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ARCoSS Amal Ahmed (Ed.)

Programming
LNCS 10801

Languages
and Systems
27th European Symposium on Programming, ESOP 2018
Held as Part of the European Joint Conferences
on Theory and Practice of Software, ETAPS 2018
Thessaloniki, Greece, April 14–20, 2018, Proceedings
Lecture Notes in Computer Science 10801
Commenced Publication in 1973
Founding and Former Series Editors:
Gerhard Goos, Juris Hartmanis, and Jan van Leeuwen

Editorial Board
David Hutchison, UK Takeo Kanade, USA
Josef Kittler, UK Jon M. Kleinberg, USA
Friedemann Mattern, Switzerland John C. Mitchell, USA
Moni Naor, Israel C. Pandu Rangan, India
Bernhard Steffen, Germany Demetri Terzopoulos, USA
Doug Tygar, USA Gerhard Weikum, Germany

Advanced Research in Computing and Software Science

Subline of Lecture Notes in Computer Science

Subline Series Editors

Giorgio Ausiello, University of Rome ‘La Sapienza’, Italy
Vladimiro Sassone, University of Southampton, UK

Subline Advisory Board

Susanne Albers, TU Munich, Germany
Benjamin C. Pierce, University of Pennsylvania, USA
Bernhard Steffen, University of Dortmund, Germany
Deng Xiaotie, City University of Hong Kong
Jeannette M. Wing, Microsoft Research, Redmond, WA, USA
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/7407
Amal Ahmed (Ed.)

Programming
Languages
and Systems
27th European Symposium on Programming, ESOP 2018
Held as Part of the European Joint Conferences
on Theory and Practice of Software, ETAPS 2018
Thessaloniki, Greece, April 14–20, 2018
Proceedings
Editor
Amal Ahmed
Northeastern University
Boston, MA
USA

ISSN 0302-9743 ISSN 1611-3349 (electronic)

Lecture Notes in Computer Science
ISBN 978-3-319-89883-4 ISBN 978-3-319-89884-1 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-89884-1

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018940640

LNCS Sublibrary: SL1 – Theoretical Computer Science and General Issues

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2018. This book is an open access publication.
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The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are
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 ETAPS Foreword

Welcome to the proceedings of ETAPS 2018! After a somewhat coldish ETAPS 2017
in Uppsala in the north, ETAPS this year took place in Thessaloniki, Greece. I am
happy to announce that this is the first ETAPS with gold open access proceedings. This
means that all papers are accessible by anyone for free.
ETAPS 2018 was the 21st instance of the European Joint Conferences on Theory
and Practice of Software. ETAPS is an annual federated conference established in
1998, and consists of five conferences: ESOP, FASE, FoSSaCS, TACAS, and POST.
Each conference has its own Program Committee (PC) and its own Steering Com-
mittee. The conferences cover various aspects of software systems, ranging from
theoretical computer science to foundations to programming language developments,
analysis tools, formal approaches to software engineering, and security. Organizing
these conferences in a coherent, highly synchronized conference program facilitates
participation in an exciting event, offering attendees the possibility to meet many
researchers working in different directions in the field, and to easily attend talks of
different conferences. Before and after the main conference, numerous satellite work-
shops take place and attract many researchers from all over the globe.
ETAPS 2018 received 479 submissions in total, 144 of which were accepted,
yielding an overall acceptance rate of 30%. I thank all the authors for their interest in
ETAPS, all the reviewers for their peer reviewing efforts, the PC members for their
contributions, and in particular the PC (co-)chairs for their hard work in running this
entire intensive process. Last but not least, my congratulations to all authors of the
accepted papers!
ETAPS 2018 was enriched by the unifying invited speaker Martin Abadi (Google
Brain, USA) and the conference-specific invited speakers (FASE) Pamela Zave (AT &
T Labs, USA), (POST) Benjamin C. Pierce (University of Pennsylvania, USA), and
(ESOP) Derek Dreyer (Max Planck Institute for Software Systems, Germany). Invited
tutorials were provided by Armin Biere (Johannes Kepler University, Linz, Austria) on
modern SAT solving and Fabio Somenzi (University of Colorado, Boulder, USA) on
hardware verification. My sincere thanks to all these speakers for their inspiring and
interesting talks!
ETAPS 2018 took place in Thessaloniki, Greece, and was organised by the
Department of Informatics of the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. The university
was founded in 1925 and currently has around 75,000 students; it is the largest uni-
versity in Greece. ETAPS 2018 was further supported by the following associations
and societies: ETAPS e.V., EATCS (European Association for Theoretical Computer
Science), EAPLS (European Association for Programming Languages and Systems),
and EASST (European Association of Software Science and Technology). The local
organization team consisted of Panagiotis Katsaros (general chair), Ioannis Stamelos,
VI ETAPS Foreword

