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monthly periodical medical examination of workers in scheduled lead
processes.]
In the Netherlands, in consequence of lead poisoning in porcelain
works, committees were appointed to inquire into the subject in
1901, 1902, and 1903.

File Cutting

(See also p. 140)

In file cutting the file is cut on a lead bed or a bed of an alloy of
zinc and lead. The same source of poisoning occurs in other
industries such as amber working. Lead poisoning among file cutters
is pronounced. The best preventive measure is substitution of a bed
of pure zinc for lead. The German Imperial Health Office have issued
a ‘Warning notice’ for file-cutters.

Leaflet for File-cutters

The use of lead beds or of alloys of lead with other
metals has repeatedly brought about lead poisoning in
file-cutters. The beds also supposed to be made of zinc
usually contain a considerable proportion of lead, and
are thus dangerous to health.
Among file-cutters lead poisoning arises from
absorption of the metal in small quantities by means of
dirty hands, eating, drinking, smoking or chewing of
tobacco. The consequences of this absorption are not
at once noticeable. They appear only after weeks,
months, or even years, according to the extent to
which the lead has accumulated in the system.
How does lead poisoning show itself?—The first sign
is usually a bluish-grey line on the gums called the
blue line, associated with anæmia or pallor. Later
symptoms are very varied. Most frequently lead colic
comes on, the affected person suffering from violent
cramplike pains starting from the navel; the stomach is
hard and contracted; very often vomiting and
constipation ensue, or, very occasionally, diarrhœa. In
some cases paralysis shows itself—generally in those
muscles which extend the fingers, usually affecting
both arms. In exceptional cases other muscles of the
arms and legs are affected. Sometimes lead poisoning
manifests itself in violent pains in the joints—generally
the knee, more rarely in the shoulder and elbow. In
specially severe cases brain trouble supervenes—
violent headache, convulsions, unconsciousness or
blindness. Finally lead poisoning may set up disease of
the kidneys—Bright’s disease and gout.
Women suffering from lead poisoning frequently
miscarry. Children born alive may, in consequence of
lead poisoning, die in their first year. Children fed at
the breast are poisoned through the milk.
Apart from severe cases complicated with brain
trouble, which are often fatal, persons suffering from
lead poisoning generally recover if they withdraw from
further contact. Recovery takes place after a few
weeks, but in severe cases only after months.
The most effective preventive measures are
cleanliness and temperance. Persons who, without
being drunkards, are accustomed to take spirits in
quantity are more likely to succumb than the
abstemious. Spirits should not be taken during working
hours. In regard to cleanliness, file-cutters using lead
beds should be especially careful and observe the
following rules:
1. Since soiling the hands with lead cannot be
entirely avoided, smoking and chewing tobacco during
work should be given up.
 2. Workers should only take food and drink or leave
the works after thoroughly washing the hands with
soap—if possible with pumice stone; if drinking during
work cannot be wholly given up the edges of the
drinking vessels ought not to be touched by the hands.
If a file-cutter falls ill in spite of precautions with
symptoms pointing to lead poisoning he should, in his
own and his family’s interest, at once consult a doctor,
telling him that he has been working with a lead bed.

Other Industries in which Lead is used

In cutting precious stones with use of lead discs lead poisoning

frequently occurs, especially where this trade, as in some parts of
Bohemia, is carried on as a home industry. The authorities have
required substitution of carborundum (silicon carbide) for lead discs.
As, therefore, an efficient substitute is possible, use of lead should
be prohibited. Similarly, use of lead in the making of musical
instruments should, if possible, be discontinued. Brass pipes in
musical instrument making are filled with lead to facilitate
hammering and bending, and in this way poisoning has occurred. In
numerous other industries where the use of lead cannot be avoided,
and where consequently the danger must be present, as, for
instance, in lead melting, soldering, lead rolling, stamping, pressing,
&c., in the manufacture of lead piping, shot, wire, bottle capsules,
foil, toys, and many other articles, general preventive measures
should be carefully carried out. Melting of lead and lead alloys
should be carried out only under efficient exhaust ventilation. In
larger works where dust is generated this should be drawn away at
the point where it is produced. This applies also to processes in the
chemical industries where lead or lead compounds are used, seeing
that no substitute is possible.

