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Barclay FM.qxd 6/11/06 1:50 PM Page 1

groovy programming
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groovy programming
an introduction for
java developers

Kenneth Barclay
John Savage

AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON

NEW YORK • OXFORD • PARIS • SAN DIEGO
SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO
Morgan Kaufmann Publishers is an imprint of Elsevier
Barclay FM.qxd 6/11/06 1:50 PM Page 4

Publisher Denise E. M. Penrose

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Barclay, Kenneth A., 1947-
Groovy programming : an introduction for Java developers /
Kenneth Barclay, John Savage.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13: 978-0-12-372507-3 (alk. paper)
ISBN-10: 0-12-372507-0 (alk. paper)
1. Java (Computer program language) I. Savage, W. J. (W. John) II. Title.
QA76.73.J38B358 2006
005. 13'3–dc22 2006036352
For information on all Morgan Kaufmann publications,
visit our Web site at www.mkp.com or www.books.elsevier.com
Printed in the United States of America
07 08 09 10 5 4 3 2 1
Barclay FM.qxd 6/11/06 1:50 PM Page 5

To Irene
–K.B.

To Salwa
–J.S.
This page intentionally left blank
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contents
Foreword xiv
Preface xvi
About the Authors xix

1 Groovy 1
1.1 Why Scripting? 1
1.2 Why Groovy? 3
2 Numbers and Expressions 5
2.1 Numbers 6
2.2 Expressions 6
2.3 Operator Precedence 8
2.4 Assignment 9
2.5 Increment and Decrement Operators 10
2.6 Object References 11
2.7 Relational and Equality Operators 12
2.8 Exercises 14
3 Strings and Regular Expressions 17
3.1 String Literals 17
3.2 String Indexing and Slicing 18
3.3 Basic Operations 19
3.4 String Methods 19
3.5 String Comparison 23
3.6 Regular Expressions 23
3.7 Exercises 25

vii
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viii Contents

4 Lists, Maps, and Ranges 27

4.1 Lists 27
4.2 List Methods 29
4.3 Maps 31
4.4 Map Methods 33
4.5 Ranges 34
4.6 Exercises 35
5 Simple Input and Output 39
5.1 Simple Output 39
5.2 Formatted Output 41
5.3 Simple Input 42
5.4 Exercises 45
6 Case Study: A Library Application (Modeling) 47
6.1 Iteration 1: Specification and List Implementation 47
6.2 Iteration 2: Map Implementation 50
6.3 Exercises 52
7 Methods 53
7.1 Methods 53
7.2 Method Parameters 56
7.3 Default Parameters 56
7.4 Method Return Values 57
7.5 Parameter Passing 59
7.6 Scope 61
7.7 Collections as Method Parameters and Return Values 62
7.8 Exercises 63
8 Flow of Control 67
8.1 While Statement 67
8.2 For Statement 69
8.3 If Statement 71
8.4 Switch Statement 74
8.5 Break Statement 78
8.6 Continue Statement 79
8.7 Exercises 80
9 Closures 85
9.1 Closures 85
9.2 Closures, Collections, and Strings 90
9.3 Other Closure Features 96
9.4 Exercises 100
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Contents ix
10 Files 103
10.1 Command Line Arguments 103
10.2 File Class 104
10.3 Exercises 111
11 Case Study: A Library Application (Methods,
Closures) 113
11.1 Iteration 1: Specification and Map Implementation 113
11.2 Iteration 2: Implementation of a Text-Based User Interface 119
11.3 Iteration 3: Implementation with Closures 122
11.4 Exercises 125
12 Classes 127
12.1 Classes 127
12.2 Composition 135
12.3 Exercises 137
13 Case Study: A Library Application (Objects) 139
13.1 Specification 139
13.2 Iteration 1: An Initial Model 140
13.3 Iteration 2: Augment the Model 142
13.4 Iteration 3: Reinstate the User Interface 147
13.5 Exercises 153
14 Inheritance 157
14.1 Inheritance 157
14.2 Inherited Methods 160
14.3 Redefined Methods 162
14.4 Polymorphism 163
14.5 The Abstract Class 166
14.6 The Interface Class 169
14.7 Exercises 173
15 Unit Testing ( JUnit) 179
15.1 Unit Testing 179
15.2 The GroovyTestCase and JUnit TestCase Classes 181
15.3 The GroovyTestSuite and JUnit TestSuite Classes 186
15.4 The Role of Unit Testing 189
15.5 Exercises 193
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x Contents

