activity) . 70

2.3.4.2 Row Representation (Partner’s Work) . . . . 72
2.3.5 Superimposed Representation of Both Rows and
Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
2.4 Interpreting the Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
2.4.1 Inertias Associated with the Dimensions (Eigenvalues) 77
2.4.2 Contribution of Points to a Dimension’s Inertia . . . . 80
2.4.3 Representation Quality of Points on a Dimension or
Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
2.4.4 Distance and Inertia in the Initial Space . . . . . . . . 82
2.5 Supplementary Elements (= Illustrative) . . . . . . . . . . . 83
2.6 Implementation with FactoMineR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
2.7 CA and Textual Data Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
2.8 Example: The Olympic Games Dataset . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
2.8.1 Data Description — Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
2.8.2 Implementation of the Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
2.8.2.1 Choosing the Number of Dimensions to
Examine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
2.8.2.2 Studying the Superimposed Representation . 96
2.8.2.3 Interpreting the Results . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
2.8.2.4 Comments on the Data . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
2.9 Example: The White Wines Dataset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
2.9.1 Data Description — Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
2.9.2 Margins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
2.9.3 Inertia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
2.9.4 Representation on the First Plane . . . . . . . . . . . 106
2.10 Example: The Causes of Mortality Dataset . . . . . . . . . . 109
2.10.1 Data Description — Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
2.10.2 Margins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
2.10.3 Inertia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
2.10.4 First Dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
2.10.5 Plane 2-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
2.10.6 Projecting the Supplementary Elements . . . . . . . . 121
2.10.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

3 Multiple Correspondence Analysis (MCA) 127

3.1 Data — Notation — Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
3.2 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
3.2.1 Studying Individuals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
3.2.2 Studying the Variables and Categories . . . . . . . . . 129
3.3 Defining Distances between Individuals and Distances between
Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
3.3.1 Distances between the Individuals . . . . . . . . . . . 130
3.3.2 Distances between the Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
3.4 CA on the Indicator Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
viii Exploratory Multivariate Analysis by Example Using R

3.4.1 Relationship between MCA and CA . . . . . . . . . . 132

3.4.2 The Cloud of Individuals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
3.4.3 The Cloud of Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
3.4.4 The Cloud of Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
3.4.5 Transition Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
3.5 Interpreting the Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
3.5.1 Numerical Indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
3.5.1.1 Percentage of Inertia Associated with a
Component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
3.5.1.2 Contribution and Representation Quality of
an Individual or Category . . . . . . . . . . . 141
3.5.2 Supplementary Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
3.5.3 Automatic Description of the Components . . . . . . . 143
3.6 Implementation with FactoMineR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
3.7 Addendum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
3.7.1 Analysing a Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
3.7.1.1 Designing a Questionnaire: Choice of Format 148
3.7.1.2 Accounting for Rare Categories . . . . . . . . 150
3.7.2 Description of a Categorical Variable or a
Subpopulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
3.7.2.1 Description of a Categorical Variable by a
Categorical Variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
3.7.2.2 Description of a Subpopulation (or a
Category) by a Quantitative Variable . . . . 151
3.7.2.3 Description of a Subpopulation (or a
Category) by the Categories of a Categorical
Variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
3.7.3 The Burt Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
3.8 Example: The Survey on the Perception of Genetically
Modified Organisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
3.8.1 Data Description — Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
3.8.2 Analysis Parameters and Implementation with
FactoMineR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
3.8.3 Analysing the First Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
3.8.4 Projection of Supplementary Variables . . . . . . . . . 160
3.8.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
3.9 Example: The Sorting Task Dataset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
3.9.1 Data Description — Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
3.9.2 Analysis Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
3.9.3 Representation of Individuals on the First Plane . . . 164
3.9.4 Representation of Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
3.9.5 Representation of the Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Contents ix

4 Clustering 169
4.1 Data — Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
4.2 Formalising the Notion of Similarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
4.2.1 Similarity between Individuals . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
4.2.1.1 Distances and Euclidean Distances . . . . . . 173
4.2.1.2 Example of Non-Euclidean Distance . . . . . 174
4.2.1.3 Other Euclidean Distances . . . . . . . . . . 175
4.2.1.4 Similarities and Dissimilarities . . . . . . . . 175
4.2.2 Similarity between Groups of Individuals . . . . . . . 176
4.3 Constructing an Indexed Hierarchy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
4.3.1 Classic Agglomerative Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
4.3.2 Hierarchy and Partitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
4.4 Ward’s Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
4.4.1 Partition Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
4.4.2 Agglomeration According to Inertia . . . . . . . . . . 181
4.4.3 Two Properties of the Agglomeration Criterion . . . . 183
4.4.4 Analysing Hierarchies, Choosing Partitions . . . . . . 184
4.5 Direct Search for Partitions: K-means Algorithm . . . . . . . 185
4.5.1 Data — Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
4.5.2 Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
4.5.3 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
4.6 Partitioning and Hierarchical Clustering . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
4.6.1 Consolidating Partitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
4.6.2 Mixed Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
4.7 Clustering and Principal Component Methods . . . . . . . . 188
4.7.1 Principal Component Methods Prior to AHC . . . . . 189
4.7.2 Simultaneous Analysis of a Principal Component Map
and Hierarchy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
4.8 Example: The Temperature Dataset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
4.8.1 Data Description — Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
4.8.2 Analysis Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
4.8.3 Implementation of the Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
4.9 Example: The Tea Dataset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
4.9.1 Data Description — Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
4.9.2 Constructing the AHC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
4.9.3 Defining the Clusters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
4.10 Dividing Quantitative Variables into Classes . . . . . . . . . 202

Appendix 205
A.1 Percentage of Inertia Explained by the First Component or by
the First Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
A.2 R Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
A.2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
A.2.2 The Rcmdr Package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
A.2.3 The FactoMineR Package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
x Exploratory Multivariate Analysis by Example Using R

Bibliography of Software Packages 221

Bibliography 223

Index 225
Preface

Qu’est-ce que l’analyse des données ? (English: What is data analysis?)

As it is usually understood in France, and within the context of this book,
the expression analyse des données reflects a set of statistical methods whose
main features are to be multidimensional and descriptive.
The term multidimensional itself covers two aspects. First, it implies
that observations (or, in other words, individuals) are described by several
variables. In this introduction we restrict ourselves to the most common
data, those in which a group of individuals is described by one set of variables.
But, beyond the fact that we have many values from many variables for each
observation, it is the desire to study them simultaneously that is characteristic
of a multidimensional approach. Thus, we will use those methods each time
the notion of profile is relevant when considering an individual, for example,
the response profile of consumers, the biometric profile of plants, the financial
profile of businesses, and so forth.
From a dual point of view, the interest of considering values of individuals
for a set of variables in a global manner lies in the fact that these variables are
linked. Let us note that studying links between all the variables taken two-by-
two does not constitute a multidimensional approach in the strict sense. This
approach involves the simultaneous consideration of all the links between vari-
ables taken two-by-two. That is what is done, for example, when highlighting
a synthetic variable: such a variable represents several others, which implies
that it is linked to each of them, which is only possible if they are themselves
linked two-by-two. The concept of synthetic variable is intrinsically multi-
dimensional and is a powerful tool for the description of an individuals ×
variables table. In both respects, it is a key concept within the context of this
book.
One last comment about the term analyse des données since it can have
at least two meanings — the one defined previously and another broader one
that could be translated by “statistical investigation”. This second meaning
is from a user’s standpoint; it is defined by an objective (to analyse data)
and says nothing about the statistical methods to be used. This is what the
English term data analysis covers. The term data analysis, in the sense of a set
of descriptive multidimensional methods, is more of a French statistical point
of view. It was introduced in France in the 1960s by Jean-Paul Benzécri and
the adoption of this term is probably related to the fact that these multivariate
methods are at the heart of many “data analyses”.

xi
xii Exploratory Multivariate Analysis by Example Using R

To Whom Is This Book Addressed?