Zinc, Brass-casting, Metal Pickling, Galvanising

 (See also pp. 151 and 182)
In zinc smelting account has to be taken of fumes which may
contain lead, zinc, arsenic, sulphur dioxide, and carbonic oxide.
Metallic fumes require to be condensed—a procedure in harmony
with economic interests. This is effected in a technically arranged
condensing system, consisting of a condenser and prolong, in which
the fumes are given as large a space as possible in which to
condense and cool. In order to prevent the entry of fumes into the
shed when removing distillation residues, hoods should be arranged
over the front of the furnace through which the gases can be
conducted into the main chimney stack or be drawn away by a fan;
in addition the residue should fall into trolleys which must either be
covered at once or placed under a closely fitting hood until the
fuming contents are cool. As the mixing of the materials for charging
and the sifting and packing of the zinc dust (poussière) may cause
risk, these processes require to be carried out mechanically with
application of local exhaust. Such an arrangement is shown in fig. 59
below. The material which is fed in is carried by the elevator to the
sifting machine, falls into the collecting bin, and is then packed. The
points at which dust can come off are connected with the exhaust
and carried to the dust collector; fans carry the filtered air to the
outside atmosphere.
 Fig. 59.—Arrangement for Sieving and Packing Zinc Dust
(poussière).

a Charging hopper; b Distributor; c Elevator; d Sieve; e Collector; f

Packing machine; g Exhaust pipe; h Worm; i Dust Collector; k
Motor

Only paragraphs 3-8 of the German Imperial Regulations dated

February 6, 1900, for Spelter Works are quoted, as the remainder
are on precisely similar lines to those for lead smelting works given
in full on p. 300.
 3. Crushing zinc ore shall not be done except in an
apparatus so arranged as to prevent penetration of
dust into the workroom.
4. The roasting furnaces as well as the calcining
furnaces shall be provided with effective exhaust
arrangements for the escaping gases. The occupier
shall be responsible for their efficiency during the time
the furnace is at work.
5. To avoid dust, ores intended for charging
distillation furnaces shall not be stacked in front of or
charged into the furnace, or mixed with other material,
except in a damp condition.
This regulation shall not apply to large so-called
Silesian
Retorts when in use in the zinc smelter; yet in the
case of them also the Higher Authorities may require
damping of the charging material if specially injurious
to health.
6. Dust, gases and vapours escaping from distillation
furnaces shall be caught as near as possible to the
point of origin by efficient arrangements and carried
out of the smelting rooms. The entrance of the gases
from the fires into the smelting room shall be
prevented as far as possible by suitable arrangements
for drawing them off.
7. Residues shall not be drawn into the smelting
room; they shall be caught in closed channels under
the furnaces and emptied from these channels at once
into waggons placed in passages beneath the
distillation rooms.
This regulation (where the Higher Authorities
approve) shall not apply to existing plants, should it be
impossible to make the arrangements mentioned in
 Reg. 1, or where such additions could only be added
by rebuilding at a prohibitive cost.
8. Sieving and packing of by-products obtained by
the distillation of zinc (poussière, flue dust) shall not
be done except in a special room separate from other
workrooms, in accordance with Reg. 1.
Sieving shall only be done in an apparatus so
arranged as to prevent escape of dust.

In brass casting, in order to prevent occurrence of brass-founders’

ague, it is necessary that the zinc oxide fumes evolved should be
effectively drawn away from the crucible by locally applied exhaust
ventilation. General ventilation merely of the room is almost useless,
as in casting the fumes rise up into the face of the pourer. Seeing
that casting is carried on in different parts of the foundry, it is
advisable to connect up the hoods over the moulds by means of
metal piping with the exhaust system, or to arrange a flexible duct
which can be moved about as occasion requires.
Dangerous acid fumes (notably nitrous fumes) are evolved in
metal pickling, especially of brass articles (such as harness furniture,
lamp fittings, church utensils, &c.), for the purpose of giving them a
shiny or dull surface by immersion in baths of nitric, hydrochloric, or
sulphuric acid. As severe and even fatal poisoning has occurred in
these operations they should be conducted in isolated compartments
or channels under exhaust ventilation. If the ventilation provided is
mechanical an acid proof earthenware fan or an injector is
necessary. The following description applies to one large works: The
pickling troughs are placed in a wooden compartment closed in
except for a small opening in front. To this compartment a
stoneware pipe leading to a stoneware fan is connected. The nitrous
fumes are drawn through the pipe and led into the lower part of an
absorption tower filled with cone-shaped packing material through
which water trickles from a vessel placed at the top. The greater
part of the acid fumes are absorbed as they pass upwards and the
water collects in a receiver below, from which it is blown by
compressed air into the vessel above for utilisation again until it
becomes so charged with acid that it can be used for pickling
purposes.
In galvanising and tinning acid fumes, injurious acroleic vapour,
and metallic fumes can arise as the metal articles (iron, copper, &c.)
first require to be cleaned in an acid bath and then dipped into
molten fat or molten zinc or tin. Here also the fumes should be
drawn away in the manner described.

