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Functional Programming in

Marco Vermeulen
Rúnar Bjarnason
Paul Chiusano
Foreword by Raul Raja
MANNING
Functional Programming in Kotlin
 Functional
Programming
in Kotlin
MARCO VERMEULEN
RÚNAR BJARNASON
PAUL CHIUSANO
FOREWORD BY RAUL RAJA

MANNING
SHELTER ISLAND
For online information and ordering of this and other Manning books, please visit
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©2021 by Manning Publications Co. All rights reserved.

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was correct at press time. The author and publisher do not assume and hereby disclaim any
liability to any party for any loss, damage, or disruption caused by errors or omissions, whether
such errors or omissions result from negligence, accident, or any other cause, or from an usage
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Technical development editors: Mark Elston, John Guthrie,
Joshua White
Manning Publications Co. Review editor: Aleksandar Dragosavljević
20 Baldwin Road Production editor: Keri Hales
PO Box 761 Copy editor: Tiffany Taylor
Shelter Island, NY 11964 Proofreader: Katie Tennant
Technical proofreader: Jean-François Morin
Typesetter: Dennis Dalinnik
Cover designer: Leslie Haimes

ISBN: 9781617297168
Printed in the United States of America
 contents
foreword xiii
preface xv
acknowledgments xvii
about this book xix

PART 1 INTRODUCTION TO FUNCTIONAL

PROGRAMMING ...................................................1

1 What is functional programming?

1.1 The benefits of FP: A simple example 5
A program with side effects 5 ■
3

A functional solution: Removing

the side effects 7
1.2 Exactly what is a (pure) function? 11
1.3 RT, purity, and the substitution model 12
1.4 What lies ahead 15

2 Getting started with functional programming in Kotlin 17

2.1 Higher-order functions: Passing functions to
functions 18
A short detour: Writing loops functionally 18 ■
Writing our first
higher-order function 20

v
vi CONTENTS

2.2 Polymorphic functions: Abstracting over types 23

An example of a polymorphic function 24 ■
Calling HOFs with
anonymous functions 26
2.3 Following types to implementations 27

3 Functional data structures

3.1
31
Defining functional data structures 32
3.2 Working with functional data structures 34
The “when” construct for matching by type 37 The when ■

construct as an alternative to if-else logic 37 Pattern matching

■

and how it differs from Kotlin matching 38

3.3 Data sharing in functional data structures 40
The efficiency of data sharing 42
3.4 Recursion over lists and generalizing to HOFs 43
More functions for working with lists 47 Lists in the Kotlin
■

standard library 49 Inefficiency of assembling list functions

■

from simpler components 51

3.5 Trees 51

4 Handling errors without exceptions

4.1 The problems with throwing exceptions 57
56

4.2 Problematic alternatives to exceptions 59

Sentinel value 60 ■
Supplied default value 60
4.3 Encoding success conditions with Option 61
Usage patterns for Option 61 Option composition, lifting, and
■

wrapping exception-oriented APIs 67 For-comprehensions with

■

Option 71
4.4 Encoding success and failure conditions with Either 72
For-comprehensions with Either 74

5 Strictness and laziness

5.1
77
Strict and non-strict functions 79
5.2 An extended example: Lazy lists 82
Memoizing streams and avoiding recomputation 83 ■
Helper
functions for inspecting streams 84
5.3 Separating program description from evaluation 85
 CONTENTS vii

5.4 Producing infinite data streams through corecursive

functions 89
5.5 Conclusion 94

6 Purely functional state

6.1
96
Generating random numbers using side effects 97
6.2 Purely functional random number generation 99
6.3 Making stateful APIs pure 100
6.4 An implicit approach to passing state actions 103
More power by combining state actions 104 Recursive retries
■

through nested state actions 106 Applying the combinator API to

■

the initial example 107

6.5 A general state action data type 108
6.6 Purely functional imperative programming 109
6.7 Conclusion 114

PART 2 FUNCTIONAL DESIGN AND COMBINATOR

LIBRARIES .......................................................115

7 Purely functional parallelism

7.1
117
Choosing data types and functions 118
A data type for parallel computations 120 Combining parallel
■

computations to ensure concurrency 121 Marking computations

■

to be forked explicitly 124

7.2 Picking a representation 126
7.3 Refining the API with the end user in mind 129
7.4 Reasoning about the API in terms of algebraic
equations 134
The law of mapping 134 The law of forking 136
■

Using actors for a non-blocking implementation 138

7.5 Refining combinators to their most general form 145

8 Property-based testing
8.1
150
A brief tour of property-based testing 151
8.2 Choosing data types and functions 153
Gathering initial snippets for a possible API 153 Exploring the
■

meaning and API of properties 154 Discovering the meaning

■
viii CONTENTS

and API of generators 157 Generators that depend on generated

■

values 159 Refining the property data type 160

■

8.3 Test case minimization 163

8.4 Using the library and improving the user experience 166
Some simple examples 166 ■
Writing a test suite for parallel
computations 168
8.5 Generating higher-order functions
and other possibilities 173
8.6 The laws of generators 175
8.7 Conclusion 175

9 Parser combinators
9.1 Designing an algebra
177
179
A parser to recognize single characters 179 A parser to recognize
■

entire strings 180 A parser to recognize repetition 181

■

9.2 One possible approach to designing an algebra 183

Counting character repetition 183 ■
Slicing and nonempty
repetition 185
9.3 Handling context sensitivity 189
9.4 Writing a JSON parser 191
Defining expectations of a JSON parser 191 ■
Reviewing the JSON
format 192 A JSON parser 193
■

9.5 Surfacing errors through reporting 194

First attempt at representing errors 196 Accumulating errors
■

through error nesting 197 Controlling branching and

■

backtracking 198
9.6 Implementing the algebra 200
Building up the algebra implementation gradually 201
Sequencing parsers after each other 202 Capturing error
■

messages through labeling parsers 203 Recovering from error

■

conditions and backtracking over them 205 Propagating state■

through context-sensitive parsers 206

9.7 Conclusion 207
 CONTENTS ix

PART 3 COMMON STRUCTURES IN FUNCTIONAL

DESIGN ...........................................................209

10 Monoids
10.1
211
What is a monoid? 212
10.2 Folding lists with monoids 217
10.3 Associativity and parallelism 218
10.4 Example: Parallel parsing 221
10.5 Foldable data structures 223
10.6 Composing monoids 227
Assembling more complex monoids 227 ■
Using composed monoids
to fuse traversals 229