16 Case Study: A Library Application

(Inheritance) 195
16.1 Specification 195
16.2 Iteration 1: Confirm the Polymorphic Effect 196
16.3 Iteration 2: Demonstrate the Required Functionality 199
16.4 Iteration 3: Provide User Feedback 204
16.5 Iteration 4: Enforce Constraints 212
16.6 Exercises 217
17 Persistence 219
17.1 Simple Queries 219
17.2 Relations 221
17.3 Database Updates 224
17.4 Objects from Tables 228
17.5 Inheritance 230
17.6 The Spring Framework 232
17.7 Exercises 237
18 Case Study: A Library Application
(Persistence) 239
18.1 Iteration 1: Persist the Domain Model 239
18.2 Iteration 2: The Impact of Persistence 251
18.3 Exercises 258
19 XML Builders and Parsers 259
19.1 Groovy Markup 259
19.2 MarkupBuilder 261
19.3 XML Parsing 264
19.4 Exercises 276
20 GUI Builders 277
20.1 SwingBuilder 277
20.2 Lists and Tables 286
20.3 Box and BoxLayout Classes 292
20.4 Exercises 294
21 Template Engines 297
21.1 Strings 297
21.2 Templates 298
21.3 Exercises 302
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Contents xi
22 Case Study: A Library Application (GUI) 303
22.1 Iteration 1: Prototype the GUI 303
22.2 Iteration 2: Implement the Handlers 306
22.3 Exercises 313
23 Server-Side Programming 315
23.1 Servlets 315
23.2 Groovlets 316
23.3 GSP Pages 324
23.4 Exercises 328
24 Case Study: A Library Application (Web) 329
24.1 Iteration 1: Web Implementation 329
24.2 Exercise 333
25 Epilogue 335

Appendices
A Software Distribution 337
A.1 The Java Development Kit 337
A.2 The Groovy Development Kit 338
A.3 Ant 338
A.4 The Derby/Cloudscape Database 338
A.5 The Spring Framework 339
A.6 The Tomcat Server 339
A.7 Eclipse IDE 339
A.8 The Textbook Sources 339
B Groovy 341
B.1 Simple and Elegant 341
B.2 Methods 343
B.3 Lists 344
B.4 Classes 344
B.5 Polymorphism 345
B.6 Closures 346
B.7 Exceptions 347
C More on Numbers and Expressions 349
C.1 Classes 349
C.2 Expressions 350
C.3 Operator Associativity 350
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xii Contents

C.4 Variable Definitions 351

C.5 Compound Assignment Operators 353
C.6 Logical Operators 353
C.7 Conditional Operator 354
C.8 Qualified Numerical Literals 355
C.9 Conversions 355
C.10 Static Typing 358
C.11 Testing 358
D More on Strings and Regular Expressions 361
D.1 Regular Expressions 361
D.2 Single Character Match 362
D.3 Match at the Beginning 363
D.4 Match at the End 363
D.5 Match Zero or More 363
D.6 Match One or More 364
D.7 Match None or One 364
D.8 Match Number 364
D.9 Character Classes 365
D.10 Alternation 366
D.11 Miscellaneous Notations 366
D.12 Grouping 367
E More on Lists, Maps, and Ranges 369
E.1 Classes 370
E.2 Lists 371
E.3 Ranges 372
E.4 The Spread Operator 372
E.5 Testing 373
F More on Simple Input and Output 376
F.1 Formatted Output 376
F.2 Console Class 379
G More on Methods 382
G.1 Recursive Methods 382
G.2 Static Typing 384
G.3 Actual Parameter Agreement 386
G.4 Method Overloading 387
G.5 Default Parameter Ambiguity 387
G.6 Collections as Method Parameters and Return Values 389
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Contents xiii
H More on Closures 393
H.1 Closures and Ambiguity 393
H.2 Closures and Methods 394
H.3 Default Parameters 395
H.4 Closures and Scope 395
H.5 Recursive Closures 396
H.6 Static Typing 397
H.7 Actual Parameter Agreement 398
H.8 Closures, Collections, and Ranges 398
H.9 Return Statement 400
H.10 Testing 401
I More on Classes 404
I.1 Properties and Visibility 404
I.2 Object Navigation 409
I.3 Static Members 413
I.4 Operator Overloading 415
I.5 The invokeMethod 417
I.6 Exercises 419
J Advanced Closures 420
J.1 Simple Closures 421
J.2 Partial Application 423
J.3 Composition 425
J.4 Patterns of Computation 426
J.5 Business Rules 428
J.6 Packaging 432
J.7 List Reduction 439
J.8 Exercises 441
K More on Builders 445
K.1 AntBuilder 445
K.2 Specialized Builders 453
L More on GUI Builders 458
L.1 Menus and Toolbars 458
L.2 Dialogs 465
Bibliography 469
Index 471
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foreword
Scripting languages are not new. Primarily, they are used on Linux and
UNIX machines for things such as shell scripting tasks that automate soft-
ware installations, platform customizations, scientific application prototyp-
ing with Python, and one-shot command-line jobs with bash scripts.
Languages such as PHP have also been widely used for developing high-
volume websites and scripting languages have been found to be suitable for
serious business applications.
Usually, scripting languages are platforms on their own and do not nec-
essarily interact with others. Although bindings may exist for bridging with
other systems, the integration is not always intuitive or natural. Groovy seeks
to fill that gap, bringing a genuine innovative language that can interact
natively with Java by living on the same virtual machine.
Groovy brings a concise and expressive Java-like syntax to ease the learn-
ing curve for Java developers. But beyond the syntax, Groovy also provides
two key aspects to the landscape by providing wrapper APIs around common
JDK Application Programming Interfaces. It simplifies the implementation
of common tasks and integrates meta-programming capabilities to develop
powerful new language constructs or to easily manipulate existing ones.
Groovy can be used in various situations: as a shell scripting language to
do data crunching and file manipulation tasks or to experiment with new
APIs. It can also be adapted for creating full-blown small- to mid-size appli-
cations to leverage the wealth of Java libraries and components. Moreover,
another important use is to marry Java and Groovy by embedding Groovy
inside Java or Java EE applications. This can help write and externalize
often-changing business rules or bring programmatic configuration to an
application infrastructure.
Although the first two uses are quite common, I believe the embedded-
use case is the most appealing and promising. Currently, developers have
been using template engines for customizing and factoring out views, or they
have used business rules engines to externalize some logic. Beyond the