This book has been designed for scientists whose aim is not to become statis-
ticians but who feel the need to analyse data themselves. It is therefore
addressed to practitioners who are confronted with the analysis of data. From
this perspective it is application-oriented; formalism and mathematics writing
have been reduced as much as possible while examples and intuition have been
emphasised. Specifically, an undergraduate level is quite sufficient to capture
all the concepts introduced.
On the software side, an introduction to the R language is sufficient, at
least at first. This software is free and available on the Internet at the following
address: http://www.r-project.org/.
Content and Spirit of the Book
This book focuses on four essential and basic methods of multivariate ex-
ploratory data analysis, those with the largest potential in terms of applica-
tions: principal component analysis (PCA) when variables are quantitative,
correspondence analysis (CA) and multiple correspondence analysis (MCA)
when variables are categorical and hierarchical cluster analysis. The geo-
metric point of view used to present all these methods constitutes a unique
framework in the sense that it provides a unified vision when exploring mul-
tivariate data tables. Within this framework, we will present the principles,
the indicators, and the ways of representing and visualising objects (rows and
columns of a data table) that are common to all those exploratory methods.
From this standpoint, adding supplementary information by simply projecting
vectors is commonplace. Thus, we will show how it is possible to use categor-
ical variables within a PCA context where variables that are to be analysed
are quantitative, to handle more than two categorical variables within a CA
context where originally there are two variables, and to add quantitative vari-
ables within an MCA context where variables are categorical. More than
the theoretical aspects and the specific indicators induced by our geometrical
viewpoint, we will illustrate the methods and the way they can be exploited
using examples from various fields, hence the name of the book.
Throughout the text, each result correlates with its R command. All these
commands are accessible from FactoMineR, an R package developed by the
authors. The reader will be able to conduct all the analyses of the book as
all the datasets (as well as all the lines of code) are available at the following
Web site address: http://factominer.free.fr/book. We hope that with
this book, the reader will be fully equipped (theory, examples, software) to
confront multivariate real-life data.
The authors would like to thank Rebecca Clayton for her help in the transla-
tion.
1
Principal Component Analysis (PCA)

1.1 Data — Notation — Examples

Principal component analysis (PCA) applies to data tables where rows are
considered as individuals and columns as quantitative variables. Let xik be
the value taken by individual i for variable k, where i varies from 1 to I and
k from 1 to K.
Let x̄k denote the mean of variable k calculated over all individual instances
of I:
I
1X
x̄k = xik ,
I i=1

and sk the standard deviation of the sample of variable k (uncorrected):

v
u I
u1 X
sk = t (xik − x̄k )2 .
I i=1

Data subjected to a PCA can be very diverse in nature; some examples

are listed in Table 1.1.
This first chapter will be illustrated using the “orange juice” dataset chosen
for its simplicity since it comprises only six statistical individuals or observa-
tions. The six orange juices were evaluated by a panel of experts according
to seven sensory variables (odour intensity, odour typicality, pulp content, in-
tensity of taste, acidity, bitterness, sweetness). The panel’s evaluations are
summarised in Table 1.2.

1.2 Objectives
The data table can be considered either as a set of rows (individuals) or as a
set of columns (variables), thus raising a number of questions relating to these
different types of objects.
2 Exploratory Multivariate Analysis by Example Using R
TABLE 1.1
Some Examples of Datasets
Field Individuals Variables xik
Ecology Rivers Concentration of pollutants Concentration of pollu-
tant k in river i
Economics Years Economic indicators Indicator value k for year
i
Genetics Patients Genes Expression of gene k for
patient i
Marketing Brands Measures of satisfaction Value of measure k for
brand i
Pedology Soils Granulometric composition Content of component k
in soil i
Biology Animals Measurements Measure k for animal i
Sociology Social classes Time by activity Time spent on activity k
by individuals from so-
cial class i

TABLE 1.2
The Orange Juice Data
Odour Odour Pulp Intensity Acidity Bitter- Sweet-
intensity typicality of taste ness ness
Pampryl amb. 2.82 2.53 1.66 3.46 3.15 2.97 2.60
Tropicana amb. 2.76 2.82 1.91 3.23 2.55 2.08 3.32
Fruvita fr. 2.83 2.88 4.00 3.45 2.42 1.76 3.38
Joker amb. 2.76 2.59 1.66 3.37 3.05 2.56 2.80
Tropicana fr. 3.20 3.02 3.69 3.12 2.33 1.97 3.34
Pampryl fr. 3.07 2.73 3.34 3.54 3.31 2.63 2.90

1.2.1 Studying Individuals

Figure 1.1 illustrates the types of questions posed during the study of individ-
uals. This diagram represents three different situations where 40 individuals
are described in terms of two variables: j and k. In graph A, we can clearly
identify two distinct classes of individuals. Graph B illustrates a dimension of
variability which opposes extreme individuals, much like graph A, but which
also contains less extreme individuals. The cloud of individuals is therefore
long and thin. Graph C depicts a more uniform cloud (i.e., with no specific
structure).
Interpreting the data depicted in these examples is relatively straightfor-
ward as they are two-dimensional. However, when individuals are described
by a large number of variables, we require a tool to explore the space in which
these individuals evolve. Studying individuals means identifying the similari-
ties between individuals from the point of view of all the variables. In other
words, to provide a typology of the individuals: which are the most similar
individuals (and the most dissimilar)? Are there groups of individuals which
are homogeneous in terms of their similarities? In addition, we should look
Principal Component Analysis 3
A B C

2
1.0
1.0

1
0.5
0.5
Variable k

Variable k

Variable k
0
−1.0 −0.5 0.0

−0.5 0.0

−1 −2
−1.0
−1.0 −0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 −1.0 −0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2
Variable j Variable j Variable j

FIGURE 1.1
Representation of 40 individuals described by two variables: j and k.

for common dimensions of variability which oppose extreme and intermediate

individuals.
In the example, two orange juices are considered similar if they were eval-
uated in the same way according to all the sensory descriptors. In such cases,
the two orange juices have the same main dimensions of variability and are
thus said to have the same sensory “profile”. More generally, we want to know
whether or not there are groups of orange juices with similar profiles, that is,
sensory dimensions which might oppose extreme juices with more intermediate
juices.

1.2.2 Studying Variables

Following the approach taken to study the individuals, might it also be possi-
ble to interpret the data from the variables? PCA focuses on the linear rela-
tionships between variables. More complex links also exist, such as quadratic
relationships, logarithmics, exponential functions, and so forth, but they are
not studied in PCA. This may seem restrictive, but in practice many relation-
ships can be considered linear, at least for an initial approximation.
Let us consider the example of the four variables (j, k, l, and m) in Fig-
ure 1.2. The clouds of points constructed by working from pairs of variables
show that variables j and k (graph A) as well as variables l and m (graph F)
are strongly correlated (positively for j and k and negatively for l and m).
However, the other graphs do not show any signs of relationships between
variables. The study of these variables also suggests that the four variables
are split into two groups of two variables, (j, k) and (l, m) and that, within
one group, the variables are strongly correlated, whereas between groups, the
variables are uncorrelated. In exactly the same way as for constructing groups
of individuals, creating groups of variables may be useful with a view to syn-
thesis. As for the individuals, we identify a continuum with groups of both
very unusual variables and intermediate variables, which are to some extent
4 Exploratory Multivariate Analysis by Example Using R

linked to both groups. In the example, each group can be represented by one
single variable as the variables within each group are very strongly correlated.
We refer to these variables as synthetic variables.

A B C

0.0

0.0
1.0 0.5

−0.4

−0.4
Variable k

Variable l

Variable l
0.0

−0.8

−0.8
−0.5
−1.0

−1.2

−1.2
−1.0 −0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 −1.0 −0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 −1.0 −0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0
Variable j Variable j Variable k

D E F
1.0

1.0

1.0
0.4 0.6 0.8

0.4 0.6 0.8

0.4 0.6 0.8

Variable m

Variable m

Variable m
0.2

0.2

0.2
0.0

0.0

0.0

−1.0 −0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 −1.0 −0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 −1.2 −0.8 −0.4 0.0
Variable j Variable k Variable l

FIGURE 1.2
Representation of the relationships between four variables: j, k, l, and m,
taken two-by-two.