11 Monads and functors

11.1 Functors 232
231

Defining the functor by generalizing the map function 232

The importance of laws and their relation to the functor 234
11.2 Monads: Generalizing the flatMap and unit
functions 235
Introducing the Monad interface 236
11.3 Monadic combinators 239
11.4 Monad laws 241
The associative law 242 Proving the associative law for a specific
■

monad 243 The left and right identity laws 246

■

11.5 Just what is a monad? 248

The identity monad 249 ■
The State monad and partial type
application 250

12 Applicative and traversable functors

12.1 Generalizing monads for reusability 259
258

12.2 Applicatives as an alternative abstraction

to the monad 260
12.3 The difference between monads and
applicative functors 265
The Option applicative vs. the Option monad 265 ■
The Parser
applicative vs. the Parser monad 266
x CONTENTS

12.4 The advantages of applicative functors 268

Not all applicative functors are monads 268
12.5 Reasoning about programs through the applicative
laws 272
Laws of left and right identity 272 ■
Law of associativity 273
Law of naturality 274
12.6 Abstracting traverse and sequence using
traversable functors 277
12.7 Using Traversable to iteratively transform higher
kinds 279
From monoids to applicative functors 280 Traversing collections
■

while propagating state actions 282 Combining traversable

■

structures 286 Traversal fusion for single pass efficiency 287

■

Simultaneous traversal of nested traversable structures 288

Pitfalls and workarounds for monad composition 288

PART 4 EFFECTS AND I/O ...........................................291

13 External effects and I/O

13.1
293
Factoring effects out of an effectful program 294
13.2 Introducing the IO type to separate effectful code 296
Handling input effects 297 ■
Benefits and drawbacks of the simple
IO type 302
13.3 Avoiding stack overflow errors by reification and
trampolining 303
Reifying control flow as data constructors 304 ■
Trampolining: A
general solution to stack overflow 307
13.4 A more nuanced IO type 309
Reasonably priced monads 311 A monad that supports
■

only console I/O 312 Testing console I/O by using pure

■

interpreters 316
13.5 Non-blocking and asynchronous I/O 319
13.6 A general-purpose IO type 321
The main program at the end of the universe 321
13.7 Why the IO type is insufficient for streaming I/O 322
 CONTENTS xi

14 Local effects and mutable state

14.1
326
State mutation is legal in pure functional code 327
14.2 A data type to enforce scoping of side effects 329
A domain-specific language for scoped mutation 330 An algebra ■

of mutable references 331 Running mutable state actions 334

■

The mutable array represented as a data type for the ST monad 336
A purely functional in-place quicksort 338
14.3 Purity is contextual 340
Definition by example 340 ■
What counts as a side effect? 341

15 Stream processing and incremental I/O

15.1 Problems with imperative I/O: An example 345
344

15.2 Transforming streams with simple transducers 348

Combinators for building stream transducers 350 Combining ■

multiple transducers by appending and composing 354 Stream ■

transducers for file processing 357

15.3 An extensible process type for protocol
parameterization 358
Sources for stream emission 361 Ensuring resource safety in
■

stream transducers 363 Applying transducers to a single-input

■

stream 367 Multiple input streams 370 Sinks for output

■ ■

processing 373 Hiding effects in effectful channels 375

■

Dynamic resource allocation 376

15.4 Application of stream transducers in the real world 377

appendix A Exercise hints and tips 380

appendix B Exercise solutions 393
appendix C Higher-kinded types 460
appendix D Type classes 467
index 471
 foreword
Functional programming has profoundly changed the way we approach and solve
problems through software. Functional programming emphasizes immutability, func-
tion purity, and composition of functions as a means to build correct and predictable
programs—properties in our code that have changed how we look at distributed sys-
tems, applications, and software engineering in recent decades.
Whereas a few years ago, functional programming’s success was questioned and it
was frequently compared or linked to other paradigms, today’s adoption has extended
to most language compilers and standard libraries and impacts how communities and
teams approach architecture and system design.
Kotlin is a multiparadigm, multiplatform language that includes functional fea-
tures such as continuations, nullable types, interfaces, pattern matching, algebraic
data types, and many others that make it unique, fun, and one of the most performant
languages with which to practice functional programming.
Since every language has its own notion of how functional programming manifests
itself, you may be wondering what the essence of functional programming is and
whether you can learn it in a principled way. Marco brings us this adaptation of the
Red Book, Functional Programming in Scala, this time using Kotlin as a vehicle to illus-
trate these patterns from the ground up. Functional Programming in Kotlin breaks down
basic concepts around function composition and algebraic design and then invites
you to practice and learn through exercises and examples that illustrate how you can
implement functional patterns and data types from scratch.

xiii
xiv FOREWORD

From common scenarios like error handling to more complex cases like streaming,
Functional Programming in Kotlin complements the functional programmer’s learning
journey and provides a foundational approach to learning core functional abstractions
and patterns.

RAUL RAJA
Arrow maintainer
CTO 47 Degrees
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
 The Project Gutenberg eBook of Remarks on
the Uses of some of the Bazaar Medicines and
Common Medical Plants of India
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States
and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the
United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where
you are located before using this eBook.

Title: Remarks on the Uses of some of the Bazaar Medicines and

Common Medical Plants of India

Author: Edward John Waring

Release date: December 23, 2018 [eBook #58525]

Language: English

Credits: Produced by Deaurider, Chris Pinfield and the Online

Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
(This
file was produced from images generously made available
by The Internet Archive)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK REMARKS ON

THE USES OF SOME OF THE BAZAAR MEDICINES AND COMMON
MEDICAL PLANTS OF INDIA ***
 Transcriber's Note:
Apparent typographical
errors have been corrected.
Variations in the use of
hyphens and of accents
have been retained.
The symbol for "minim" (an
obselete measure of
capacity) is used once. It
may not display properly in
all applications.
Part II comprises a synopsis
or index of diseases and
their treatment. Their
names have been bolded,
on the same lines as the list
of medecines and medical
plants in Part I.

REMARKS ON THE USES

OF SOME OF THE

BAZAAR MEDICINES
AND

COMMON MEDICAL PLANTS OF INDIA

WITH A FULL INDEX OF DISEASES, INDICATING THEIR

TREATMENT BY THESE AND OTHER AGENTS
PROCURABLE THROUGHOUT INDIA
 TO WHICH ARE ADDED

DIRECTIONS FOR TREATMENT IN CASES OF

DROWNING, SNAKE-BITES, &c.

BY
EDWARD JOHN WARING, C.I.E., M.D.
FELLOW OF THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF PHYSICIANS OF LONDON
SURGEON-MAJOR (RETIRED) HER MAJESTY'S INDIAN ARMY
EDITOR OF THE PHARMACOPŒIA OF INDIA, ETC.