Recovery and Use of Mercury

Escape of mercury vapour and development of sulphur dioxide

seriously endanger workers engaged in smelting cinnabar. The
danger can be minimised by proper construction of furnaces
preventing escape as far as possible of fumes and most careful
condensation of the mercury in impervious and sufficiently capacious
chambers and flues.
Continuous furnaces are to be preferred to those working
intermittently. The system of condensing chambers and flues must
offer as long a passage as possible to the fumes, and care must be
taken to keep them thoroughly cool. Removal of the deposit rich in
mercury from the flues is especially fraught with danger. This work
should only be carried on after efficient watering by workers
equipped with respirators, working suits, &c.
Use of mercury.—Mirror making by coating the glass with mercury
used to be one of the most dangerous occupations. Now that a fully
adequate substitute for mercury has been found in the nitrate of
silver and ammonia process, use of mercury should be prohibited. As
a home industry especially mirror coating with mercury should be
suppressed. Fortunately the dangerous mode of production is rapidly
being ousted.
The following requirements are contained in a decree of the
Prussian Government dated May 18, 1889:
 (1) Medical certificate on admission to employment in mirror
making with use of mercury;
(2) restriction of hours to six in summer and in winter to eight
daily, with a two hours’ mid-day interval;
(3) fortnightly examination of the workers;
(4) air space per person of 40 cubic meters in the coating room
and 30 in the drying room, and, in both, introduction of 60 cubic
meters of air per head per hour;
(5) Work to cease if the temperature of the room in summer
reaches 25° C.
Measures are necessary to prevent occurrence of mercury
poisoning in hatters’ furriers’ processes (preparation of rabbit fur for
felt hats) in consequence of the use of nitrate of mercury. Danger
arises chiefly in cutting the hair, in dressing and drying, in sorting,
and also in the subsequent stages of hard felt hat manufacture.
Aspiration of the dust and fluff at its point of generation, isolation of
the drying rooms and prohibition of entry into them while drying is
going on, are necessary. In dressing (commonly known as
‘carotting’), the nitric acid vapour requires to be drawn away. In
addition strict personal hygiene, especially of the teeth, is very
important. Processes involving water gilding (nowadays practised on
a very small scale) should only be carried on in stoves provided with
exhaust ventilation. Electroplating, fortunately, has almost entirely
taken its place.
As cases of mercury poisoning have been reported from use of
mercurial pumps in producing the vacuum inside electric
incandescent bulbs, air pumps should be substituted for them
whenever possible.
Barometer and thermometer makers may and do suffer severely if
care is not taken to draw away the fumes and ensure good
ventilation of the workrooms. Careless handling and the dropping of
mercury on the benches make it difficult to prevent some
volatilisation. Personal hygiene and especially a proper hygiene of
the mouth are of the greatest importance in this class of work.
Preparation of mercury compounds in chemical factories,
especially the dry processes (sublimation), as in production of
cinnabar, corrosive sublimate and calomel mixing, grinding, and
sublimation, require to be carried on in closed apparatus.
Preparation of the substances named above in solution involves
much less risk than subliming. From our point of view, therefore, the
former is to preferred.

Arsenic, Arsenic Compounds, Arseniuretted Hydrogen

For arsenic works imperviousness of the system and as complete

condensation as possible are necessary to prevent escape of fumes.
Respirators should be worn in manipulations with white arsenic,
and such work as packing done under conditions of locally applied
exhaust ventilation.
Industrial use of arsenic compounds, in view of the risk attaching
to them, should be reduced as much as possible. This has
sometimes been achieved by technical improvement in processes of
manufacture. Thus in the colour industry, where formerly colours
containing arsenic played an important rôle, coal-tar colours have
taken their place, and use of arsenic even in these (as in the
manufacture of fuchsin) has been replaced by nitrobenzene.
As the danger from arseniuretted hydrogen gas is especially great
in processes in which acid acts on metal and either one or both of
them contain arsenic, the materials, should be as free from arsenic
as possible, in the production, for example, of hydrogen for
soldering, in extracting metals by means of acids, in galvanic
elements, in accumulator works, in the storage and transport of
acids in metal vessels, and in galvanising.
In any case the workers in these industries should be warned of
the danger and instructed in case of emergencies. For soldering
exclusive use of hydrogen produced electrolytically and procurable in
steel cylinders is advisable.