When confronted with a very small number of variables, it is possible to

draw conclusions from the clouds of points, or from the correlation matrix
which groups together all of the linear correlation coefficients r(j, k) between
the pairs of variables. However, when working with a great number of vari-
ables, the correlation matrix groups together a large quantity of correlation
coefficients (190 coefficients for K = 20 variables). It is therefore essential to
have a tool capable of summarising the main relationships between the vari-
ables in a visual manner. The aim of PCA is to draw conclusions from the
linear relationships between variables by detecting the principal dimensions
of variability. As you will see, these conclusions will be supplemented by the
definition of the synthetic variables offered by PCA. It will therefore be eas-
ier to describe the data using a few synthetic variables rather than all of the
original variables.
In the example of the orange juice data, the correlation matrix (see Ta-
ble 1.3) brings together the 21 correlation coefficients. It is possible to group
the strongly correlated variables into sets, but even for this reduced number
of variables, grouping them this way is tedious.
Principal Component Analysis 5

TABLE 1.3
Orange Juice Data: Correlation Matrix
Odour Odour Pulp Intensity Acidity Bitter- Sweet-
intensity typicality of taste ness ness
Odour intensity 1.00 0.58 0.66 −0.27 −0.15 −0.15 0.23
Odour typicality 0.58 1.00 0.77 −0.62 −0.84 −0.88 0.92
Pulp content 0.66 0.77 1.00 −0.02 −0.47 −0.64 0.63
Intensity of taste −0.27 −0.62 −0.02 1.00 0.73 0.51 −0.57
Acidity −0.15 −0.84 −0.47 0.73 1.00 0.91 −0.90
Bitterness −0.15 −0.88 −0.64 0.51 0.91 1.00 −0.98
Sweetness 0.23 0.92 0.63 −0.57 −0.90 −0.98 1.00

1.2.3 Relationships between the Two Studies

The study of individuals and the study of variables are interdependent as
they are carried out on the same data table: studying them jointly can only
reinforce their respective interpretations.
If the study of individuals led to a distinction between groups of individ-
uals, it is then possible to list the individuals belonging to only one group.
However, for high numbers of individuals, it seems more pertinent to char-
acterise them directly by the variables at hand: for example, by specifying
that some orange juices are acidic and bitter whereas others have a high-pulp
content.
Similarly, when there are groups of variables, it may not be easy to inter-
pret the relationships between many variables and we can make use of specific
individuals, that is, individuals who are extreme from the point of view of
these relationships. In this case, it must be possible to identify the individu-
als. For example, the link between acidity-bitterness can be illustrated by the
opposition between two extreme orange juices: Fresh Pampryl (orange juice
from Spain) versus Fresh Tropicana (orange juice from Florida).

1.3 Studying Individuals

1.3.1 The Cloud of Individuals
An individual is a row of the data table, that is, a set of K numerical values.
The individuals thus evolve within a space RK called “the individual’s space”.
If we endow this space with the usual Euclidean distance, the distance between
two individuals i and l is expressed as:
v
uK
uX
d(i, l) = t (xik − xlk )2 .
k=1
6 Exploratory Multivariate Analysis by Example Using R

If two individuals have similar values within the table of all K variables, they
are also close in the space RK . Thus, the study of the data table can be
conducted geometrically by studying the distances between individuals. We
are therefore interested in all of the individuals in RK , that is, the cloud
of individuals (denoted NI ). Analysing the distances between individuals is
therefore tantamount to studying the shape of the cloud of points. Figure 1.3
illustrates a cloud of point is within a space RK for K = 3.

FIGURE 1.3
Flight of a flock of starlings illustrating a scatterplot in RK .

The shape of cloud NI remains the same even when translated. The data
are also centred, which corresponds to considering xik − x̄k rather than xik .
Geometrically, this is tantamount to coinciding the centre of mass of the cloud
GI (with coordinates x̄k for k = 1, ..., K) with the origin of reference (see
Figure 1.4). Centring presents technical advantages and is always conducted
in PCA.
The operation of reduction (also referred to as standardising), which con-
sists of considering (xik − x̄k )/sk rather than xik , modifies the shape of the
cloud by harmonising its variability in all the directions of the original vectors
(i.e., the K variables). Geometrically, it means choosing standard deviation
sk as a unit of measurement in direction k. This operation is essential if the
variables are not expressed in the same units. Even when the units of mea-
surement do not differ, this operation is generally preferable as it attaches
the same importance to each variable. Therefore, we will assume this to be
the case from here on in. Standardised PCA occurs when the variables are
Principal Component Analysis 7

FIGURE 1.4
Scatterplot of the individuals in RK .

centred and reduced, and unstandardised PCA when the variables are only
centred. When not otherwise specified, it may be assumed that we are using
standardised PCA.
Comment: Weighting Individuals
So far we have assumed that all individuals have the same weight. This applies
to almost all applications and is always assumed to be the case. Neverthe-
less, generalisation with unspecified weights poses no conceptual or practical
problems (double weight is equivalent to two identical individuals) and most
software packages, including FactoMineR envisage this possibility (FactoMineR
is a package dedicated to Factor Analysis and Data Mining with R, see Sec-
tion A.2.3 in the Appendix). For example, it may be useful to assign a different
weight to each individual after having rectified a sample. In all cases, it is
convenient to consider that the sum of the weights is equal to 1. If supposed
to be of the same weight, each individual will be assigned a weight of 1/I.

1.3.2 Fitting the Cloud of Individuals

1.3.2.1 Best Plane Representation of NI
The aim of PCA is to represent the cloud of points in a space with reduced
dimensions in an “optimal” manner, that is to say, by distorting the distances
between individuals as little as possible. Figure 1.5 gives two representations
of three different fruits. The viewpoints chosen for the images of the fruits on
the top line make them difficult to identify. On the second row, the fruits can
be more easily recognised. What is it which differentiates the views of each
fruit between the first and the second lines? In the pictures on the second line,
8 Exploratory Multivariate Analysis by Example Using R

the distances are less distorted and the representations take up more space
on the image. The image is a projection of a three-dimensional object in a
two-dimensional space.

FIGURE 1.5
Two-dimensional representations of fruits: from left to right an avocado, a
melon and a banana, each row corresponds to a different representation.

For a representation to be successful, it must select an appropriate view-

point. More generally, PCA means searching for the best representational
space (of reduced dimension) thus enabling optimal visualisation of the shape
of a cloud with K dimensions. We often use a plane representation alone,
which can prove inadequate when dealing with particularly complex data.
To obtain this representation, the cloud NI is projected on a plane of RK
denoted P , chosen in such a manner as to minimise distortion of the cloud
of points. Plane P is selected so that the distances between the projected
points might be as close as possible to the distances between the initial points.
Since, in projection, distances can only decrease, we try to make the projected
distances as high as possible. By denoting Hi the projection of the individual
i on plane P , the problem consists of finding P , with:
I
X
OHi2 maximum.
i=1

The convention for notation uses mechanical terms: O is the centre of gravity,
OHi is a vector and the criterion is the inertia of the projection of NI . The
criterion which consists of increasing the variance of the projected points to a
maximum is perfectly appropriate.
Remark
If the individuals are weighted with different weights pi , the maximised crite-
PI
rion is i=1 pi OHi2 .

In some rare cases, it might be interesting to search for the best axial
representation of cloud NI alone. This best axis is obtained in the same way:
Principal Component Analysis 9
PI
find the component u1 when i=1 OHi2 are maximum (where Hi is the pro-
jection of i on u1 ). It can be shown that plane P contains component u1 (the
“best” plane contains the “best”component): in this case, these representa-
tions are said to be nested. An illustration of this property is presented in
Figure 1.6. Planets, which are in a three-dimensional space, are traditionally
represented on a component. This component determines their positions as
well as possible in terms of their distances from one other (in terms of inertia
of the projected cloud). We can also represent planets on a plane according
to the same principle: to maximise the inertia of the projected scatterplot
(on the plane). This best plane representation also contains the best axial
representation.

ne
Su ury

s
r
rn

nu
te

tu
o
c
tu

ut
pi
n

ra

ep
er
Sa

Pl
Ju

U
M

N
M h
Ve s
s
rt
ar
nu
Ea

Uranus
Mars
Saturn Earth Sun
Mercury Venus Neptune

Jupiter

Pluto

FIGURE 1.6
The best axial representation is nested in the best plane representation of the
solar system (18 February 2008).