xiv
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Foreword xv
limited functionality set, however, programmers are often given little
support. Fortunately, platform-hosted scripting languages such as Groovy
can help bridge this functionality gap. This is evident with the success of
Groovy and its child—Grails—a versatile model-view-controller (MVC)
Web framework. Sun, too, believes in this alternative way of adding dynam-
icity to applications, by including a new Java Specification Request in Java 6:
the javax.script.* APIs allow seamless embedding of any scripting or
dynamic language into Java applications with a coherent programming API.
Scripting languages have evolved to a point of maturity where they meet
the limitations of the standardized mainstream platforms. When those lan-
guages and platforms come across, that’s when magic happens, and we can
celebrate a marriage made in Heaven.
Ken Barclay and John Savage are respected teachers and are well posi-
tioned to introduce Groovy to both experienced developers and novices.
They demonstrate in a clear manner how Groovy augments the Java plat-
form and how to exploit many of its innovative features. The book is easy to
read and not intimidating for those less experienced with programming. It
is a complete exposition of Groovy that addresses all aspects of the pro-
gramming language.
The structure of the book fulfills this aim by presenting the basics of
Groovy in the early chapters and more advanced concepts in the latter. In
addition, extensive appendices consider more detailed aspects of the lan-
guage.
Deliberately, each chapter is relatively small and easy to absorb, yet they
contain a large number of complete code examples, extensive exercises, and
solutions. To illustrate Groovy in application, the book features a rolling case
study that grows in complexity and sophistication by drawing on the mate-
rials from each preceding chapter. In addition, incremental development
and unit testing are central themes in the text and are necessary to support
Groovy’s dynamic nature. The authors also consider Groovy as a multipara-
digm language.
The authors’ own experience suggests that Groovy has a place in the aca-
demic curriculum as well as the experienced developer’s toolbox.
Have a fun time learning Groovy by reading this great book! You won’t
regret it.

Guillaume Laforge
Groovy Project Manager
JSR-241 Specification Lead
Barclay FM.qxd 6/11/06 1:50 PM Page 16

preface
This book is an introduction to the scripting language Groovy. For Java
developers, Groovy makes writing scripts and applications for the Java plat-
form both fast and easy. It includes many language features found in other
scripting languages such as Python, Ruby, and Smalltalk. As Groovy is based
on Java, applications written in Groovy can make full use of the Java
Application Programming Interfaces (APIs). This means that Groovy inte-
grates seamlessly with frameworks and components written in Java.
Groovy, the scripting language, and Java, the systems programming
language, complement each other. Both contribute to the development of
programming applications. For example, components and frameworks
might be created with Java and “glued” together with Groovy. The ease with
which Groovy can make use of them significantly enhances their usage. The
increasing importance of component architectures, Graphical User
Interfaces (GUIs), database access, and the internet all increase the applica-
bility of scripting in Groovy.
Groovy developers can take advantage of rapid application development
features, such as those found in scripting languages. Groovy is suitable for
many data or file processing tasks, testing applications, or as a replacement
for Java in small- and medium-sized projects.
The syntax of Groovy is similar to the syntax of the Java programming
language. This makes for a relatively short learning curve for Java develop-
ers. Other scripting languages for the Java platform are usually based on ear-
lier predecessors. This is a major problem as they bring extra unwanted
“baggage.” However, as Groovy is Java, it offers a much more natural and
seamless integration into the Java platform.