Extraction and Use of Gold and Silver

In the extraction of gold and silver by amalgamation and

subsequent volatilisation of mercury there is risk of mercurial
poisoning. The preventive measures necessary are similar to those
for poisoning in the recovery of mercury (see p. 327).
Argyria in pearl bead blowers can be avoided by using pumps to
blow the silver solution into the beads instead of the mouth.
In electroplating the possibility of poisonous fumes arising from
the baths must be guarded against because hydrocyanic (prussic)
acid, though only in minute quantities, may be evolved; care must
be taken that the workrooms are well ventilated or the baths
hooded. Careful personal hygiene is essential, for the prevention of
skin diseases from which workers in electroplating often suffer.

VII
PREVENTIVE MEASURES IN OTHER TRADES

Ceramic Industry

In the glass industry use of lead, chrome, and arsenic compounds

should be restricted as much as possible or allowed only under
suitable precautions (exhaust ventilation, personal hygiene, &c.).
Etching on glass by means of hydrofluoric causes almost inevitably
injury to the workers. Rendering the surface of glass opaque should
preferably be done by sand blast. When a bath of hydrofluoric acid
for etching on glass is used the fumes require to be drawn away by
hoods over the baths and the work-rooms well ventilated.
Further precautionary measures are called for in view of industrial
poisoning by furnace gases in various ceramic industries, as, for
example, cement works, glass works, and tile works.
The following suggestions are made in the technical introduction
to the Germany Factory Act for prevention of poisoning from
carbonic oxide, carbon dioxide, and sulphur dioxide:
(1) Even the fixing of benches which might be used for sleeping
on near the furnaces should be strictly forbidden;
(2) All furnaces which are roofed over should be provided with
adequate side and roof ventilation;
(3) All gas pipes and cocks must be maintained in an impervious
condition.

Manufacture and Use of Varnishes and Drying Oils

Unpleasant fumes are given off on boiling linseed oil with oxidising
substances, which should be prevented by closely fitting covers and
condensation of the fumes in cooling apparatus. In heating and
dissolving resin for the production of varnishes the fumes evolved
require to be dealt with in a similar way.
Preventive measures must be taken also in the use of quick-drying
paints on ships and inside steam boilers as, owing to the rapid
evaporation of the poisonous solvents—benzene, benzine and
turpentine—fatalities have occurred. As a result of elaborate
investigation by the inspectors of factories in Hamburg the following
instructions were issued:

Quick-drying paint for ships and for preventing rust

should only be used under the supervision of a person
conversant with the danger to health and risk from
fire.
They should only be allowed for the painting of
interior surfaces after adoption of adequate
precautions—free ventilation, use of smoke helmets
with air conducting apparatus, and no naked lights, &c.
 Since use of quick-drying paints cannot easily be
prohibited and the fumes from the substitutes for
turpentine—benzene and other light tarry oils—exert
injurious effect on man, precautionary measures are
called for. Regulation of working hours is as important
as provision of adequate ventilation. Workers,
therefore, should be allowed proper intervals from
work.
Confined spaces in the interior of ships should be
adequately ventilated before, after, and during work;
all persons who use the paints should have opportunity
for washing given them at their work places, and
should be compelled to avail themselves of these
facilities; indulgence in alcohol and smoking should be
prohibited; receptacles in which quick-drying paints are
sold should be provided with an air-tight cover and
with a warning notice as to the danger of the contents.
Paints made from petroleum fractions of low boiling-
point, light coal-tar oils, turpentine oil, carbon
bisulphide, and similar substances, are to be regarded
as injurious to health.
Persons under eighteen, and women, should not be
allowed to work with quick-drying paints.
Obligatory notification of cases of poisoning by
hydrocarbons and other similar poisonings would have
a good effect.