FIFTH EDITION

LONDON
J. & A. C H U R C H I L L
7 GREAT MARLBOROUGH STREET
1897
 PREFACE TO THE FIFTH EDITION.
Owing to the favour in which this work is still being held by the public
in India, as proved by the entire sale of the Fourth Edition, I have
taken upon myself to issue this, the Fifth Edition, with the generous
assistance of my late father's friend, J. E. T. Aitchison, M.D., C.I.E.,
to whom I owe a great debt of gratitude for the time and trouble
and valuable special knowledge he has so liberally bestowed on the
work.
The only important changes that occur in this Edition are the
introduction of a couple of diagrams of a clinical thermometer, with a
few notes to guide the non-professional in its use; some alterations
in the text, where subjects that had been issued in the Fourth
Edition as notes to the text are now incorporated in the text itself;
and lastly, Dr. Aitchison has more fully entered upon his treatment of
small-pox with carbolised oil.
C. WARING.
 PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION.
That this little work should have reached a Fourth Edition may be
taken as pretty clear indication that it has met a recognised want
amongst our Indian fellow-subjects, for whose instruction and
guidance it was originally issued. To render it worthy of continued
favour, and to make it additionally useful, has been my anxious
endeavour.
Of any merit which this edition may be found to possess over the
preceding one, a very large portion is due to Dr. J. E. T. Aitchison,
C.I.E., Surgeon-Major in H.M. Indian (Bengal) Medical Service, who,
with a liberality that demands my warmest thanks, placed at my
disposal an elaborate MS. commentary on the Third Edition,
embodying his own professional experience in India (extending over
many years), and supplying the vernacular names of the various
drugs in the Punjábí, Kashmírí, and Leh languages. Of this document
it need hardly be said I have availed myself largely, my only regret
being that I could not insert it in extenso, but to have done this
would greatly have exceeded the prescribed limits of the work. As it
is, Dr. Aitchison has laid me under a vast obligation, which I am only
too happy to have this opportunity of acknowledging.
Five new articles have been added to the List of Drugs: two at the
suggestion of Dr. Aitchison; namely, (1) Sugar, and (2) Kerosene Oil,
which latter, owing to its extensive use for lighting purposes during
the past few years, is now obtainable in nearly every bazaar in the
country; the other three being the (3) Cinchona Febrifuge
(Quinetum), (4) Petroleum, and (5) Rock Salt. The various ways in
which these articles may be utilised in the treatment of disease will
be found under their respective headings in the "Addenda," p. 171,
et seq.
 In addition to these there have been introduced notices of Indian
Hemp (Gunjah) smoking in the treatment of Tetanus, of the
antiscorbutic properties of Ámchur (dried Mangoes), the lactifuge
powers of Sambac flowers (Jasminum Sambac), the emmenagogue
virtues of Til or Jinjili Seeds (Sesamum Indicum), and other points
unnoticed in previous editions. The therapeutic applications of Water
are enlarged upon; as also are those of Carbolic Acid, especially in
the treatment of Leprosy. The Sick Dietary has likewise been
extended. Amongst the new matter has been introduced a section
(pp. 268-272) detailing the "Precautions to be taken by persons
residing in snake-infested localities."
By these and other additions (occupying upwards of thirty pages
of new matter), and by the revision and modification of other
passages, it is confidently hoped that the practical value of the work
will be found to be materially increased. Indeed, it has been my
earnest endeavour throughout to render this little volume as useful
as possible, and if through its instrumentality suffering humanity be
in any degree benefited my highest aspiration will be attained.
E. J. WARING.
 PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.
Fourteen years have elapsed since this work, in an elementary form,
was first issued for the use of the District Vaccinators of Travancore,
whose sphere of action was far removed from regular medical aid. It
was originally published in English and Tamil on opposite pages;
subsequently it was reprinted in Tamil alone by the London
Missionary Society's Press at Nagercoil, for the use of the catechists
and others connected with that Mission. In 1868, a Malyalim
translation, by Dresser Ramswammy Rajoo, was issued by the
Travancore Government. From reports received from various
quarters, there is reason to believe that the work has enjoyed a wide
circulation amongst the people of Travancore and Tinnevelly, and
that it has exercised a considerable influence on the practice of the
native doctors of those districts.
Were I wise, I ought, perhaps, to rest satisfied with these results,
which far exceed what were originally contemplated; but recent
observation has convinced me that there are other classes scattered
through our great Indian possessions to whom a work of the kind
would prove most acceptable, by pointing out to them the agents—
either purchasable in the bazaars at an almost nominal price, or
procurable at the cost of collection, from the road-sides, waste
places, or gardens in the immediate neighbourhood of almost every
out-station—by means of which, with the exercise of ordinary
intelligence, they may often be enabled to relieve the sufferings of
those amongst whom their lot has been cast.
And at the head of these classes stand the Missionaries, whose
stations, for the most part, are too far removed from the busy
haunts of men to allow of their calling in regular medical aid in cases
of sickness, and who are consequently thrown, at such times, very
much on their own resources. Many of the missionaries have under
their charge large establishments of catechists, pupils, &c.; and it
cannot be otherwise than highly desirable that they should be put in
possession of any information regarding the available means of
relieving the sufferings, and treating the diseases, of those placed
under their care. This is not the place to enter into a disquisition on
missionary work, but I cannot refrain from expressing my firm
conviction that the more the principle of Medical Missions—making
Religion and Medicine go hand in hand—is carried out, the greater,
humanly speaking, will be the success of missionary efforts. How
many a door for the admission of Gospel truth, which would
otherwise be shut, would be opened, and that readily, to one who,
with "the glad tidings of great joy" in the one hand, would bring in
the other the means of relieving physical suffering and curing bodily
disease! The highest distinction that I would claim for this little work
is, that it may constitute, as far as India is concerned, a Missionaries'
Medical Vade Mecum.
Next on the rôle comes a large army of European and Anglo-
Indian officials, whether within the magic circle of "the Service" or
beyond its pale, who are attached to the Public Works, Forests,
Railway, Telegraph, or other Departments, or employed in Tea,
Coffee, or Cotton plantations, in commercial pursuits, &c., many of
them married men, with families and a large number of dependants,
the majority at distant "up-country stations," miles away from
medical aid; how important for persons under such circumstances to
possess a knowledge of the means lying (literally so in many
instances) at their very feet, by which pain and suffering may be
alleviated, and, perhaps, a valuable life saved.
Lastly, but by no means least, either in point of numbers or
importance, comes the daily increasing array of educated Natives,
who, as a class, readily avail themselves of every scrap of knowledge
drawn from trustworthy European sources, which tends to throw
light on the products and resources of their native land. Whilst, on
the one hand, I am perfectly prepared to admit that much of the
knowledge I possess of the properties and uses of Indian drugs has
been derived from Native sources, I think I may, on the other hand,
without presumption, claim the credit of repaying the debt with
interest, furnishing in return a considerable amount of information
on the uses of even the same drugs, of which the Natives
themselves had previously no idea. It is to this class that I venture
to think this little work will prove most useful and acceptable.
In addition to the above, I venture to hope that to even duly
qualified Medical Officers, especially at up-country stations, a work
like the present may prove serviceable on emergencies, e.g., a
failure of the supply of European drugs, &c., by showing them what
resources they have at command in the bazaars or in their
immediate neighbourhood, by means of which many a gap may be
stopped till more efficient remedies are available.
In undertaking a Second Edition of this work, I have been further
influenced by a desire to render its scope and contents more
complete. With more extended knowledge on my part, drawn partly
from subsequent personal experience in the use of Indian drugs, and
partly from the Reports received from Medical Officers during the
preparation of the Pharmacopœia of India, I realised how imperfect
the original work was; and feeling myself in a position to add much
information which would tend to increase its usefulness, I
determined upon issuing another edition. The whole work has
accordingly been rewritten and greatly enlarged.
It was evidently quite out of the question, in a small work like the
present, to include the host of medicines included under the general
headings of "Bazaar Medicines" and "Common Medical Plants of
India," but from them I have made a selection of about 80,
comprising—1 Antacid, 8 Astringents, 3 Antispasmodics, 2
Antiscorbutics, 6 Antiperiodics, 5 Demulcents and Emollients, 4
Diaphoretics or Sudorifics, 4 Diuretics, 3 Expectorants, 2
Emmenagogues, 4 Emetics, 6 Purgatives, 3 Narcotics or Sedatives, 5
Refrigerants, 9 Stomachics or Carminatives, 7 Bitter Tonics, 5
Alterative Tonics or Alteratives, 2 Metallic Tonics, 7 Local and 4
General Stimulants, 2 Vesicants, or Blistering Agents, 6 Vermifuges,
and 17 Miscellaneous Articles, not included in the above classes.
 In making this selection I have been guided by the following
principles:—1. By the safety of the drug; hence Arsenic, Aconite Root
(Bish), Nux Vomica, Indian Hemp, and some other powerful
medicines have been omitted, as it was felt to be inadvisable, in a
work like the present, to introduce agents which, in the hands of
unprofessional persons, might do more harm than good if employed
in unsuitable cases. Where, however, a powerful drug, e.g., Opium,
has been admitted, minute directions as to its employment have
been given. 2. By the acknowledged utility or efficacy of the drug as
proved by European experience. 3. By the drug possessing a
generally well-known, recognised native name. 4. By its wide
distribution and easy procurability in all parts, and in all the bazaars
of India generally. It is hoped that by the addition of the native
names and descriptions of the drugs (which were omitted in the First
Edition), even a new-comer will have little difficulty in obtaining and
recognising any particular article he may require.
With this native "Apparatus Medicaminum" very much may be
accomplished under ordinary circumstances, in the way of relieving
suffering and curing disease; but it must be admitted that there are
certain articles included under the class "European Medicines" for
which the Indian bazaars supply no adequate substitutes. I have
therefore (in Appendix E) added a list of nine drugs which it appears
desirable should be kept in store. They are—1. Sulphate of Quinine;
2. Ipecacuanha; 3. Smyrna or Turkey Opium; 4. Calomel; 5. Acetate
of Lead; 6. Santonin; 7. Liquor Ammoniæ; 8. Blistering Fluid; and 9.
Carbolic Acid.[1] No attempt has been made in the body of the work
to enter into a description of the properties and uses of these drugs
generally (with the exception of Opium), but in the Synopsis or
Index of Diseases (Part II.) it has been pointed out how these
valuable agents may be utilised in the most efficient manner. It is
believed that, by adopting this course, the practical utility of the
work will be greatly enhanced.
Attention is particularly directed to the Synopsis or Index of
Diseases in Part II.; it is not pretended that the modes of treatment
therein detailed are the best which could be adopted; the object has
rather been to show how much good may be effected by the simple
means at command at almost every "upcountry station" throughout
India; and those who follow the directions may feel assured, that
with the exercise of ordinary prudence, if they fail to do good they
will at any rate do no harm.
London, 1874.