xvi
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Preface xvii

organiz ation
The text is designed to quickly introduce readers to the principal elements
of the Groovy language. It assumes at least a reading knowledge of Java. For
the later chapters, experience with Swing, Standard Query Language (SQL),
Spring, XML, Ant, and building Web applications would also be useful. The
authors have sought to keep each chapter relatively brief and closely focused.
Some readers may wish to dip into an individual chapter to pick out partic-
ular Groovy features. In any event, the shortness of each chapter should
make its contents relatively easy to absorb.
Many chapters are supported by an appendix to augment the topics cov-
ered. For example, Chapter 7 considers the basics of defining and using
Groovy methods. Appendix G then considers more advanced aspects, such
as overloading and recursion, which are not central to the main text. Again,
this helps to keep chapters short and targeted.
Most chapters also include many small, self-contained examples to illus-
trate language concepts. They are complete, and the reader is encouraged to
execute them as part of the learning process. There are also end-of-chapter
exercises, and the reader is encouraged to attempt them. However, both the
chapter examples and the solutions to the exercises are available on the
book’s website.
A feature of the book is a rolling case study concerned with managing
and maintaining a library’s loan stock. At various points in the text, new
Groovy features are applied to augment the functionality of the case study.
For example, the case study in Chapter 11 exploits methods, closures, and
files introduced in the preceding chapters.
Chapters 1 to 16 cover the basic features of Groovy. For example, there
are discussions of Groovy methods, closures, lists, and maps as well as
support for classes and inheritance.
The important topic of automated unit testing is also addressed.
Groovy’s rapid build-and-run cycle makes it an ideal candidate for develop-
ing unit tests. Groovy exploits the industry standard JUnit framework to
make unit testing both easy and fun. Unit testing used in conjunction with
Groovy combines the flexibility of a dynamically typed language with the
safety offered by statically typed languages. To highlight this point, unit test-
ing is an integral part of most of the case studies.
The second part of the book is presented in Chapters 17 to 24, where
Groovy is used for more advanced applications. For example, persistence is
implemented with the Spring framework in conjunction with the
Cloudscape/Derby relational database management system. Groovy also
supports XML and GUI applications through its novel builder notation. We
finish by considering templates and web applications.
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xviii Preface

conventions
Throughout the book we use an arial typeface to identify Groovy code and
the output from scripts. We also italicize text when introducing a technical
term. The book includes references to websites and to the bibliography.
We do not distinguish between a program and a script. Both terms are
used interchangeably. However, we invariably mean a Groovy script.

soft ware distribution

The authors have prepared a supporting website—http://www.dcs.
napier.ac.uk/~kab/groovy/groovy.html—that contains the working scripts
for all of the examples and case studies presented in the book. Answers to
the end-of-chapter exercises are also included.
Groovy is under constant review and is subject to revision. It is the aim
of the authors to use this website to keep the reader informed of significant
changes. Therefore, the reader is advised to consult it for up-to-date infor-
mation.

acknowledgments
The authors are deeply grateful to those involved in Groovy’s conception,
the committers that maintain its development, and those instrumental in
the Java Specification Request (JSR-241) initiative (http://www.dcs.
napier.ac.uk/~cs05/groovy/groovy.html). This book is our contribution to
publicizing the Groovy language. We are indebted to Guillaume Laforge
(Groovy Project Manager) who keeps Groovy “on-track” and to Andrew
Glover (CTO, Vanward Technologies) for his excellent articles on Groovy on
the IBM Developers website. We are also grateful for the encouragement
and stimulation given by Professor Jon Kerridge (School of Computing,
Napier University, Edinburgh) who sent us Groovy challenges that we might
not otherwise have taken up.
The authors also wish to thank Denise Penrose, Tim Cox, Mary James,
Christine Brandt, and their colleagues at Morgan Kaufmann, Elsevier for
their help in the production of this book. Finally, we are grateful for the many
helpful suggestions from our reviewers Andrew Glover and Sean Burke. Any
outstanding errors in the text are the responsibility of the authors.
Barclay FM.qxd 6/11/06 1:50 PM Page 19

about the authors

Ken Barclay and John Savage are lecturers in computer science at Napier
University in Edinburgh, Scotland. They both have more than 25 years of
experience teaching software development to students and professionals in
commerce and industry. They have been actively involved with the evolution
and development of object-oriented practices in C++, Java, Ada, and the
Unified Modeling Language (UML).
Since their first involvement with object orientation, they have led the
development of the ROME project—an object modeling tool—that is dis-
tributed with their books on object orientation and the UML. They are the
authors of several publications about software development, including
Object-Oriented Design with UML and Java (Butterworth-Heinemann/
Elsevier, 2003).

xix
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1
CHAPTER

groovy

This first chapter introduces Groovy as a unique scripting language designed to

augment the Java platform. It offers Javalike syntax, native support for Maps and
Lists, methods, classes, closures, and builders. With its dynamic weak typing
and seamless access to the Java Applications Programming Interface (API), it is
well suited to the development of many small- to medium-sized applications.

1.1 why scripting?

Generally, scripting languages such as Groovy are more expressive and operate at
higher levels of abstraction than systems programming languages such as Java. This
often results in more rapid application development and higher programmer
productivity. However, scripting languages serve a different purpose than their sys-
tems language counterparts. They are designed for “gluing” applications together
rather than implementing complex data structures and algorithms. Therefore, to be
useful, a scripting language must have access to a wide range of components.
In general, scripting languages do not replace systems programming
languages. They complement them (Ousterhout, 1998). Typically, systems
programming languages should be used in applications that

● require the development of complex algorithms or data structures

● are computationally intensive
● manipulate large datasets
● implement well-defined, slowly changing requirements
● are part of a large project.