Schaefer (Inspector of Factories in Hamburg) has drawn up the

following leaflet for painters, varnishers, workers in dry docks, and
others engaged in painting with quick drying paints and oils:

All quick-drying paints and oils are more or less

injurious to health and very inflammable, as they
contain volatile substances such as benzine (naphtha,
petrol ether), benzene, turpentine oil, carbon
bisulphide, &c. These paints are mostly used in
painting interiors of ships, boilers, machinery,
apparatus, &c., and come on the market under various
names, such as Black Varnish Oil, Solution, Patent
Colour, Anti-corrosive, Dermatin, Acid-proof Paint,
Apexior, Saxol, &c.
Even at ordinary temperatures the volatile fluids
used as mediums for dry paint powders, or as a first
coating, evaporate. Air filled with the fumes is not only
harmful to health, but liable to explosion. Working with
these paints and oils in the interior of ships, or steam
boilers and the like, has repeatedly led to explosions
and fatal poisoning.
Danger of Poisoning.—All persons are exposed to
the danger of poisoning who use quick-drying paints in
the interior of rooms or receptacles, or otherwise
manipulate the paints. The warmer the room and the
less ventilation there is before and during the painting,
the greater the danger of poisoning. On the other
hand, use of these paints in the open air is generally
without effect.
Poisoning arises from inhaling the fumes of
hydrocarbons. The symptoms are oppression,
headache, inclination to vomit, cough, hiccough,
giddiness, noises in the ears, drunken-like excitement,
trembling and twitching. Inhalation of larger quantities
brings on, quite suddenly and without previous
warning, unconsciousness, which may last many hours
and is often fatal. Except in severe cases the
symptoms generally soon disappear, if the affected
person withdraws from further contact with the fumes.
The most effective protection therefore against
 poisoning is fresh air and temperance. In so far as
painting with quick-drying materials is necessary in
workrooms, interiors of ships, water and ballast tanks,
double bottoms, bunkers, bilges, cabins, boilers and
receptacles, care must be taken to ensure thorough
ventilation before, after, and while the work is going
on. Where no sufficient ventilation is possible these
paints ought not to be used. Frequent intermission of
work by a short stay in the open air is useful. When
working in spaces not easily accessible, the worker
should be roped.
Speaking, singing, or whistling during work favours
inhalation of the fumes and is, therefore, to be
avoided. Indulgence in spirits, especially during
working hours, increases the danger of poisoning.
Habitual drinkers should not be allowed to work at all
with quick-drying paints and oils.
At the first signs of discomfort work should be
stopped. An immediate stay in the open air will then
usually dispel the poisonous symptoms.
If, notwithstanding this, severe symptoms develop,
oxygen inhalation should be commenced forthwith and
medical aid called in.

Production of Vegetable Foods and Luxuries

(See also p. 154)

Measures for the prevention of industrial poisoning have to be
thought of in connection with drying processes (by smoke gases,
carbon dioxide, and carbonic oxide), many processes of preserving
(use of sulphur dioxide, &c.), and fermentation (accumulation of
carbonic acid).
 In breweries the use of kilns allowing fire gases to enter the
drying-rooms formerly caused carbonic oxide and carbonic acid
poisoning. The general introduction of hot air kilns provided with
mechanical malt-turning apparatus should be insisted on, and is in
keeping with progress in technical methods.
The accumulation of carbonic acid in the malting cellars can be
prevented in the same way as in a distillery.
If ammonia is used for refrigeration, precautions are necessary so
that, in the event of leakage or bursting of pipes, the workers may
escape. Naturally the imperviousness of the freezing system must be
guaranteed.
Oppression and danger to the health of the workers is occasionally
caused by the development of gases in the coating of barrels with
pitch, partly preventable by the use of pitching machines.
In the production of spirits carbonic acid poisoning can occur from
accumulation of carbonic acid in the fermentation cellars. These
should be thoroughly ventilated and in view of the heaviness of the
gas, openings for ventilation should always be located at the floor
level.
In the sulphuring of malt the following recommendations were
made by the Austrian inspectors:
During the sulphuring process the room ought not to be entered
(for the turning over of the malt). When the sulphur has been burnt,
the drying-room must be ventilated from the outside, by opening the
windows and letting in cold currents of air, until the sulphur dioxide
has completely dispersed, which can be tested by holding a strip of
moistened blue litmus paper at the half-opened door. If it does not
turn red, turning over of the malt may be proceeded with.
As the sulphuring of hops in hop districts is done in primitive little
kilns, in which the hops are spread out on a kind of gridiron and
sulphur burnt below in iron pans, development of sulphur dioxide
may affect the workers. The following regulations are therefore
suggested for work in these kilns:
 The rooms in which sulphuring takes place must be
airtight, capable of being locked, and provided with
arrangements which make it possible to remove the
sulphur dioxide fumes before the room is entered. This
can usually be done by a strong coke fire, maintained
in the chimney place, which creates the necessary
draught. If fans are used, it must be remembered that
iron is affected and destroyed by acid gases;
stoneware fans are therefore advisable.