We define plane P by two nonlinear vectors chosen as follows: vector u1

which defines the best axis (and which is included in P ), and vector u2 of
the plane P orthogonal to u1 . Vector u2 corresponds to the vector which
expresses the greatest variability of NI once that which is expressed by u1 is
removed. In other words, the variability expressed by u2 is the best coupling
and is independent of that expressed by u1 .

1.3.2.2 Sequence of Axes for Representing NI

More generally, let us look for nested subspaces of dimensions s = 1 to S
so that each subspace is of maximum inertia for the given dimension s. The
10 Exploratory Multivariate Analysis by Example Using R
PI 2
subspace of dimension s is obtained by maximising i=1 (OHi ) (where Hi
is the projection of i in the subspace of dimension s). As the subspaces
are nested, it is possible to choose vector us as the vector of the orthogonal
subspace for all of the vectors ut (with 1 ≤ t < s) which define the smaller
subspaces.
The first plane (defined by u1 , u2 ), i.e., the plane of best representation, is
often sufficient for visualising cloud NI . When S is greater than or equal to 3,
we may need to visualise cloud NI in the subspace of dimension S by using a
number of plane representations: the representation on (u1 , u2 ) but also that
on (u3 , u4 ) which is the most complementary to that on (u1 , u2 ). However, in
certain situations, we might choose to associate (u2 , u3 ) for example, in order
to highlight a particular phenomenon which appears on these two components.

1.3.2.3 How Are the Components Obtained?

Components in PCA are obtained through diagonalisation of the correlation
matrix which extracts the associated eigenvectors and eigenvalues. The eigen-
vectors correspond to vectors us which are each associated with the eigenvalues
of rank s (denoted λs ), as the eigenvalues are ranked in descending order. The
eigenvalue λs is interpreted as the inertia of cloud NI projected on the compo-
nent of rank s or, in other words, the “explained variance” for the component
of rank s.
If all of the eigenvectors are calculated (S = K), the PCA recreates a basis
for the space RK . In this sense, PCA can be seen as a change of basis in which
the first vectors of the new basis play an important role.

Remark
When variables are centred but not standardised, the matrix to be diago-
nalised is the variance–covariance matrix.

1.3.2.4 Example
The distance between two orange juices is calculated using their seven sensory
descriptors. We decided to standardise the data to attribute each descriptor
equal influence. Figure 1.7 is obtained from the first two components of the
PCA and corresponds to the best plane for representing the cloud of individu-
als in terms of projected inertia. The inertia projected on the plane is the sum
of two eigenvalues, that is, 86.82% (= 67.77% + 19.05%) of the total inertia
of the cloud of points.
The first principal component, that is, the principal axis of variability
between the orange juices, separates the two orange juices Tropicana fr. and
Pampryl amb. According to data Table 1.2, we can see that these orange
juices are the most extreme in terms of the descriptors odour typicality and
bitterness: Tropicana fr. is the most typical and the least bitter while Pampryl
amb. is the least typical and the most bitter. The second component, that
is, the property that separates the orange juices most significantly once the
Principal Component Analysis 11

Pampryl fr.

2
Dim 2 (19.05%)
1
Tropicana fr.
Fruvita fr.
0
Pampryl amb.
-1

Joker amb.
Tropicana amb.
-2

-4 -2 0 2 4
Dim 1 (67.77%)

FIGURE 1.7
Orange juice data: plane representation of the scatterplot of individuals.

main principal component of variability has been removed, identifies Tropicana

amb., which is the least intense in terms of odour, and Pampryl fr., which is
among the most intense (see Table 1.2).
Reading this data is tedious when there are a high number of individuals
and variables. For practical purposes, we will facilitate the characterisation
of the principal components by using the variables more directly.

1.3.3 Representation of the Variables as an Aid for

Interpreting the Cloud of Individuals
Let Fs denote the coordinate of the I individuals on component s and Fs (i)
its value for individual i. Vector Fs is also called the principal component of
rank s. Fs is of dimension I and thus can be considered as a variable. To
interpret the relative positions of the individuals on the component of rank s,
it may be interesting to calculate the correlation coefficient between vector Fs
and the initial variables. Thus, when the correlation coefficient between Fs
and a variable k is positive (or indeed negative), an individual with a positive
coordinate on component Fs will generally have a high (or low, respectively)
value (relative to the average) for variable k.
In the example, F1 is strongly positively correlated with the variables
odour typicality and sweetness and strongly negatively correlated with the
variables bitter and acidic (see Table 1.4). Thus Tropicana fr., which has the
highest coordinate on component 1, has high values for odour typicality and
sweetness and low values for the variables acidic and bitter. Similarly, we
can examine the correlations between F2 and the variables. It may be noted
that the correlations are generally lower (in absolute value) than those with
the first principal component. We will see that this is directly linked to the
percentage of inertia associated with F2 which is, by construction, lower than
12 Exploratory Multivariate Analysis by Example Using R

that associated with F1 . The second component can be characterised by the

variables odour intensity and pulp content (see Table 1.4).

TABLE 1.4
Orange Juice Data: Correlation between
Variables and First Two Components
F1 F2
Odour intensity 0.46 0.75
Odour typicality 0.99 0.13
Pulp content 0.72 0.62
Intensity of taste −0.65 0.43
Acidity −0.91 0.35
Bitterness −0.93 0.19
Sweetness 0.95 −0.16

To make these results easier to interpret, particularly in cases with a high

number of variables, it is possible to represent each variable on a graph, using
its correlation coefficients with F1 and F2 as coordinates (see Figure 1.8).
Variables factor map (PCA)
1.0

Odour intensity
0.62 Pulpiness
Dimension 2 (19.05%)

Intensity of taste
0.5

Acidity
Bitterness
Odour typicality
0.0

0.72
Sweetness
-0.5
-1.0

-1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5

Dimension 1 (67.77%)

FIGURE 1.8
Orange juice data: visualisation of the correlation coefficients between vari-
ables and the principal components F1 and F2 .