1
Barclay chap01.qxd 02/01/1904 9:51 PM Page 2

2 CHAPTER 1 Groovy

However, scripting languages should be used for applications that

● connect preexisting components

● manipulate a variety of different entities that change rapidly
● have a graphical user interface
● have rapidly evolving functionality
● are part of a small- to medium-sized project.

A major strength of scripting languages is that the coding effort they require is
relatively small as compared to code written in a systems programming
language. Often, the latter appears to be overly complex and difficult to
understand and maintain. This is because it requires extensive boilerplate or
conversion code.
These systems languages are strongly typed to ensure the safety and robust-
ness of the code. With strong typing, variables must been given a type and they
can only be used in a particular way. Although strong typing makes large pro-
grams more manageable and allows a compiler to (statically) detect certain kinds
of errors, it can be intrusive. For example, strong typing is not helpful when it
is difficult or impossible to decide beforehand which type of a variable it is. This
situation occurs frequently when connecting components together.
To simplify the task of connecting components, scripting languages are
weakly typed. This means that variables can be used in different ways under
different circumstances. However, illegal use of variables is only detected when
the code is actually executing. For example, although Groovy (statically) checks
program syntax at compile time, the (dynamic) check on the correctness
of method calls happens at runtime. As a result, there is the danger that a
Groovy script that compiles cleanly may throw an exception and terminate
prematurely.
Weak typing does not necessarily mean that code is unsafe or that it is not
robust. Advocates have promoted Extreme Programming (Beck, 2004) as a soft-
ware development process. This approach is characterized by an emphasis on
testing. The result is a comprehensive suite of unit tests (Link, 2003) that drive
the development. As a consequence, they help ensure the safety and robustness
of the code by executing it in a wide variety of different scenarios. This is the basis
of the approach we take when developing Groovy scripts. In fact, experience has
shown that the combination of weak typing and unit testing in a scripting lan-
guage is often better than strong type checking in a traditional systems
programming language (see http://www.mindview.net/WebLog/log-0025). We
have both the flexibility of weak typing and the confidence of unit testing.
Barclay chap01.qxd 02/01/1904 9:51 PM Page 3

1.2 why groovy? 3

1.2 why groovy?

The Java compiler produces bytecodes that execute on the Java Virtual Machine
(JVM). Groovy classes are binary compatible with Java. This means that the
bytecodes produced by the Groovy compiler are the same as those produced by
the Java compiler. Hence, Groovy is Java as far as the JVM is concerned. This
means that Groovy is able to immediately exploit the various Java APIs such as
JDBC for database development (Fisher et al., 2003) and Swing for developing
GUI applications (Topley, 1998).
Groovy aims to shift much of the “heavy lifting” from the developer to the
language itself. For example, when adding a button to a GUI, we simply specify
the code to execute when the button is pressed. There is no need to add an event
handler to the button as an instance of a class implementing a particular
interface. Groovy does this for us.
Groovy is an object-oriented scripting language in which everything is an
object. Unlike Java, there are no exceptions to this rule. This brings an important
element of uniformity to the language. Groovy is also dynamically typed so that
the notion of a type lies within the object, not the variable that references it. An
immediate consequence is that Groovy does not require the declaration of the
type of a variable, method parameter, or method return value. This gives it the
beneficial effects of significantly shrinking the code size and giving the program-
mer the freedom to defer type decisions to runtime.
Groovy also seeks to unify instance fields and methods declared in classes
by supporting the concept of a property. A property removes the distinction
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a property as the combination of the instance field and its getter/setter methods.
Important data structures, Lists and Maps, are native to the Groovy language.
A List object or a Map object can be directly expressed in a Groovy script. For
novice developers and professionals alike, the immediacy of Lists and Maps can
make their programming tasks that much simpler. Complementing Lists and
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object that represents a code block. This immensely useful construct can be
referenced by variables, parameterized to generalize its applicability, passed as a
parameter to methods and other closures, and can be an instance field of classes.
It has a huge effect on programming in Groovy.
Hierarchical data structures like XML can also be directly represented in a
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Barclay chap01.qxd 02/01/1904 9:51 PM Page 4

4 CHAPTER 1 Groovy

Groovy builders are generally applicable to any nested tree-structure. For

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Standard Query Language (SQL) processing also has the same uniform
approach. Again, an iterator method such as eachRow combines with a closure
to express how to process the rows of a database table.
 Another Random Document on
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a Tewa clan called Okuwuñ (Cloud) which corresponds, so far as meaning goes, with the
Patki clan of the Hopi. Whether this clan brought with it a knowledge of the Great Snake
is not clear, as traditions are silent on that point.
There is a tradition in the Okuwuñ clan that their ancestors, like those of the Patki, came
from the south, and that the Nañ-towa bears a like relationship to the Okuwuñ that the
Hopi Tuwa clan does to the Patki.[42] If this tradition is well founded, a knowledge of the
Great Snake fetish of the two Hano kivas may have been brought by the Okuwuñ and
Nañ-towa into Tusayan from the same place as that of Palülükoñ.
The Kwakwantu society of the Patki clans among the Hopi are intimately connected with
this Great Plumed or Horned Snake cult. In some parts of the New-fire ceremony, in
which this society takes a prominent part, each member of the society carries in his hand
a small wooden image of a horned snake. These images are called moñkohus, some of
the typical forms of which are figured in an article on the Naacnaiya.[43] The head of the
snake and its horn are well represented in several of these wooden effigies.