In the production of vinegar, air escapes laden with acetic acid

vapour, alcohol, lower oxidation products of alcohol, aldehyde, acetic
ether, &c. Their escape can be avoided if the whole process is
carried on in a closed self-acting apparatus with the advantage also
that no loss occurs.
In premises for drying agricultural products (fruit, chicory, turnips)
the persons employed in the drying-room are exposed to the danger
of carbonic oxide poisoning from direct firing.
The following recommendations for work in drying-rooms with
direct firing are taken from an Austrian decree of 1901:

The lower drying chambers, in which the real drying

process is effected, should be so arranged that the
objects dried in them can be removed by means of
long-handled implements through a passage shut off
from the drying-room. The separation of this passage
can be effected by loose tin plates which can be
removed as required for the work of turning or
removal of the dried products, so that the worker need
not come into contact with the gases.
Open fires should be so arranged that if required
they can be shut off, by simple arrangements, from the
drying-rooms in which the workers are temporarily
occupied in carrying in, and turning, the objects to be
dried, transferring the partly dried products to hotter
hurdles, and emptying them when finished, in such a
way that the entrance of combustion gases into the
drying chambers can be completely prevented. In
order, however, to prevent a back draught,
arrangements must be made for simultaneous removal
of the gases by pipes connected with a chimney or
smoke flue. The places from which the fires are
charged should, in addition, be furnished with suitably
arranged openings for ventilation leading into the
outer air, in order to neutralise, in case of need, any
back draught from the furnaces into the rooms.
The windows of the drying chambers should be so
arranged as to open both from within and without.
The floor of the roof space, or attic, which forms at
the same time the ceiling of the upper drying-room,
should be kept perfectly airtight, as also the openings
into it through which the steam pipes pass. For this
purpose the floor should be a double one and the
openings or boxes into which material is thrown should
have a double cover above and below. Further,
situated in the highest point of the ceiling of the roof
space, there should be a suitable number of openings
topped by louvred turrets. In the roof space no work
should be done except manipulations necessary for the
charging of the hurdles with the goods to be dried.
Use of the roof floor as a sleeping or living room is not
permissible.
Before the workers enter the drying chambers for
the purpose of turning the materials, the stove should
be shut off, the gases drawn from the furnace into the
chimney or flue, and at the same time the doors and
windows of the drying rooms opened.
 Entering of drying chambers for working purposes
should only be done after a sufficient time has elapsed
for removal of the air by ventilation.
Charging of the furnaces should be so arranged that
they burn as low as possible before the removal of the
dried materials and before subsequent work in the
drying chambers. Seeing that chicory and turnip drying
is done intermittently by night, a special sleeping or
waiting room with free ventilation should be provided.
The regulations concerning the ventilation of the
workrooms are to be made known to the workers.

Cigar Industry

In order to prevent injury to health to tobacco workers the dust

and fumes, especially at cutting and sifting machines, require to be
drawn away by locally applied exhaust ventilation. The workrooms,
moreover, must conform to hygienic requirements, especially as to
cleanliness. Washing accommodation and baths are desirable, but
are only likely to be provided in large works.

Wood Working

(See also p. 154)

Risk from poisonous woods can be avoided by exhaust ventilation
applied to the wood-working machinery.
To lessen the danger to health in the use of methylated spirits in
the polishing of wood adequate ventilation of the workrooms is
necessary; drawing off the fumes by local ventilation is often
impossible.

Production of Wood-pulp (Cellulose) and Paper.

 In the sulphite cellulose process, sulphur dioxide may escape from
the sulphur stoves or from the boilers; escape of sulphur dioxide is
also possible through defective gas pipes and condensers. Gas pipes
and condensers require to be quite impervious and condensation or
absorption as complete as possible. The fumes escaping from the
boilers should be led through pipes into closed boilers for
condensation purposes; the gases not condensed here are to be led
into absorption towers.
In the manufacture of paper with use of chloride of lime for
bleaching chlorine can be given off in considerable quantity,
requiring removal of the gases from the apparatus.
The use of poisonous colours containing lead or arsenic, and
addition of lead-containing substances to the paper pulp, is now very
rare.

Textile Industries.