[1] To these Bromide of Potassium and Biniodide of Mercury have since

been added.
 INTRODUCTION.
This work, it is presumed, will fall into the hands of many who are
wholly ignorant of, or very partially acquainted with, matters
pharmaceutical; hence some few introductory remarks are
indispensable to enable such persons to understand fully, and follow
out correctly, the directions given.
1. Weights and Measures.—In Appendix C, a small set of
Apothecaries' scales and weights is included, but in the absence of
the former it is well to remember that a small set of scales, such as
is used by native jewellers, can be procured for a few annas in every
bazaar; care, however, is necessary to see that the balance is strictly
correct and even.
Weights.—The Apothecary weights supplied from England have
the following marks or signs impressed upon them:

℈fs = half a scruple = 10 grains.

℈j = one scruple = 20 „
Ʒfs = half a drachm = 30 „
Ʒj = one drachm = 60 „
Ʒjfs = one drachm and a half = 90 „
Ʒij = two drachms = 120 „

The small circular indentations on the grain weights indicate the

number of grains each weight represents.
In the absence of these, the following hints may be useful:
A new rupee of the present currency weighs 180 grains or three
drachms.
A half rupee of the present currency weighs 90 grains or a drachm
and a half.
 A quarter rupee of the present currency weighs 45 grains or three
quarters of a drachm.
To obtain smaller weights beat a new quarter rupee into a long,
thin, narrow plate, and divide it carefully into three equal parts. You
have thus three 15 grain weights. One of these divided again into
three equal parts, furnishes three 5 grain weights. One of these
subdivided into five equal parts furnishes five 1 grain weights. Care
should be taken to see that the parts are of equal weight, and each
part should be marked with a figure to denote its weight. A native
jeweller, at a very small cost, will readily carry out the above
subdivision.
With these, you may obtain any small weights you require; thus, if
you require nine grains, you use a 5 grain weight and four single
grain weights. If you want a drachm weight (60 grains), you use a
quarter rupee (45 grains) and a 15 grain weight, which makes
exactly the 60 grains or one drachm. To get a scruple (20 grains)
weight, you use one of the 15 grain and one of the 5 grain weights
= 20 grains or one scruple.
Two rupees and a half rupee together weigh 450 grains or slightly
over one ounce, which weight they may be taken to represent, in
the absence of regular weights in making up any of the prescriptions
given in the following pages.
Measures of Capacity.—For these, the English Graduated
Measures, glasses included, in Appendix C, should be employed. The
marks on them signify as follows:

♏︎ = 1 minim
fƷj one fluid-drachm = 60 minims.
f℥j one fluid-ounce = 8 fluid-drachms.
O one pint = 20 fluid-ounces.