We can now interpret the joint representation of the cloud of individuals

with this representation of the variables.
Remark
A variable is always represented within a circle of radius 1 (circle represented
in Figure 1.8): indeed, it must be noted that F1 and F2 are orthogonal (in
the sense that their correlation coefficient is equal to 0) and that a variable
cannot be strongly related to two orthogonal components simultaneously. In
the following section we shall examine why the variable will always be found
within the circle of radius 1.
 Another Random Document on
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 And the next moment Eileen found herself in the doctor's narrow
gig, wedged tightly between him and the side of the vehicle.
"Ye can sind her bits o' clothes over by Phelim," said Dr.
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Poor Eileen! Was this the result of the fairy's gift? She sat still,
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hated doctor was going to do something very, very dreadful to her.
Seeing that she made no effort to free herself, or to speak, her
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"Now, Eileen," he said, not unkindly, "av ye'll be a good colleen,
and not shpake a wurrd, I'll lave yer mouth free. But av ye shpake,
so much as to say, 'Bliss ye!' I'll tie up yer jaw wid me pock'-
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Eileen nodded silently. She had not the slightest desire to say
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The poor child burst into tears, for the word 'home' made her
realize more fully that she was going every moment farther and
farther away from her own home,—from her kind father, her anxious
and loving mother, and dear little Phelim. What would Phelim do at
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trundle-bed which they had shared ever since he was a tiny baby?
Who would light her father's pipe, and sing him the little song he
always liked to hear while he smoked it after supper? These, and
many other such thoughts, filled Eileen's mind as she sat weeping
silently beside the green-spectacled doctor, who cared nothing about
her crying, so long as she did not try to speak.
After a drive of some miles, they reached a tall, dark, gloomy-
looking house, which was not unlike the doctor himself, with its small
greenish window-panes and its gaunt chimneys. Here the pony
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"Honor Macarthy's Eily!" she exclaimed. "The Saints protict uz! Is
she kilt, or what's the matther?"
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Eileen stared at the man, thinking he had gone mad; for his face
was red, and his eyes, from which he had snatched the green
spectacles, glittered with a strange light. The same idea flashed into
his wife's mind, and she crossed herself devoutly, exclaiming,—
"Howly St. Pathrick, he's clane diminted. 'King,' indade! will ye
hear um?"
The doctor turned on her sharply. "Diminted?" he said; "ye'll soon
see av I'm diminted. I till ye I'll be King av Ireland before the
month's oot. Shpake, now, Eileen! Open yer mouth, alanna, and
make yer manners to Misthress O'Shaughnessy."
Thus adjured, Eileen dropped a courtesy, and said, timidly, "Good
day t' ye, Ma'm! I houp ye're well!"
 Hop! pop! down dropped a pearl and a diamond, and the doctor,
pouncing on them, held them up in triumph before the eyes of his
astonished wife.
"Div ye see that?" he cried. "That's a dimind! There's no sich in
Queen Victory's crownd this day. And look a' that! That's a pearrl,
an' as big as a marrowfat pay. The loike of ut's not in Ireland, I till
ye. Woman, there's a fortin' in ivery wurrd this colleen shpakes! And
she's goin' to shpake," he added, grimly, "and to kape an shpakin',
till Michael O'Shaughnessy is rich enough to buy all Ireland,—ay, and
England too, av he'd a mind to!"
"But—but," cried Mrs. O'Shaughnessy, utterly bewildered by her
husband's wild talk, and by the sight of the jewels, "what does it all
mane? Has the choild swallied 'em? And won't she die av 'em, av it's
that manny in her stumick?"
"Whisht wid yer foolery!" said her husband, contemptuously.
"Swallied 'em, indade! The gyurrl has met a Grane Man, that's the
truth of ut; and he's gi'n her a wish, and she's got ut,—and now I've
got her." And he chuckled, and rubbed his bony hands together,
while his eyes twinkled with greed.
"A Grane Man! The saints be good to uz!" cried Mrs.
O'Shaughnessy. "Sure, ye always till't me there was no sich thing
ava'."
"I lied, thin!" shouted the doctor. "I lied, an' that's all there is to
say about ut. Do ye think I'm obleeged to shpake the thruth ivery
day in the week to an ignor'nt crathur like yersilf? It's worn out I'd
be, body and sowl, at that rate. Now, Eileen Macarthy," he
continued, turning to his unhappy little prisoner, "ye are to do as I till
ye, an' no harrum'll coom to ye, an' maybe good. Ye are to sit in this
room and talk; and ye'll kape an talkin' till the room is full-up! d'ye
hear me, now?"
"Full-up?" exclaimed Eileen, faintly.
 "Full-up!" repeated the doctor. "No less'll satisfy me, and it's the
laste ye can do for all the throuble I've taken forr ye. Misthress
O'Shaughnessy an' mesilf 'ull take turns sittin' wid ye, so 'at ye'll
have some wan to talk to. Ye'll have plinty to ate an' to dhrink, an'
that's more than manny people have in Ireland this day. So lit me
hear no complainin'."
With this, the worthy man proceeded to give strict injunctions to
his wife to keep the child talking, and not to leave her alone for an
instant; and finally he departed, shutting the door behind him, and
leaving the captive and her jailer alone together.
Mrs. O'Shaughnessy immediately poured forth a flood of
questions, to which Eileen replied by telling the whole pitiful story
from beginning to end. It was a relief to be able to speak at last,
and to rehearse the whole matter to understanding, if not
sympathetic, ears. Mrs. O'Shaughnessy listened and looked, looked
and listened, with open mouth and staring eyes. With her eyes shut,
she would not have believed her ears; but the double evidence was
too much for her.
The diamonds and pearls kept on falling, falling, fast and faster.
They filled Eileen's lap, they skipped away over the floor, while the
doctor's wife pursued them with frantic eagerness. Each diamond
was clear and radiant as a drop of dew, each pearl lustrous and
perfect; but they gave no pleasure now to the fairy-gifted child. She
could only think of the task that lay before her,—to FILL this great,
empty room; of the millions and millions, and yet again millions of
gems that must fall from her lips before the floor would be covered
even a few inches deep; of the weeks and months,—perhaps the
years,—that must elapse before she would see her parents and
Phelim again. She remembered the words of the fairy: "A day may
come when you will wish with all your heart to have the charm
removed." And then, like a flash, came the recollection of those
other words: "When that day comes, come here to this spot," and
do so and so.
 In fancy, Eileen was transported again to the pleasant green
forest; was looking at the Green Man as he sat on the toadstool, and
begging him to take away this fatal gift, which had already, in one
day, brought her so much misery. Harshly on her reverie broke in the
voice of Mrs. O'Shaughnessy, asking,—
"And has yer father sold his pigs yit?"
She started, and came back to the doleful world of reality. But
even as she answered the woman's question, she made in her heart
a firm resolve,—somehow or other, somehow, she would escape;
she would get out of this hateful house, away from these greedy,
grasping people; she would manage somehow to find her way to the
wood, and then—then for freedom again! Cheered by her own
resolution, she answered the woman composedly, and went into a
detailed account of the birth, rearing, and selling of the pigs, which
so fascinated her auditor that she was surprised, when the recital
was over, to find that it was nearly supper-time.
The doctor now entered, and taking his wife's place, began to ply
Eily with questions, each one artfully calculated to bring forth the
longest possible reply:—
"How is it yer mother is related to the Countess's auld
housekeeper, avick; and why is it, that wid sich grand relations she
niver got into the castle at all?"
"Phwhat was that I h'ard the other day about the looky bargain
yer father—honest man!—made wid the one-eyed peddler from
beyant Inniskeen?" and—
"Is it thrue that yer mother makes all her butther out av skim-milk
just by making the sign of the cross—God bless it!—over the churn?"
Although she did not like the doctor, Eily did, as she had said to
the Green Man, "loove to talk;" so she chattered away, explaining
and disclaiming, while the diamonds and pearls flew like hail-stones
from her lips, and her host and jailer sat watching them with looks
of greedy rapture.
Eily paused, fairly out of breath, just as Mrs. O'Shaughnessy
entered, bringing her rather scanty supper. There was quite a pile of
jewels in her lap and about her feet, while a good many had rolled
to a distance; but her heart sank within her as she compared the
result of three hours' steady talking with the end to which the
rapacious doctor aspired.
She was allowed to eat her supper in peace, but no sooner was it
finished than the questioning began again, and it was not until ten
o'clock had struck that the exhausted child was allowed to lay her
head down on the rude bed which Mrs. O'Shaughnessy had hastily
made up for her.
The next day was a weary one for poor Eily. From morning till
night she was obliged to talk incessantly, with only a brief space
allowed for her meals. The doctor and his wife mounted guard by
turns, each asking questions, until to the child's fancy they seemed
like nothing but living interrogation points. All day long, no matter
what she was talking about,—the potato-crop, or the black hen that
the fox stole, or Phelim's measles,—her mind was fixed on one idea,
that of escaping from her prison. If only some fortunate chance
would call them both out of the room at once! But, alas! that never
happened. There was always a pair of greedy eyes fixed on her, and
on the now hated jewels which dropped in an endless stream from
her lips; always a harsh voice in her ears, rousing her, if she paused
for an instant, by new questions as stupid as they were long.
Once, indeed, the child stopped short, and declared that she