(See also p. 156)

In the textile industry only a few manipulations are associated
with serious risk of poisoning. Those engaged in carbonising are
exposed to acid fumes; closed and ventilated apparatus, therefore,
as far as possible, require to be used and the acid gases escaping
from them should be absorbed. These requirements are fulfilled by
carbonising stoves which are ventilated and connected with coke
condensers. It is especially urged that only arsenic free acid be
employed, as otherwise danger of poisoning by arseniuretted
hydrogen may be incurred.
In the making of artificial silk, according to the Chardonnet-
Cadoret process, the precautionary measures recommended in
nitrating together with careful exhaustion of the ether and camphor
fumes apply.
The combustion gases (containing carbonic oxide) developed in
the process of singeing are harmful and require to be led away at
their source.
Poisonous metallic salts, especially lead and lead-containing zinc,
are used as weighting materials, in dressing or finishing, and
sometimes cause symptoms among the workers. Apart from the
danger to those occupied in spinning and weaving, the workers who
handle these products (in the clothing trade) also run a risk from
lead.
Precautionary measures are necessary in the varnishing of woven
materials, as the substances employed may contain volatile
poisonous solvents. If these poisonous solvents cannot be replaced
by others less poisonous, carefully applied exhaust ventilation must
be provided. The same holds good when carbon bisulphide,
benzene, and benzine are used as solvents in the production of
woven materials impregnated with indiarubber.
Employment of lead salts and other poisonous metallic salts in the
glossing of woven materials, or in order to render them non-
inflammable, is to be deprecated.
Cases of lead poisoning have occurred in the working-up of
asbestos, as lead wire is sometimes used in the process of weaving.
To protect workers in chlorine and sulphur bleaching from
poisoning by chlorine or sulphur dioxide the gases arising from the
bleaching liquids should be drawn away. Use of closed bleaching
apparatus, as is the case in large works, reduces the danger to a
minimum. Bleaching-rooms should be connected with a powerful
stoneware fan, so that they may be thoroughly aired before they are
entered.

Dye Works

Industrial poisoning by dyes is, in general, rare, as the natural

dyes (wood and tar dyes) are almost without exception non-
poisonous. Further, the dyes are generally only used in diluted
solution. Formerly the arsenic in many tar dyes caused poisoning,
but now it is usually the mordants which have harmful effect. To this
class belong chromic acid salts and mordants containing arsenic,
antimony (tartar-emetic), and also chloride of tin. In the scraping off
of layers of paint containing arsenic, arsenic dust may arise. In
Turkey red dyeworks, especially sodium arsenite is used for fixing
the tar dyes.
Orpiment dyes which may give off poisonous arseniuretted
hydrogen gas are becoming less and less used; from the point of
view of industrial hygiene, the utmost possible avoidance of the use
of arsenic-containing preparations in dye works is to be
recommended. Where this is not possible, strict personal hygiene
must be enforced (as, for instance, application of vaseline to the
skin).
 FOOTNOTES
[A] Leymann has dealt with the conditions of health in a large
aniline factory in a later work which is referred to in detail in the
section on the aniline industry.
[B] Poisoning by lead, phosphorus, and arsenic contracted in a
factory or Workshop has been notifiable in Great Britain and
Ireland since 1895.
[C] ‘On the Nature, Uses, and Manufacture of Ferro-silicon,’
1909, Cd. 4958.
[D] In Great Britain section 73 of the Factory and Workshop
Act, 1901, requires every medical practitioner attending on or
called in to visit a patient whom he believes to be suffering from
lead, phosphorus, arsenical or mercurial poisoning, or anthrax,
contracted in any factory or workshop, to notify the Chief
Inspector of Factories, and a similar obligation is placed on the
occupier to send written notice of every case to the inspector and
certifying surgeon of the district.
The table on p. 222 shows the number of reports included in
returns for the years 1900-12.
Cases of acute poisoning in factories and workshops are
reportable to the Inspector and certifying surgeon, under the
Notice of Accidents Act, 1906, when (a) causing loss of life or (b)
due to molten metal, hot liquid, explosion, escape of gas or
steam, and so disabling any person as to cause absence
throughout at least one whole day from his ordinary work.
The following table gives indication of the relative frequency of
cases of poisoning from gases and fumes, although some were
reported as accidents the result of the unconsciousness induced:

Nature of Gas or Fumes. 1912. 1911. 1910. 1909. 1908.