In default of a graduated measure glass, it may be useful to know

that a small cup of silver or other metal, exactly the circumference of
a quarter rupee and 3¾ inches deep, will hold exactly one ounce,
and twenty of these full of liquid make one pint. Each ounce
contains eight fluid-drachms, so with the aid of this ounce measure
you can calculate the quantity required pretty accurately. The
measure should be made of silver, as some medicines, especially the
acids, act on the other metals.
Any native jeweller would manufacture one of these measures in a
short time, and at a very small cost.
In the following pages other domestic measures, as they may be
termed, are mentioned; they represent approximately the following
quantities:

A wine-glassful = one fluid-oz. and

(ordinary size) a half.
Two table-spoonfuls = one oz.
One table-spoonful = half oz.
One dessert-spoonful = two drachms.
One tea-spoonful = one drachm.

"A drop" may be taken generally to represent a minim, though in

many instances they differ considerably in capacity.
It must be borne in mind that these measurements apply solely to
fluids—never to solids. A tablespoonful of some solids, as powders,
would weigh two or three ounces, whilst of others it might only be
as many drachms.
Preparations.—A few hints on these may be useful to the
uninitiated. Infusions.—In preparing these, the following points
require attention: a, the solid ingredients should be cut into small
pieces or slices, or bruised in a mortar, so that the water shall readily
penetrate into the substance; b, the water should be boiling; c, the
vessel or chattie containing the ingredients on which the boiling
water has been poured, should be covered over to prevent
evaporation, and set aside till the liquid is cold, when it should be
strained through a muslin or thin rag. In hot climates infusions soon
spoil, hence they should be freshly prepared every other day at the
furthest. Decoctions.—These differ from Infusions so far that the
ingredients are subject to the process of boiling. The requisite
quantity of water having been heated to boiling-point, the solid
ingredients, prepared as for infusions, are to be introduced, and the
whole boiled in a covered vessel for the specified period. The liquid
whilst hot should be strained and set aside in a covered vessel till
cold. Like infusions, they rapidly become spoiled in hot climates.
Tinctures.—These are formed by macerating the solid ingredients,
prepared as directed for Infusions, in a bottle with the specified
quantity of spirit, for seven days or more, occasionally shaking the
same to ensure the spirit acting thoroughly on the ingredients. At
the end of the specified period it should be strained, and the clear
liquid set aside in a cool place in well-stoppered bottles, for use.
Great care is necessary to prevent evaporation; hence if a glass-
stoppered bottle is used, softened wax should be carefully placed
round the stopper, which should be further secured by a cap of thin
leather or wax-cloth tied tightly over it. It is thought by many that
evaporation of spirit takes place less rapidly in a closely fitting corked
bottle than in one provided with a glass stopper. Very serviceable
corks, especially for temporary use, may be made out of Sola, the
material used for hats, &c. In either case layers of wax and the
leather are advisable. Under the most favourable circumstances
evaporation to a greater or lesser extent will take place in hot
climates; hence by long keeping, the tincture acquires increased
strength, and in regulating the dose of the more active tinctures, as
of Opium or Datura, the fact ought to be borne in mind, or serious
consequences may ensue. Powders.—When an article is ordered to
be taken in the form of powder, it should be pulverised as finely as
possible. There is little difficulty in this when a large quantity of the
article is required to be kept in store, as is generally advisable, as
the natives, by the aid of the simple machinery which they employ in
making "Curry powder," will reduce the hardest woody ingredients to
the requisite state of fineness. When only a few grains or a small
quantity is required, it may be obtained by means of a nutmeg-
grater (included in List in Appendix C), and subsequently triturating
the rough powder thus obtained in a mortar till it is reduced to the
state of a fine powder. In the preparation of a Compound Powder,
i.e., a powder containing two or more ingredients, it is of the
greatest importance that they should be uniformly and thoroughly
incorporated, else it is evident that a small portion of it, such as is
usually prescribed as a dose, may contain an excess of one
ingredient—it may be an active or dangerous one, and operate
powerfully—whilst the next dose may be comparatively inert.
Powders, when prepared in large quantities, should be kept in well-
stoppered or corked bottles; if left in open vessels exposed to the
action of the air, they soon become deteriorated. Pills.—For the
reasons just stated, it is necessary, when two or more ingredients
enter into the composition of a pill mass, to be careful that they are
thoroughly incorporated. When powders, &c., enter into their
composition, a little honey or jaggery is the best thing to give them
cohesion and consistence. They should be moderately hard; if too
soft, they are apt to lose the globular form which they ought to
possess, and become a shapeless mass. When several pills are
made, a little Arrowroot or Rice Flour should be added to the box
which contains them, to keep them from adhering to one another.
No pill should ordinarily exceed 5 grains in weight, otherwise there
will be a difficulty in swallowing it; two 3 grain pills are more easily
taken than one of 6 grains. Pills, when prepared in any quantity,
should, like powders, be kept in well-stoppered or corked bottles.
Ointments.—Animal fats, e.g., Lard, which is so generally used in
English pharmacy, are apt to become rancid and irritating in hot
climates; hence they should be discarded in tropical practice. In
India there is another cogent reason for abandoning them, viz., the
religious prejudices of the natives, especially of the Mussulman, to
whom hog's fat is an abomination. The only allowable animal fat in
India is freshly prepared Ghee, or clarified butter; but this in the
hotter part of India is of too thin consistence for ordinary ointments.
Fortunately India supplies at least two vegetable substitutes, Kokum
Butter and Piney Tallow (the expressed Oil of Vateria Indica). In
addition to these, I have introduced a third article, Ceromel (a
mixture of wax and honey). With these three agents it is believed
that animal fats may be altogether dispensed with in Indian
pharmacy.
Native Names.—These have been mainly derived from Mr.
Moodeen Sheriff's valuable Catalogue, which forms the Supplement
to the Pharmacopœia of India. Some have been drawn from Ainslie's
Materia Indica, a work of sterling merit. For the Malay names I am
indebted to the Hon. Major F. M‘Nair, C.M.G., Surveyor-General,
Straits Settlements, and for the Punjábí and Kashmirí names to Dr. J.
E. T. Aitchison, formerly British Commissioner, Ladakh.
It is only necessary, in this place, to indicate the pronunciation of
the vowels met with in this work.
a (short) as in about, or the final a in Calcutta.
á (long) as in all, call.
e (short) as in elbow, or the first e in never.
é (long) as a in able or ai in fair.
i (short) as i in ink, bid.
í (long) as ee in feed and free.
o (short) as in from.
ó (long) as in opium, home.
u (short) as in full, or as in wolf.
ú (long) as in fool, too.