could not and would not talk any more; but she was speedily shown
the end of a birch rod, with the hint that the doctor "would be loth
to use the likes av it on Dinnis Macarthy's choild; but her parints had
given him charge to dhrive out the witchcraft be hook or be crook;
and av a birch rod wasn't first cousin to a crook, what was it at all?"
and Eily was forced to find her powers of speech again.
 By nightfall of this day the room was ankle-deep in pearls and
diamonds. A wonderful sight it was, when the moon looked in at the
window, and shone on the lustrous and glittering heaps which Mrs.
O'Shaughnessy piled up with her broom. The woman was fairly
frightened at the sight of so much treasure, and she crossed herself
many times as she lay down on the mat beside Eileen's truckle-bed,
muttering to herself, "Michael knows bist, I suppose; but sorrow o'
me if I can feel as if there was a blissing an it, ava'!"
The third day came, and was already half over, when an urgent
summons came for Doctor O'Shaughnessy. One of his richest
patrons had fallen from his horse and broken his leg, and the doctor
must come on the instant. The doctor grumbled and swore, but
there was no help for it; so he departed, after making his wife vow
by all the saints in turn, that she would not leave Eileen's side for an
instant until he returned.
When Eily heard the rattle of the gig and the sound of the pony's
feet, and knew that the most formidable of her jailers was actually
gone, her heart beat so loud for joy that she feared its throbbing
would be heard. Now, at last, a loop-hole seemed to open for her.
She had a plan already in her head, and now there was a chance for
her to carry it out. But an Irish girl of ten has shrewdness beyond
her years, and no gleam of expression appeared in Eileen's face as
she spoke to Mrs. O'Shaughnessy, who had been standing by the
window to watch her husband's departure, and who now returned to
her seat.
"We'll be missin' the docthor this day, ma'm, won't we?" she said.
"He's so agrayable, ain't he, now?"
"He is that!" replied Mrs. O'Shaughnessy, with something of a
sigh. "He's rale agrayable, Michael is—whin he wants to be," she
added. "Yis, I'll miss um more nor common to-day, for 'tis worn out I
am intirely wid shlapin so little these two nights past. Sure, I can't
shlape, wid thim things a-shparklin' an' a-glowerin' at me the way
they do; and now I'll not get me nap at all this afthernoon, bein' I
must shtay here and kape ye talkin' till the docthor cooms back. Me
hid aches, too, mortial bad!"
"Do it, now?" said Eily, soothingly. "Arrah, it's too bad, intirely!
Will I till ye a little shtory that me grandmother hed for the
hidache?"
"A shtory for the hidache?" said Mrs. O'Shaughnessy. "What do ye
mane by that, I'm askin' ye?"
"I dunno roightly how ut is," replied Eily, innocently, "but Granny
used to call this shtory a cure for the hidache, and mebbe ye'd find
ut so. An' annyhow it 'ud kape me talkin'," she added meekly, "for
'tis mortial long."
"Go an wid it, thin!" said Mrs. O'Shaughnessy, settling herself
more comfortably in her chair. "I loove a long shtory, to be sure. Go
an, avick!"
And Eily began as follows, speaking in a clear, low monotone:—
"Wanst upon a toime there lived an owld, owld woman, an' her
name was Moira Magoyle; an' she lived in an owld, owld house, in
an owld, owld lane that lid through an owld, owld wood be the side
of an owld, owld shthrame that flowed through an owld, owld
shthrate av an owld, owld town in an owld, owld county. An' this
owld, owld woman, sure enough, she had an owld, owld cat wid a
white nose; an' she had an owld, owld dog wid a black tail, an' she
had an owld, owld hin wid wan eye, an' she had an owld, owld cock
wid wan leg, an' she had—"
Mrs. O'Shaughnessy yawned, and stirred uneasily on her seat.
"Seems to me there's moighty little goin' an in this shtory!" she said,
taking up her knitting, which she had dropped in her lap. "I'd loike
somethin' a bit more loively, I'm thinkin', av I had me ch'ice."
"Jist wait, ma'm!" said Eily, with quiet confidence, "ownly wait till
I coom to the parrt about the two robbers an' the keg o'
gunpowdther, an' its loively enough ye'll foind ut. But I must till ut
the same way 'at Granny did, else it 'ull do no good, ava. Well, thin,
I was sayin' to ye, ma'm, this owld woman (Saint Bridget be good to
her!) she had an owld, owld cow, an' she had an owld, owld shape,
an' she had an owld, owld kitchen wid an owld, owld cheer an' an
owld, owld table, an' an owld, owld panthry wid an owld, owld
churn, an' an owld, owld sauce-pan, an' an owld, owld gridiron, an'
an owld, owld—"
Mrs. O'Shaughnessy's knitting dropped again, and her head fell
forward on her breast. Eileen's voice grew lower and softer, but still
she went on,—rising at the same time, and moving quietly, stealthily,
towards the door,—
"An' she had an owld, owld kittle, an' she had an owld, owld pot
wid an owld, owld kiver; an' she had an owld, owld jug, an' an owld,
owld platther, an' an owld, owld tay-pot—"
Eily's hand was on the door, her eyes were fixed on the
motionless form of her jailer; her voice went on and on, its soft
monotone now accompanied by another sound,—that of a heavy,
regular breathing which was fast deepening into a snore.
"An' she had an owld, owld shpoon, an' an owld, owld fork, an' an
owld, owld knife, an' an owld, owld cup, an' an owld, owld bowl, an'
an owld, owld, owld—"
The door is open! The story is done! Two little feet go speeding
down the long passage, across the empty kitchen, out at the back
door, and away, away! Wake, Mrs. O'Shaughnessy! wake! the story is
done and the bird is flown!
Surely it was the next thing to flying, the way in which Eily sped
across the meadows, far from the hated scene of her imprisonment.
The bare brown feet seemed scarcely to touch the ground; the
brown locks streamed out on the wind; the little blue apron fluttered
wildly, like a banner of victory. On! on! on! with panting bosom, with
parted lips, with many a backward glance to see if any one were
following; on went the little maid, over field and fell, through moss
and through mire, till at last—oh, happy, blessed sight!—the dark
forest rose before her, and she knew that she was saved.
Quite at the other end of the wood lay the spot she was seeking;
but she knew the way well, and on she went, but more carefully
now,—parting the branches so that she broke no living twig, and
treading cautiously lest she should crush the lady fern, which the
Green Men love. How beautiful the ferns were, uncurling their silver-
green fronds and spreading their slender arms abroad! How sweetly
the birds were singing! How pleasant, how kind, how friendly was
everything in the sweet green wood!
And here at last was the oak-tree, and at the foot of it there stood
the yellow toadstool, looking as if it did not care about anything or
anybody, which in truth it did not: Breathless with haste and
eagerness, Eileen tapped the toadstool three times with a bit of
holly, saying softly, "Slanegher Banegher! Skeen na lane!" And, lo!
and, behold! there sat the Green Man, just as if he had been there
all the time, fanning himself with his scarlet cap, and looking at her
with a comical twinkle in his sharp little eyes.
"Well, Eily," he said, "is it back so soon ye are? Well, well, I'm not
surprised! And how do ye like yer gift?"
"Oh, yer Honor's Riverence—Grace, I mane!" cried poor Eily,
bursting into tears, "av ye'll plaze to take it away! Sure it's nearly kilt
I am along av it, an' no plazure or coomfort in ut at all at all! Take it
away, yer Honor, take it away, and I'll bliss ye all me days!" and, with
many sobs, she related the experiences of the past three days. As
she spoke, diamonds and pearls still fell in showers from her lips,
and half-unconsciously she held up her apron to catch them as they
fell, so that by the time she had finished her story she had more
than a quart of splendid gems, each as big as the biggest kind of
pea.
The Green Man smiled, but not unkindly, at the recital of Eileen's
woes. "Faith, it's a hard time ye've had, my maiden, and no mistake!
But now 'tis all over. Hold fast the jewels ye have there, for they're
the last ye'll get." He touched her lips with his cap, and said,
"Cabbala ku! the charm is off."
Eily drew a long breath of relief, and the fairy added,—
"The truth is, Eily, the times are past for fairy gifts of this kind.
Few people believe in the Green Men now at all, and fewer still ever
see them. Why, ye are the first mortal child I've spoken to for a
matter of two hundred years, and I think ye'll be the last I ever
speak to. Fairy gifts are very pretty things in a story, but they're not
convenient at the present time, as ye see for yourself. There's one
thing I'd like to say to ye, however," he added more seriously; "an'
ye'll take it as a little lesson-like, me dear, before we part. Ye asked
me for diamonds and pearls, and I gave them to ye; and now ye've
seen the worth of that kind for yourself. But there's jewels and
jewels in the world, and if ye choose, Eily, ye can still speak pearls
and diamonds, and no harm to yourself or anybody."
"How was yer Honor maning?" asked Eily, wondering. "Sure, I
don't undershtand yer Honor at all."
"Likely not," said the little man, "but it's now I'm telling ye. Every
gentle and loving word ye speak, child, is a pearl; and every kind
deed done to them as needs kindness, is a diamond brighter than all
those shining stones in your apron. Ye'll grow up a rich woman, Eily,
with the treasure ye have there; but it might all as well be frogs and
toads, if with it ye have not the loving heart and the helping hand
that will make a good woman of ye, and happy folk of yer neighbors.
And now good-by, mavourneen, and the blessing of the Green Men
go with ye and stay with ye, yer life long!"
"Good-by, yer Honor," cried Eily, gratefully. "The saints reward yer
Honor's Grace for all yer kindness to a poor silly colleen like me! But,
oh, wan minute, yer Honor!" she cried, as she saw the little man
about to put on his cap. "Will Docthor O'Shaughnessy be King av
Ireland? Sure it's the wicked king he'd make, intirely. Don't let him,
plaze, yer Honor!"
Green Jacket laughed long and heartily. "Ho! ho! ho!" he cried.
"King, is it? Nothing less would suit him, sure enough! Have no
fears, Eily, alanna! Dr. O'Shaughnessy has come into his kingdom by
this time, and I wish him joy of it."
With these words he clapped his scarlet cap on his head, and
vanished like the snuff of a candle.