Conclusions
The special interest attached to the Winter Solstice altars at Hano is in the fact that they
are made by Tewa priests whose ancestors came to Tusayan about the beginning of the
eighteenth century. The makers claim that their forefathers brought a knowledge of them
from Tcewadi, in the upper valley of the Rio Grande in New Mexico, and that their
relatives in the Tewa pueblos in the east still use like altars in their celebration at the
Tûñtai.
Nothing, so far as known, has yet been published on the Tûñtai altars of the eastern
Tanoan people, but ethnographers may yet find in the kivas of those villages material
which will render the above descriptions of comparative interest. The resemblance of the
Tûñtai altars to that of the Patki and related families in the Walpi Moñkiva at the Winter
Solstice, is a very distant one. Both have snake effigies, but there is practically little else
in common between them, or with the altar erected at the same time by the Pakab
people in the Tcivatokiva. The Tûñtai altars are characteristically Tewan, and, while
homologous with each other, are different from any yet known from the Hopi pueblos.
The purport of the Tûñtai rites at Hano seems to be similar to that of the Hopi Soyaluña,
namely, to draw back the sun in its southern declination, and to fertilize the corn and
other seeds and increase all worldly possessions. As at Walpi, strings with attached
feathers are made and given to men and women with wishes that the gods may bring
them blessings. These strings are also attached to beams of houses, placed in springs of
water, tied to the tails of horses, burros, sheep, dogs, chickens, and indeed every
possession which the Indian has and wishes to increase. The presence of the idol of the
snake means snake worship.
The survival of the Tanoan Tûñtai altars at Hano is typical of the way in which the
Tusayan ritual has grown to its present complicated form. They are instances of an
intrusive element which has not yet been amalgamated, as the knowledge of them is still
limited to unassimilated people and clans.
Similar conditions have existed from time to time during the history of the Hopi, when
new clans were added to those already existing. For many years incoming clans
maintained a strict taboo, and each family held the secrets of its own religion; but as
time went on and assimilation resulted by intermarriage, the religious society arose,
composed of men and women of different clans. The family to which a majority of the
membership belonged continued to hold the chieftaincy, and owned the altar and its
paraphernalia, cherishing the legends of the society. But when men of other clans were
admitted to membership, a mutual reaction of one society on another naturally resulted.
This tended to modifications which have obscured the original character of distinctive
family worship.
The problem of the Hopi ritual, by which is meant the sum of all great ceremonies in the
Hopi calendar, deals largely with a composite system. It implies, as elsewhere pointed
out, an investigation of the characteristic religious observances of several large families
which formerly lived apart in different pueblos. It necessitates a knowledge of the social
composition of Walpi and of the history of the different phratries which make up the
population of the village.
There is a corollary to the above conclusions. No pueblo in the southwest, outside of
Tusayan, has the same ceremonial calendar as Walpi, because the population of none is
made up of the same clans united in the same relative proportions. Hence the old remark
that what is true of one pueblo is true of all, does not apply to their ritual. Some
ceremonies at Jemez, Acoma, Sia, and Zuñi, for instance, are like some ceremonies at
Walpi; but the old ceremonial calendar in any one of these pueblos was different from
that of the other, because the component families were not the same. In the same way
the ceremonies at Hano and Walpi have certain things in common, due no doubt to the
assimilation in the latter of certain Tanoan clans, but their calendars are very different.
The Tûñtai at Hano differs more widely from the Winter Solstice ceremony at Walpi, a
gunshot away, than the Walpi observance differs from that at Oraibi, twenty miles
distant. So we might also predict that if we knew the character of Winter Solstice altars in
the Rio Grande Tewa villages, they would be found to resemble those of Hano more
closely than the altars of Hano resemble those of Walpi.