Explanation of the Abbreviations employed in the lists of the

native names of the drugs:
Hind. Hindústaní.
Duk. Dukhní.
Beng. Bengálí.
Punj. Punjábí.
Kash. Kashmirí.
Tam. Tamil.
Tel. Telugu.
Mal. Malyalim.
Can. Canarese.
Mah. Máhrattí.
Guz. Guzrattí.
Cing. Cingalese.
Burm. Burmese.
Malay Malay.

REMARKS ON THE USES

OF SOME OF THE

BAZAAR MEDICINES OF INDIA.

 PART I.
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE BAZAAR MEDICINES
AND
INDIAN MEDICAL PLANTS INCLUDED IN THIS
WORK.

1. Abelmoschus, or Edible Hibiscus. Okra. The fresh unripe

capsules or fruit of Abelmoschus (Hibiscus) esculentus, Linn.
Bhindí, Rám-turáí (Hind.), Bhéndí (Duk., Punj.), Dhéras or
Dhénras, Rám-Toráí (Beng.), Vendaik-káy (Tam.), Benda-káya
(Tel.), Ventak-káya (Mal.), Bendé-káyi (Can.), Bhéndá (Mah.),
Bhíndu (Guz.), Banda-ká (Cing.). Youn-padi-sí (Burm.),
Kachang-lindir (Malay).
2. This well-known vegetable, cultivated throughout India,
abounds in a copious, bland, viscid mucilage, which possesses
valuable emollient and demulcent properties, rendering the
practitioner in India independent of mallow and other European
articles of that class. The dried fruit may be employed where it is not
procurable in a fresh state. It is best given in decoction, prepared by
boiling three ounces of the fresh capsules, cut transversely, in a pint
and a half of water for twenty minutes, straining and sweetening to
taste. This, taken as an ordinary drink, proves alike agreeable and
serviceable in Fevers, Catarrhal attacks, Irritable states of the
Bladder and Kidneys, in Gonorrhœa, and in all cases attended with
scalding pain, and difficulty in passing Urine. Under its use the urine
is said to become much increased in quantity. In Dysentery,
especially in the chronic form of the disease, the bland, viscid
mucilage is often most beneficial. It is a good plan to give it in soup.
3. In Hoarseness, and in dry and irritable states of the Throat,
giving rise, as is often the case, to a troublesome Cough, as in
Consumption, &c., the free inhalation of the vapour of the hot
decoction (ante) has in many instances been found serviceable.
4. The fresh capsules bruised are stated to form an efficient
emollient poultice.

5. Abrus, or Country Liquorice Root. The root of Abrus

precatorius, Linn.
Mulatthí-hindi, Gunj-ka-jar (Hind., Duk.), Jaishtomodhu-bengala,
Kunch-ka-jar (Beng.), Múlathí (Punj.), Shangir (Kash.),
Gundumani-vér (Tam.), Guru-venda-véru (Tel.), Kunnikuru-véra
(Mal.), Gul-ganji-béru (Can.), Olindamúl (Cing.), Yu-e-si-anú
(Burm.), Akar-sagamerah (Malay).
6. This root, obtained from a twining shrub common throughout
India, whose bright scarlet seeds with a black spot at one end are
universally known, possesses many of the sensible properties and
medical qualities of the true liquorice-root (which is also to be met
with in some of the large bazaars), hence its common name.
Country Liquorice. Properly prepared, and according to directions in
Indian Pharmacopœia, it yields an extract similar to officinal
liquorice, but less sweet and more bitter. According to Moodeen
Sheriff (Suppl. to Ind. Ph. p. 18), an extract prepared from the dried
leaves of Abrus precatorius is much superior both in taste and as a
medicine to that prepared from the root. He gives the following
directions for its preparation: Pour boiling distilled water on the dried
leaves till they are sufficiently covered; keep the vessel on a slow fire
for six hours; then strain the liquor while hot through flannel and
evaporate on a water bath to a proper consistence. The extract
prepared from the juice of the fresh leaves, he adds, is also sweet,
but very inferior to the latter for medicinal purposes. The following
syrup has been found useful in the Coughs of Childhood. Take of
fresh Abrus roots, the larger sized the better, well bruised, two
ounces; and Abelmoschus capsules sliced, one ounce; boil in a pint
of water for half an hour, and strain; to the liquor add eight ounces
of sugar-candy or honey, and boil down to the consistence of a
syrup. From a tea to a table-spoonful may be freely given several
times a day when the cough is troublesome, whether fever is
present or not. It forms also a good adjunct to other more active
cough mixtures. The great objection to this, in common with all
syrups in India, is the readiness with which it undergoes
fermentation; hence only small quantities should be prepared when
cases occur requiring its use.

7. Acacia, or Babúl Bark. The bark of Acacia Arabica, Willd.

Babúl-ka-chál, Kíkar-ka-chál (Hind.), Kali-kíkar-kí chilká (Duk.),
Babúl-sál (Beng.), Sák (Punj., Kash.), Karu-vélam-pattai (Tam.),
Kulit-pokoh-bunga (Malay).
8. Babúl bark occurs in large thick pieces, coarsely fibrous, of a
deep mahogany colour, and astringent, bitterish taste. It is an
excellent astringent, and though less powerful than some others of
the same class, it possesses the advantage of being obtainable,
either in the fresh or dried state, throughout India, the tree yielding
it being common everywhere in dry, sandy localities.
9. The best form for medical purposes is a decoction prepared by
boiling one ounce and a half of the bruised bark in a pint of water
for ten minutes, and straining. Of this the dose is from one and a
half to two ounces twice daily, or oftener in Chronic Diarrhœa, &c.; it
is, however, chiefly employed as an external or local application—as
an injection in Leucorrhœa and other Vaginal Discharges; as an
enema in Piles and Prolapsus (descent) of the Anus, and as a gargle
in Sore Throat, and in Sponginess and Ulceration of the Gums. In all
these cases, however, it is generally used conjoined with alum and
other agents.