Now, just about this time Dr. Michael O'Shaughnessy was

dismounting from his gig at his own back door, after a long and
weary drive. He thought little, however, about his bodily fatigue, for
his heart was full of joy and triumph, his mind absorbed in dreams
of glory. He could not even contain his thoughts, but broke out into
words, as he unharnessed the rusty old pony.
"An' whin I coom to the palace, I'll knock three times wid the
knocker; or maybe there'll be a bell, loike the sheriff's house (bad
luck to um!) at Kilmagore. And the gossoon'll open the dure, and—
"'Phwhat's yer arrind?' says he.
"'It's Queen Victory I'm wantin',' says I. 'An' ye'll till her King
Michael av Ireland is askin' for her,' I says.
"Thin whin Victory hears that, she'll coom roonnin' down hersilf,
to bid me welkim; an' she'll take me oop to the best room, an'—
"'Sit down an the throne, King Michael,' says she. 'The other
cheers isn't good enough for the loikes of ye,' says she.
"'Afther ye, ma'm,' says I, moinding me manners.
 "'An' is there annythin' I can du for ye, to-day, King Michael?' says
she, whin we've sat down an the throne.
"An' I says, loight and aisy loike, all as if I didn't care, 'Nothin' in
loife, ma'm, I'm obleeged to ye, widout ye'd lind me the loan o' yer
Sunday crownd,' says I, 'be way av a patthern,' says I.
"An' says she—"
But at this moment the royal meditations were rudely broken in
upon by a wild shriek which resounded from the house. The door
was flung violently open, and Mrs. O'Shaughnessy rushed out like a
mad woman.
"She's gone!" she cried wildly. "The colleen's gone, an' me niver
shtirrin' from her side! Och, wirra, wirra! what'll I do? It must be the
witches has taken her clane up chimley."
Dr. O'Shaughnessy stood for a moment transfixed, glaring with
speechless rage at the unhappy woman; then rushing suddenly at
her, he seized and shook her till her teeth chattered together.
"Ye've been ashlape!" he yelled, beside himself with rage and
disappointment. "Ye've fell ashlape, an' laved her shlip out! Sorrow
seize ye, ye're always the black bean in me porridge!" Then flinging
her from him, he cried, "I don't care! I'll be it! I'll be king wid what's
in there now!" and dashed into the house.
He paused before the door of the best room, lately poor Eily's
prison, to draw breath and to collect his thoughts. The door was
closed, and from within—hark! what was that sound? Something
was stirring, surely. Oh, joy! was his wife mistaken? Waking
suddenly from her nap, had she failed to see the girl, who had
perhaps been sleeping, too? At all events the jewels were there, in
shining heaps on the floor, as he had last seen them, with thousands
more covering the floor in every direction,—a king's ransom in half a
handful of them. He would be king yet, even if the girl were gone.
Cautiously he opened the door and looked in, his eyes glistening, his
mouth fairly watering at the thought of all the splendor which would
meet his glance.
What did Dr. O'Shaughnessy see? Oh, horror! Oh, dismay, terror,
anguish! What did he see? Captive was there none, yet the room
was not empty. Jewels were there none, yet the floor was covered;
covered with living creatures,—toads, snakes, newts, all hideous and
unclean reptiles that hop or creep or wriggle. And as the wretched
man stared, with open mouth and glaring eye-balls, oh, horror! they
were all hopping, creeping, wriggling towards the open door,—
towards him! With a yell beside which his wife's had been a whisper,
O'Shaughnessy turned and fled; but after him—through the door,
down the passage and out of the house—came hopping, creeping,
wriggling his myriad pursuers.
Fly, King Michael! stretch your long legs, and run like a hunted
hare over hill and dale, over moss and moor. They are close behind
you; they are catching at your heels; they come from every side,
surrounding you! Fly, King O'Shaughnessy! but you cannot escape.
The Green Men are hunting you, if you could but know it, in sport
and in revenge; and three times they will chase you round County
Kerry, for thrice three days, till at last they suffer you to drop
exhausted in a bog, and vanish from your sight.
And Eily? Eily went home with her apron full of pearls and
diamonds, to tell her story again, and this time to be believed. And
she grew up a good woman and a rich woman; and she married the
young Count of Kilmoggan, and spoke diamonds and pearls all her
life long,—at least her husband said she did, and he ought to know.
CHAPTER XIV.
"E GGS! eggs!" cried Toto, springing lightly into the barn, and
waving a basket round his head. "Mrs. Speckle, Mrs.
Spanish, Dame Clucket, where are you all? I want all the fresh eggs
you can spare, please! directly-now-this-very-moment!" and the boy
tossed his basket up in the air and caught it again, and danced a
little dance of pure enjoyment, while he waited for the hens to
answer his summons.
Mrs. Speckle and Dame Clucket, who had been having a quiet
chat together in the mow, peeped cautiously over the billows of hay,
and seeing that Toto was alone, bade him good-morning.
"I don't know about eggs, to-day, Toto!" said Dame Clucket. "I
want to set soon, and I cannot be giving you eggs every day."
"Oh, but I haven't had any for two or three days!" cried Toto.
"And I must have some to-day. Good old Clucket, dear old Cluckety,
give me some, please!"
"Well, I never can refuse that boy, somehow!" said Dame Clucket,
half to herself; and Mrs. Speckle agreed with her that it could not be
done.
Indeed, it would have been hard to say "No!" to Toto at that
moment, for he certainly was very pleasant to look at. The dusty
sunbeams came slanting through the high windows, and fell on his
curly head, his ruddy-brown cheeks, and honest gray eyes; and as
the eyes danced, and the curls danced, and the whole boy danced
with the dancing sunbeams, why, what could two soft-hearted old
hens do but meekly lead the way to where their cherished eggs lay,
warm and white, in their fragrant nests of hay?
"And what is to be done with them?" asked Mrs. Speckle, as the
last egg disappeared into the basket.
"Why, don't you know?" cried the boy. "We are going to have a
party to-night,—a real party! Mr. Baldhead is coming, and Jim Crow,
and Ger-Falcon. And Granny and Bruin are making all sorts of good
things,—I'll bring you out some, if I can, dear old Speckly,—and
these eggs are for a custard, don't you see?"
"I see!" said Mrs. Speckle, rather ruefully.
"And Coon and I are decorating the kitchen," continued he; "and
Cracker is cracking the nuts and polishing the apples; and Pigeon
Pretty and Miss Mary are dusting the ornaments,—so you see we are
all very busy indeed. Ho! ho! what fun it will be! Good-by, Mrs.
Speckle! good-by, Cluckety!" and off ran boy Toto, with his basket of
eggs, leaving the two old hens to scratch about in the hay, clucking
rather sadly over the memories of their own chickenhood, when
they, too, went to parties, instead of laying eggs for other people's
festivities.
In the cottage, what a bustle was going on! The grandmother
was at her pastry-board, rolling out paste, measuring and filling and
covering, as quickly and deftly as if she had had two pairs of eyes
instead of none at all. The bear, enveloped in a huge blue-checked
apron, sat with a large mortar between his knees, pounding away at
something as if his life depended on it. On the hearth sat the
squirrel, cracking nuts and piling them up in pretty blue china
dishes; and the two birds were carefully brushing and dusting, each
with a pair of dusters which she always carried about with her,—one
pair gray, and the other soft brown. As for Toto and the raccoon,
they were here, there, and everywhere, all in a moment.
"Now, then, where are those greens?" called the boy, when he
had carefully deposited his basket of eggs in the pantry.
"Here they are!" replied Coon, appearing at the same moment
from the shed, dragging a mass of ground-pine, fragrant fir-boughs,
and alder-twigs with their bright coral-red berries. "We will stand