The Knickerbocker Press, New York

 FOOTNOTES:
[1] The Winter Solstice Ceremony at Walpi (American Anthropologist, vol. XI).
[2] These studies were made under the auspices of the Bureau of American
Ethnology.
[3] Most of the people of Sitcomovi are of the Asa and Honani clans, of Tanoan
ancestry, but they long ago lost the Tewa language and their Tanoan identity.
[4] The site of this last settlement of the Patki people, before they joined those of
Walpi, is in the plain about four miles south of the East Mesa. The ruins of the pueblo
are still visible, and the foundation walls can readily be traced.
[5] The Hano names of these pueblos are—San Juan, ——; Santa Clara, Kap'a; San
Ildefonso, Pocuñwe; Pojoaque, P'okwode; Nambe, Nûme; Tesuque, Tetsogi. They also
claim Taos (Tawile) and Picuris (Ohke), but say that another speech is mixed with
theirs in these pueblos.
[6] The Tewa of Hano call the Hopi Koso, and the Hopi speak of the Hano people as
the Towa or the Hanum-nyûmû. The word "Moki," so constantly used by white people
to designate the Hopi, is never applied by the Hopi to themselves, and they strongly
object to it. The dead are said to be moki, which enters into the formation of verbs,
as tconmoki, to starve; tcinmoki, to be very lonesome, etc. The name Hano or Hanoki
is, I believe, simply a combination of the words Hano and ki, "eastern pueblo." The
element hano appears also in the designation for American, Pahano, "eastern water";
pahanoki, "American house." Both the Asa and the Tewa peoples are called Hanum
clans.
[7] Remains of old reservoirs, elaborately walled, from which water was drawn by
means of a gourd tied to a long pole, are still pointed out near Tukinovi and are said
to have belonged to the Pe-towa. Old Tcasra claims that they were in use in his
mother's grandmother's time.
[8] The troubles following the great rebellion of 1680 drove many Tewa from the Rio
Grande valley to Tusayan.
[9] It is impossible to make this enumeration accurate, hence these numbers must be
regarded as approximations.
[10] It is not unusual to find several names applied to the same person. Thus, Hani,
the chief of the Piba clans at Walpi, is called Lesma in the Snake kiva. The Walpi call
the author Nakwipi, but the Flute chief at Cipaulovi insists that his name is
Yoyowaiamû, which appellation was given when the author was inducted into the
Flute rites at that pueblo in 1891.
[11] The gap in the East Mesa just at the head of the trail before one enters Hano.
The pueblo of Walpi derived its name from this gap.
[12] Their nomadic enemies raided so near the pueblo of the East Mesa that the
priests were unable to visit their shrines without danger. The idol of Talatumsi, used in
the New-fire ceremony, was removed from its shrine north of Wala on that account.
[13] Later, as the outcome of a petty quarrel near the middle of the eighteenth
century, the Asa women moved to Sitcomovi which they founded. At present there is
only one woman of this clan in Walpi, and no women of the Honani, both of which
clans are strong in Sitcomovi.
[14] Ten Broeck in 1852 seems to have been the first writer to adopt the true name,
Hano, of the Tewa pueblo on the East Mesa.
[15] One of the differences in custom between Hopi and Tewa women is the method
of making their coiffures. Unmarried girls of Walpi and Hano dress their hair in the
same manner, with whorls above the ears. Married women have different ways of
wearing their hair in the two pueblos. During the wedding ceremonies at Hano the
mother of the bride, in the presence of guests, combs her daughter's hair, or that part
of it on the front of the scalp, over the face, so that it hangs down like a veil. She ties
the hair on the back of the head in two coils, one of which hangs on either side, but
the hair before the face she cuts on a level with the chin, beginning at the top of the
ears. The hair which remains is too short to be done up in coils, and is simply brushed
to one side or the other. Among Hopi married women all the hair is included in the
two coils, and the "bang" is absent.
[16] The names of many Tewa women end in pobi, corresponding with the Hopi si, a
contracted form of sihû, in women's names, as Hoñsi, Nasiumsi, etc.
[17] Among the Hopi the moon (Tewa p'o) is called müiyaûh; new moon, müiyakatci;
first quarter, müiyachaunacapti; full moon, müiyanacapti. An eclipse of the moon is
spoken of as müiyaûh moki, "dead moon." There was a total eclipse of the moon
visible at Walpi near the end of December, 1898, when the full moon arose partially
obscured. This, said Sikyatala, was bad for the Americans who dwell in the far east,
but not for the Hopi. A "dead moon," when in the meridian of the Hopi pueblos, is
considered kalolamai, "bad."
[18] The Winter Solstice Ceremony at Walpi, op. cit.
[19] The Asa people are also called the Tcakwaina clans. The ruins of their old village,
near the western point of Awatobi mesa, are called Tcakwaina-ki. Its walls do not
appear above the surface.
[20] The particular ceremony of the Pakab peoples is the Momtcita, a single day's rite
which occurs just after the Soyaluña, under direction of Pautiwa. Connected with this
ceremony are the performances of the "stick swallowers" or Nocoto priests who were
thought to be extinct at Walpi, but Eewa is chief of the Nocotana priests, and the
society includes Wikyatiwa, Talahoya, Sikyaventima, and others. They still practice
stick-swallowing. Pautiwa is chief of the Kalektaka, a warrior priesthood. He belongs
to the Eagle clan of the Pakab phratry, which may be related to the Awata or Bow