10. Acorus, or Sweet Flag Root. The root stock or Acorus

Calamus, Linn.
Bach or Vach (Hind., Duk.), Bach, Saféd Bach (Beng.), Warch
(Punj.), Vá'í (Kash.), Vashambú (Tam.), Vasa, Vadaja (Tel.),
 Vash-anpa (Mal.), Bajé (Can.), Vékhanda (Mah.), Vaj, Vach
(Guz.), Lene or Linhe (Burm.), Jaringowe (Malay).
11. This is one of the commonest of bazaar medicines, and
generally procurable everywhere, of good quality, at a very small
cost. It occurs in pieces of various lengths, about the thickness of
the thumb, rather flattened, spongy, provided with numerous
sheath-like, ringed appendages; odour peculiar and aromatic; taste,
bitterish, warm and somewhat acrid. Till very recently it was
included in the British Pharmacopœia. It well deserves a place in
every Indian domestic medicine chest.
12. It is a tonic and stomachic of no small value, and is best given
in the form of infusion: one ounce of the bruised root to half a pint
of boiling water, in doses of a wine-glassful twice or thrice daily.
Combined with Chiretta, it has been reported to cure Intermittent
Fevers in natives, but though its power in this respect is doubtful,
except, perhaps, in cases of the mildest description, yet in
Convalescence after this and other forms of Fever, a mixture of
equal parts of the infusion of Acorus and Chiretta (98) is as good a
formula as can be employed. The same combination proves also
most serviceable in Dyspepsia, especially when attended with much
flatulence, in Loss of Appetite and Constitutional Debility.
13. In the Dysentery of Natives, and in that especially of Native
Children, Dr. Evers (Indian Medical Gazette, Feb. 1, 1875) speaks
very highly of Acorus given in decoction as follows: Take of the
bruised root-stock two ounces, Coriander seed one drachm, Black
Pepper half a drachm, Water one pint; boil down to about twelve
ounces (or for about a quarter of an hour), and set aside to cool.
The dose for an adult is a wine-glassful three times daily; for a child
from one to three tea-spoonfuls, sweetened with sugar, two or three
times a day. Astringents or Quinine (the latter when the disease is
apparently of malarious origin) may be added if necessary. Dr. Evers
found this decoction not only useful in Dysentery and Diarrhœa, but
also in the Bronchitic Affections of Children. He considers it worthy
of a more extended trial.
 14. This root, especially when freshly collected, and retaining its
full aroma, is reported, on good authority, to drive away fleas and
other insects, a fact well to bear in mind in a sick room, as well as
elsewhere.

15. Aloes. The inspissated juice of Aloe Socotrina, Linn., and

other species of Aloes.
Musabbar, Ilvá, Yalvá (Hind.), Musanbar (Duk.), Móshabbar
(Beng.), Elwá (Punj.), Mússbar, Sibar (Kash.), Kariya-pólam,
Irakta-pólam (Tam.), Múshámbaram (Tel.), Chenna-náyakam
(Mal.), Musam-bara-bóla (Mah.), Yéliyo (Guz.), Kalu-bólam,
Kari-bolam (Cing.), Mo (Burm.), Jadam (Malay).
16. Aloes, as met with in the bazaars, are generally imported, and
of a very inferior description, but they may be rendered fit for
medical use by the following process: Take of bazaar Aloes, in small
fragments, one pound; boiling water, one gallon; stir them well
together until they are thoroughly mixed, and set aside for twelve
hours; then pour off the clear liquor, strain the remainder, mix the
liquors, and place in open vessels in the sun, or over a gentle fire, till
it is evaporated to dryness. Aloes of very good quality may also be
prepared from two indigenous species of Aloe, A. Indica, Royle, and
A. litoralis, König; the former inhabiting dry sandy plains in the
Northwestern Provinces, and the latter similar localities on the sea-
coasts of the Madras peninsula. The viscid juice with which the thick
leaves abound should be collected and evaporated to dryness by
exposure in open pans in the sun or over a gentle fire.
17. The principal use of Aloes is as a purgative, in doses of from
three to six grains. If administered alone, it is apt to cause griping,
nausea, &c.; hence, it is generally given in combination with
aromatics, &c. It is ill adapted for children, for persons subject to
Piles, or for Pregnant Females.
18. Few medicines are more generally useful for women when
suffering from an Irregular or Suspended state of the Menstrual
Discharge; but it should not be given during pregnancy, nor whilst
the menstrual discharge is present. In these cases, especially when
the patient is pale, thin, and weak, it is best given as follows: Take
purified Aloes and Sulphate of Iron, of each, finely powdered, 24
grains; Cinnamon in powder, 60 grains; Honey, sufficient to make a
mass; be careful that all the ingredients are well mixed; and divide
into 24 pills, of which two are to be taken twice daily.
19. The following is another very good combination: Take Aloes
and Asafœtida, of each 20 grains; beat into a mass with honey, and
divide into 12 pills, of which one may be taken twice daily. These
pills often prove of great service to women subject to Hysterical fits,
and Flatulent distension of the Abdomen, especially when at the
same time there is Constipation of the Bowels. In Headaches arising
from the sudden stoppage either of menstrual discharge or of long-
standing bleeding from piles, these pills often prove useful. Aloes
should not ordinarily be given to persons subject to piles, as they are
apt to aggravate the disease.
20. In cases of Habitual Constipation of the Bowels great benefit
has been found from the persevering use of the following pills: Take
of purified Aloes, 18 grains; Sulphate of Iron, 30 grains; beat into a
mass with a little honey, and divide into 24 pills. Of these, one may
be taken three times a day, immediately after the principal meals, till
they begin to act upon the bowels gently and then the number may
be reduced to two daily. At the end of a week or two another pill
may be omitted, and within a month a single pill once or twice a
week will suffice. If at any time they should act powerfully on the
bowels as a purgative, they should be discontinued for a time.