these big boughs in the corners, Toto. The creeping stuff will go over
the looking-glass and round the windows. Eh, what do you think?"
"Yes, that will do very well," said Toto. "We shall need steps,
though, to reach so high, and the step-ladder is broken."
 "Never mind!" said Coon. "Bruin will be the step-ladder. Stand up
here, Bruin, and make yourself useful."
The good bear meekly obeyed, and the raccoon, mounting nimbly
upon his shoulders, proceeded to arrange the trailing creepers with
much grace and dexterity.
"This reminds me of some of our honey-hunts, old fellow!" he
said, talking as he worked. "Do you remember the famous one we
had in the autumn, a little while before we came here?"
"To be sure I do!" replied the bear. "That was, indeed, a famous
hunt! It gave us our whole winter's supply of honey. And we might
have got twice as much more, if it hadn't been for the accident."
"Tell us about it," said Toto. "I wasn't with you, you know; and
then came the moving, and I forgot to ask you."
"Well, it was a funny time!" said the bear. "Ho! ho! it was a funny
time! Coon, you see, had discovered this hive in a big oak-tree,
hollow from crotch to ground. He couldn't get at it alone, for the
clever bees had made it some way down inside the trunk, and he
couldn't reach far enough down unless some one held him on the
outside. So we went together, and I stood on my hind tip-toes, and
then he climbed up and stood on my head, and I held his feet while
he reached down into the hole."
"Dear me!" said the grandmother, "that was very dangerous,
Bruin. I wonder you allowed it."
"Well, you see, dear Madam," replied the bear, apologetically, "it
was really the only way. I couldn't stand on Coon's head and have
him hold my feet, you know; and we couldn't give up the honey, the
finest crop of the season. So—"
"Oh, it was all right!" broke in the raccoon. "At least, it was at
first. There was such a quantity of honey,—pots and pots of it!—and
all of the very best quality. I took out comb after comb, laying them
in the crotch of the tree for safe-keeping till I was ready to go
down."
"But where were the bees all the time?" asked Toto.
"Oh, they were there!" replied the raccoon, "buzzing about and
making a fine fuss. They tried to sting me, of course, but my fur was
too much for them. The only part I feared for was my nose, and that
I had covered with two or three thicknesses of mullein-leaves, tied
on with stout grass. But as ill-luck would have it, they found out
Bruin, and began to buzz about him, too. One flew into his eye, and
he let my feet go for an instant,—just just for the very instant when
I was leaning down as far as I could possibly stretch to reach a
particularly fine comb. Up went my heels, of course, and down went
I."
"Oh, oh!" cried the grandmother. "My dear Coon! do you mean—"
"I mean down, dear Madam!" repeated the raccoon, gravely,
—"the very downest down there was, I assure you. I fell through
that hollow tree as the falling star darts through the ambient
heavens. Luckily there was a soft bed of moss and rotten wood at
the bottom, or I might not have had the happiness of being here at
this moment. As it was—"
"As it was," interrupted the bear, "I dragged him out by the tail
through the hole at the bottom. Ho! ho! I wish you could have seen
him. He had brought the whole hive with him. Indeed, he looked like
a hive himself, covered from head to foot with wax and honey, and a
cloud of bees buzzing about him. But he had a huge piece of comb
in each paw, and was gobbling away, eating honey, wax, bees and
all, as if nothing had happened."
"Naturally," said the raccoon, "I am of a saving disposition, as you
know, and cannot bear to see anything wasted. It is not generally
known that bees add a slight pungent flavor to the honey, which is
very agreeable. Ve-ry agreeable!" he repeated, throwing his head
back, and screwing up one eye, to contemplate the arrangement he
had just completed. "How is that, Toto; pretty, eh?"
"Very pretty!" said Toto. "But, see here, if you keep Bruin there all
day, we shall never get through all we have to do. Jump down, that's
a good fellow, and help me to polish these tankards."
When all was ready, as in due time it was, surely it would have
been hard to find a pleasanter looking place than that kitchen. The
clean white walls were hung with wreaths and garlands, while the
great fir-boughs in the corners filled the air with their warm, spicy
fragrance. Every bit of metal—brass, copper, or steel—was polished
so that it shone resplendent, giving back the joyous blaze of the
crackling fire in a hundred tiny reflections. The kettle was especially
glorious, and felt the importance of its position keenly.
"I trust you have no unpleasant feeling about this," it said to the
black soup-kettle. "Every one cannot be beautiful, you know. If you
are useful, you should be content with that."
"Hubble! bubble! Bubble! hubble!
Some have the fun, and some have the
trouble!"
replied the soup-kettle. "My business is to make soup, and I make it.
That is all I have to say."
The table was covered with a snowy cloth, and set with glistening
crockery—white and blue—and clean shining pewter. The great
tankard had been brought out of its cupboard, and polished within
an inch of its life; while the three blue ginger-jars, filled with scarlet
alder-berries, looked down complacently from their station on the
mantelpiece. As for the floor, I cannot give you an idea of the
cleanness of it. When everything else was ready and in place, the
bear had fastened a homemade scrubbing-brush to each of his four
feet, and then executed a sort of furious scrubbing-dance, which
fairly made the house shake; and the result was a shining purity
which vied with that of the linen table-cloth, or the very kettle itself.
 And you should have seen the good bear, when his toilet was
completed! The scrubbing-brushes had been applied to his own
shaggy coat as well as to the floor, and it shone, in its own way, with
as much lustre as anything else; and in his left ear was stuck a red
rose, from the monthly rose-bush which stood in the sunniest
window and blossomed all winter long. It is extremely uncomfortable
to have a rose stuck in one's ear,—you may try it yourself, and see
how you like it; but Toto had stuck it there, and nothing would have
induced Bruin to remove it. And you should have seen our Toto
himself, carrying his own roses on his cheeks, and enough sunshine
in his eyes to make a thunder-cloud laugh! And you should have
seen the great Coon, glorious in scarlet neck-ribbon, and behind his
ear (not in it! Coon was not Bruin) a scarlet feather, the gift of Miss
Mary, and very precious. And you should have seen the little squirrel,
attired in his own bushy tail, and rightly thinking that he needed no
other adornment; and the parrot and the wood-pigeon, both trim
and elegant, with their plumage arranged to the last point of
perfection. Last of all, you should have seen the dear old
grandmother, the beloved Madam, with her snowy curls and cap and
kerchief; and the ebony stick which generally lived in a drawer and
silver paper, and only came out on great occasions. How proud Toto
was of his Granny! and how the others all stood around her, gazing
with wondering admiration at her gold-bowed spectacles (for those
she usually wore were of horn) and the large breastpin, with a
weeping-willow displayed upon it, which fastened her kerchief.
"Made out of your grandfather's tail, did you say, Toto?" said the
bear, in an undertone. "Astonishing!"
"No, no, Bruin!" cried the boy, half pettishly. "Made out of his hair!
Surely you might know by this time that we have no tails."
"True! true!" murmured the bear, apologetically. "I beg your
pardon, Toto, boy. You are not really vexed with old Bruin?"
Toto rubbed his curly head affectionately against the shaggy black
one, in token of amity, and the bear continued:—
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