clan of the former pueblo of Awatobi.
[21] Tcoshoniwa is generally called by a nickname, Tcino, "Bald-head," or "Curly-hair,"
a sobriquet to which he strongly objects. He is one of the oldest men of Sitcomovi,
belongs to the Patki clan, and was formerly the kimoñwi or governor of Sitcomovi.
Hani, of the Piba (Tobacco) clan, is political chief of Walpi; and Anote, also of the Piba
clan, is chief of Hano. All the pueblos have kimoñwis or governors, and the office
dates from early times; but these pueblo chiefs have no authority over pueblos other
than their own.
[22] The orientation of the Hano kivas is not far from that of the other East Mesa
kivas, or about north 44º west.
[23] The chief kiva had a small stove, an innovation which was greatly appreciated by
the writer.
[24] So named by the Hopi; the Tewa call him Tem[)e], At Hano almost everyone has
a Hopi and a Tewa name.
[25] Son of Kutcve and Kotcampa of the Kolon-towa, or Corn clan; commonly called
"Esquash" by Americans.
[26] The corn-husk packet of meal seems to be wanting in Zuñian, Keresan, and
Tanoan prayer-sticks, but it is almost universally present in those of the Hopi. The
Tanoan prayer-stick is called o'dope.
[27] A cephalic horn is an essential organ of the Great Snake, and is always
represented in pictography and on graven or other images of this being. Note the
similarity of his Tewa name to the Spanish word abajo, "below."
[28] This is the first time songs have been noted while an altar was being put in
place.
[29] This was a four-stranded string of cotton, as long as the outstretched arm,
measured from over the heart to the tip of the longest finger. It is supposed to be a
roadway of blessings, and the trail of meal is the pathway along which, in their belief,
the benign influences of the altar pass from it to the kiva entrance and to the pueblo.
[30] Pocine is a youth not far from seventeen years of age. His marriage ceremony
was studied by the writer a week before the Tûñtai.
[31] The triangle among the Hopi is almost as common a symbol of the rain-cloud as
the semicircle. It is a very old symbol, and is frequently found with the same meaning
in cliff-houses and in ancient pictography.
[32] It was found in studying the four lightning symbols on this Tewa altar that sex is
associated with cardinal points as in the Walpi Antelope altar. The lightning of the
north is male, that of the west female, the south male, and the east female. The
same holds with many objects in Hopi altars; thus the stone objects, tcamahia, of the
Antelope altar follow this rule. In the same way plants and herbs have sex (not in the
Linnean meaning), and are likewise associated with the cardinal points.
[33] This sprinkling of corn seeds upon the meal picture of a Hopi altar is mentioned
in an account of the Oraibi Flute ceremony. The evident purpose of this act is to
vitalize the seeds by the accompanying rites about the altar.
[34] Called omowûh-saka, "rain-cloud ladders."
[35] Smithsonian Report, 1895, pl. lvii.
[36] The American Anthropologist, vol. XI, page 1.
[37] The Tewa, like the Hopi, recognize six ceremonial directions—north, west, south,
east, above, and below. The sinistral circuit is one in which the center is on the left
hand, while the dextral circuit has its center to the right. The older term, "sunwise,"
for the latter circuit, etymologically means one ceremonial circuit in the northern
hemisphere and an opposite in the southern. On this and other accounts the author
has ceased to use it in designating circuits.
[38] For the increase of rabbits.
[39] This zigzag framework had appended to one end a carved imitation of a snake's
head, and as it represents the lightning this association was not incongruous. Similar
frameworks are carried in the dance by a man impersonating Püükoñ, the War god,
and at certain other times when lightning is symbolized.
[40] In asking why albino Hopi are found at the Middle Mesa and not on the East
Mesa, it was unexpectedly learned that in some ceremonies a white prayer-stick is
made at the former mesa, and that albinism was due to want of care by the father in
making these offerings while his wife was pregnant. The author has never seen the
white paho of the Middle Mesa, and does not know when it is made nor its shape and
use.
[41] All Hopi priests are very solicitous that sketches of the Patki altar in the Soyaluña
should not be shown to Tewa men or women, and the Tewa men begged me to keep
silent regarding their altars while conversing with the Walpi chiefs. There is a very
 strict taboo between the two peoples at the time of the Winter Solstice ceremony,
which is more rigid than at other times.
[42] The Tuwa (Sand) or Kükütce (Lizard) clan lived at Pakatcomo with the Patki
people, according to their legends.
[43] Journal of American Folk-lore, 1892, pl. II, figs. 1-4. These moñkohus of the
Kwakwantu society, representing horned snakes, should not be confounded with
those carried by other societies, typical forms of which are shown in figures 5-8. In
the article quoted it was not stated that the effigies with heads represent Palülükoñs.
The effigy on the massive club borne by the chief of the Kwakwantu also represents
the Great Snake.

Transcriber's Note:

Hyphenation for the most part has been standardised.

Reference to the scale on caption to Plate XX should be ignored.
*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE WINTER
SOLSTICE ALTARS AT HANO PUEBLO ***

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