21. Alum.
Phitkarí (Hind.), Phitkarí (Beng.), Fatkarí (Punj.), Fatkar, Phatkar
(Kash.), Pati-káram (Tam., Tel.), Chinik-káram (Mal.), Pati-kárá
(Can.), Patikár, Turatí (Mah.), Sina-karam (Cing.), Keo-khin
(Burm.), Twas (Malay).
22. Alum of good quality is generally procurable in all bazaars. It
should be in colourless, transparent, crystalline masses, or pieces of
various sizes, with an acid, sweetish, astringent taste. When mixed
with impurities, as it often is, it may be rendered fit for medicinal
purposes by dissolving it in boiling water, straining the solution, and
evaporating it so as to obtain crystals, which should be preserved for
use. Alum, whether applied externally or given internally, is a
valuable astringent. Dose, from 10 to 20 grains for adults.
23. In that form of Ophthalmia commonly known in India by the
name of Country Sore Eyes, especially when it attacks children, a
solution of Alum is often of great service. For children the strength
of three grains to an ounce of water is sufficient; but for adults, a
solution of double this strength may be used: the eyes should be
freely washed with it four or five times a day, or a cloth wet with it
may be kept constantly applied. If the eyelids are much swollen,
especially in the morning, they should be well bathed with warm
milk, the eyelids should then be carefully separated, and the Alum
lotion dropped in. There is a native plan of treatment of these cases
which proves in many instances effectual, but it has the
disadvantage of being very painful for a short time. It is as follows:
Place some finely powdered alum on a heated plate of iron, and
whilst it is in a state of fusion add a small portion of lemon or lime-
juice, until it forms a black, soft mass. This, whilst hot, is applied
entirely round the orbit, care being taken that none of it gets
beneath the eyelids, as it causes under such circumstances intense
agony. One or two applications, each being allowed to remain on for
twelve hours, suffice ordinarily to effect a cure.
24. After severe Blows on the Eye, when the pain and heat have
subsided, and much discoloration and swelling remain, an Alum
poultice is an effectual application. It is made by rubbing up 30
grains of powdered alum with the white of an egg till it forms a
coagulum. This placed between two pieces of thin rag or muslin,
should be kept applied to the eye for some hours.
25. In Hæmorrhage from the Lungs, Stomach, Kidneys, Uterus,
and other Internal Organs, Alum, in doses of 10 to 12 grains, thrice
daily, with or without opium, may often be given with advantage. It
is, however, inadmissible if much fever is present, and should at
once be discontinued if after the first few doses the symptoms are at
all aggravated. The following, called Alum Whey, is a good form of
administration: Boil for ten minutes two drachms of powdered Alum
in a pint of milk, and strain; of this, the dose is one and a half to two
ounces thrice daily. This may also be given with the view of checking
Excessive Menstrual Discharges (Menorrhagia) and Bleeding from
Piles. In this last case, clothes saturated with a solution of Alum in
decoction of Galls (145) or Babúl bark (9), in the proportion of two
drachms to eight ounces, should be kept constantly applied
externally. This application also proves useful in Prolapsus (descent)
of the Anus, especially in children. In Profuse Bleeding from the
Nose injections of a solution of Alum (20 grains to one ounce of
water) into the nostril is sometimes effectual; care, however, is
required in its use. Powdered Alum, or a very strong saturated
solution, applied locally on a compress, occasionally suffices to arrest
Bleeding from Leech-bites, Cuts, &c.
26. In the Chronic Diarrhœa of Natives, the following mixture has
been found useful: Take of Alum ten grains, infusion of Acorus root
(12), one and a half ounce, Laudanum, five drops; repeat three or
four times daily. In the Diarrhœa which precedes Cholera, and in the
early stages of Cholera, the following powders are worthy of a trial.
Take Alum, Catechu, and Cinnamon, of each, powdered, ten grains,
mix with honey, and give at a dose. It may be repeated every one or
two hours, according to circumstances. It proves useful also in
controlling the Diarrhœa of Phthisis.
27. As a palliative in Diabetes, "Alum Whey," prepared as directed
in paragraph 25, may be tried; under its use the quantity of urine
voided is, in some instances, diminished. In Albuminuria, also, it has
been useful in some instances in reducing the proportion of albumen
in the urine.
28. In Hooping Cough, when the first or acute stage has passed,
no remedy is more generally efficacious than Alum, in doses of three
or four grains, every four or six hours for a child from two to three
years old. It may be given in the form of powder or in solution (Alum
25 grains, Omum Water three ounces) in doses of a dessert-spoonful
every four or six hours for a child from two to four years old.
29. For Relaxed or Ulcerated Sore Throat, for Ulceration and
Sponginess of the Gums, in Salivation, and in Fissures of the Tongue
in Consumption, a very useful gargle or mouth wash is made by
dissolving two drachms of Alum in a pint of the decoction of Galls
(145) or Babúl Bark (9), and sweetening with honey. For the small
white Ulcers (Aphthæ, or Thrush) in the mouths of infants and
young children, a better application is 20 grains of finely powdered
Alum, incorporated with one ounce of honey. This may be applied
twice daily, with the tip of the finger. In the severer Ulcerative forms
of the disease (Ulcerative Stomatitis) Alum in fine powder, or in
strong solution, proves a more effectual application.
30. There is a disease often confounded with Gonorrhœa, where
the discharge does not come, as it does in true gonorrhœa, from the
urethra, but from a sore or excoriated surface between the prepuce
and the head of the penis. For this there is no better application
than a solution of Alum, 20 grains in one ounce of water. It may be
used twice or thrice daily. The strictest cleanliness should be
enforced at the same time. In Gleet, a solution of Alum (three
grains), in water (one ounce), used as an injection twice daily, is
often productive of benefit. In Leucorrhœa and other Vaginal
Discharges, injections of Alum in decoction of Galls or Babúl bark, as
advised in the last paragraph, often prove very useful.
31. In old Chronic spreading and gangrenous Ulcers so common
amongst natives, the following forms an excellent application: Finely
powdered Alum, four drachms; finely powdered Catechu, one
drachm; Opium, half a drachm; Ceromel (167), or Kokum butter, or
Ghee, one ounce. First, rub down the opium with the ceromel till
thoroughly mixed, and then incorporate the other ingredients. A
portion of this, spread on soft rag, should be applied to the ulcer
night and morning. If it occasion much pain, the proportion of
ceromel should be increased. For Bed-Sores or where these are likely
to occur, Dr. Aitchison describes as an excellent remedy—a mixture
of 30 grains of burnt alum and the white of an egg. It should be well
painted over the part.
32. For Enlargement of the Joints, especially that of the Knee, and
for other Swellings resulting from Blows, Bruises, or Sprains, the
following lotion has been found useful; Alum, four drachms, Vinegar
and Arrack, of each a pint; dissolve, and keep cloths wet with this
lotion constantly to the affected part. In Scorpion Bites, Alum
moistened with water and locally applied often affords instantaneous
relief (Dr. Saunders).

33. Asafœtida.
Hing (Hind., Duk., Beng., Pung., Mah., Guz.), Yang (Kash.),
Káyam, Perun-gáyam (Tam.), Inguva (Tel.), Perun-gáyam,
Káyam (Mal.), Perun-káyam (Cing.), Shinkhu or Shingu (Burm.),
Hingu (Malay).
34. Asafœtida of good quality may be obtained in most bazaars.
The moister and most strongly smelling kinds should be chosen for
medical purposes. It may be given in the form of pill, in doses of
from five to ten grains; or in that of mixture, prepared by rubbing
down in a mortar five drachms of Asafœtida in a pint of hot water,
and straining and setting aside to cool. Of this solution, which is
thick and milky, the dose is from one to two table-spoonfuls. Its
nauseous taste is a great objection to its use.
35. In Hysterical Fits and in Fainting, Nervous Palpitations, and
other affections connected with Hysteria, Asafœtida proves most
useful. When the symptoms are urgent, as in fits, &c., it is best
given in the liquid form (ante), but where the object is rather to
combat the tendency to this state, and to make an impression on
the system, the solid form should be preferred. For this purpose it
may be advantageously combined with Aloes, as advised in Sect. 19.
36. In Flatulence, Flatulent Colic, and Spasmodic Affections of the
Bowels, especially when connected with hysteria, it is best given in