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
Carbon monoxide 91 14 64 6 53 9 53 6 55 5
(a) Blast furnace 33 5 16 2 19 7 16 26 3
 (b) Power (suction, 19 4 31 1 25 25 4 19 2
producer, Mond,
Dowson).
(c) Coal 29 2 6 2 4 11 1 9
(d) Other 10 3 11 1 5 2 1 1 1
Sulphuretted hydrogen 6 8 2 2 5 2 8 1
Carbon dioxide 3 2 1 1 2 1 2 2 4 3
Ammonia 1 1 1 2 1 1
Chlorine and hydrochloric acid 3 5 1 3 1 1
fumes
Nitrous fumes 12 1 18 2 11 12 2 3 1
Nitro and amido derivatives of 9 1 21 18 4 2
benzene
Naphtha and benzene 3 1 1 1 — 11 2
Other (Sulphur dioxide, &c.) 7 2 4 4 4 3

The principal figures are those of all cases, fatal and non-fatal;
the small figures relate to fatal cases.
[E] The principal numbers relate to cases, the small figures to
deaths. Fatal cases not reported in previous years are included as
both cases and deaths.
[F] Fischer adopts a chemical basis in his classification. His two
main subdivisions are (1) inorganic and (2) organic poisons. The
sub-divisions of the inorganic poisons are (a) non-metallic—
chlorine, calcium chloride, hydrochloric acid, potassium chlorate,
hydrofluoric acid, carbonic oxide, phosgene, carbon dioxide,
cyanogen compounds, ammonia, nitrous fumes, phosphorus,
phosphoretted hydrogen, arsenic compounds, antimony
compounds, sulphur dioxide, sulphuric acid, sulphuretted
hydrogen, carbon bisulphide, chloride of sulphur; and (b) metallic
—chromic acid and chromates, manganese dioxide, sulphate of
nickel, mercury and lead. The sub-divisions of (2) the organic
substances are into (a) the unsaturated carbon compounds—
benzene, petroleum, methyl-, ethyl-, amyl-, and allyl-alcohol,
oxalic acid, formal- and acetaldehyde, acrolein, acetone, methyl-
bromide and iodide, nitro-glycerin, dimethyl-sulphate and amyl
acetate, and (b) the aromatic series benzene, nitro-, chloro-nitro-,
dinitro-, chloro-dinitro-benzene, phenol, picric acid, phenyl-
hydrazine, aniline, and certain aniline colours, para-nitraniline,
pyridine, naphthalene, nitro-naphthalene, naphthlyamine,
naphthol, benzidine, acridine, turpentine, and nicotine.
 [G] A Prussian Ministerial Decree, dated March 31, 1892, deals
with the preparation of nitrate of mercury.
[H] In Great Britain and Ireland the White Phosphorus Matches
Prohibition Act became operative from January 1, 1910. In the
United States of America a Prohibition Act became operative on
July 1, 1913.
[I] Reprinted by permission of the Controller of H.M. Stationery
Office.
[J] Use of Oxygen Cylinder.—Open the valve gradually by
tapping the lever key (which must first be extended to its full
length) with the wrist, until the oxygen flows in a gentle stream
from the mouthpiece into the patient’s mouth. The lips should not
be closed round the mouthpiece. The nostrils should be closed
during breathing in, and opened during breathing out.
If the teeth are set, close the lips and one nostril. Let the
conical end of the mouthpiece slightly enter the other nostril
during breathing in, and remove it for breathing out.
[K] The suggested regulations made after his inquiry (see p.
149) by Dr. Copeman are:
1. Ferro-silicon should not be sent out from the works
immediately after manufacture, but after being broken up into
pieces of the size in which it is usually sold, should be stored
under cover, but exposed to the air as completely as possible, for
at least a month before being despatched from the works.
2. Manufacturers should be required to mark in bold letters
each barrel or other parcel of ferro-silicon with the name and
percentage grade (certified by chemical analysis) of the material;
the name of the works where it is produced; the date of
manufacture; and date of despatch.
3. The carriage of ferro-silicon on vessels carrying passengers
should be prohibited. When carried on cargo boats it should, if
circumstances permit, be stored on deck. If it be considered
necessary to store it elsewhere, the place of storage should be
capable of being adequately ventilated, and such place of storage
should be cut off by airtight bulkheads from the quarters
occupied by the crew of the vessel.
4. This regulation should apply to the transport of ferro-silicon
on river or canal barges as well as on sea-going vessels.
 5. Storage places at docks or at works where ferro-silicon is
used should have provision for free access of air, and should be
situated at a distance from work-rooms, mess-rooms, offices, &c.
[L] Regulations 5-7 contain precautions to be observed in the
corroding chambers.