Lefteris Angelis, George Rahonis, Nick Bassiliades, Alexander Chatzigeorgiou, Ezio

Bartocci, Simon Bliudze, Emmanouela Stachtiari, Kyriakos Georgiadis, and Petros
Stratis (EasyConferences).
The overall planning for ETAPS is the main responsibility of the Steering Com-
mittee, and in particular of its Executive Board. The ETAPS Steering Committee
consists of an Executive Board and representatives of the individual ETAPS confer-
ences, as well as representatives of EATCS, EAPLS, and EASST. The Executive
Board consists of Gilles Barthe (Madrid), Holger Hermanns (Saarbrücken), Joost-Pieter
Katoen (chair, Aachen and Twente), Gerald Lüttgen (Bamberg), Vladimiro Sassone
(Southampton), Tarmo Uustalu (Tallinn), and Lenore Zuck (Chicago). Other members
of the Steering Committee are: Wil van der Aalst (Aachen), Parosh Abdulla (Uppsala),
Amal Ahmed (Boston), Christel Baier (Dresden), Lujo Bauer (Pittsburgh), Dirk Beyer
(Munich), Mikolaj Bojanczyk (Warsaw), Luis Caires (Lisbon), Jurriaan Hage
(Utrecht), Rainer Hähnle (Darmstadt), Reiko Heckel (Leicester), Marieke Huisman
(Twente), Panagiotis Katsaros (Thessaloniki), Ralf Küsters (Stuttgart), Ugo Dal Lago
(Bologna), Kim G. Larsen (Aalborg), Matteo Maffei (Vienna), Tiziana Margaria
(Limerick), Flemming Nielson (Copenhagen), Catuscia Palamidessi (Palaiseau),
Andrew M. Pitts (Cambridge), Alessandra Russo (London), Dave Sands (Göteborg),
Don Sannella (Edinburgh), Andy Schürr (Darmstadt), Alex Simpson (Ljubljana),
Gabriele Taentzer (Marburg), Peter Thiemann (Freiburg), Jan Vitek (Prague), Tomas
Vojnar (Brno), and Lijun Zhang (Beijing).
I would like to take this opportunity to thank all speakers, attendees, organizers
of the satellite workshops, and Springer for their support. I hope you all enjoy the
proceedings of ETAPS 2018. Finally, a big thanks to Panagiotis and his local orga-
nization team for all their enormous efforts that led to a fantastic ETAPS in
Thessaloniki!

February 2018 Joost-Pieter Katoen

 Preface

This volume contains the papers presented at the 27th European Symposium on Pro-
gramming (ESOP 2018) held April 16–19, 2018, in Thessaloniki, Greece. ESOP is one
of the European Joint Conferences on Theory and Practice of Software (ETAPS). It is
devoted to fundamental issues in the specification, design, analysis, and implementa-
tion of programming languages and systems.
The 36 papers in this volume were selected from 114 submissions based on origi-
nality and quality. Each submission was reviewed by three to six Program Committee
(PC) members and external reviewers, with an average of 3.3 reviews per paper.
Authors were given a chance to respond to these reviews during the rebuttal period
from December 6 to 8, 2017. All submissions, reviews, and author responses were
considered during the online discussion, which identified 74 submissions to be dis-
cussed further at the physical PC meeting held at Inria Paris, December 13–14, 2017.
Each paper was assigned a guardian, who was responsible for making sure that external
reviews were solicited if there was not enough non-conflicted expertise among the PC,
and for presenting a summary of the reviews and author responses at the PC meeting.
All non-conflicted PC members participated in the discussion of a paper’s merits. PC
members wrote reactions to author responses, including summaries of online discus-
sions and discussions during the physical PC meeting, so as to help the authors
understand decisions. Papers co-authored by members of the PC were held to a higher
standard and discussed toward the end of the physical PC meeting. There were ten such
submissions and five were accepted. Papers for which the program chair had a conflict
of interest were kindly handled by Fritz Henglein.
My sincere thanks to all who contributed to the success of the conference. This
includes the authors who submitted papers for consideration; the external reviewers,
who provided timely expert reviews, sometimes on short notice; and the PC, who
worked hard to provide extensive reviews, engaged in high-quality discussions about
the submissions, and added detailed comments to help authors understand the PC
discussion and decisions. I am grateful to the past ESOP PC chairs, particularly Jan
Vitek and Hongseok Yang, and to the ESOP SC chairs, Giuseppe Castagna and Peter
Thiemann, who helped with numerous procedural matters. I would like to thank the
ETAPS SC chair, Joost-Pieter Katoen, for his amazing work and his responsiveness.
HotCRP was used to handle submissions and online discussion, and helped smoothly
run the physical PC meeting. Finally, I would like to thank Cătălin Hriţcu for spon-
soring the physical PC meeting through ERC grant SECOMP, Mathieu Mourey and the
Inria Paris staff for their help organizing the meeting, and William Bowman for
assisting with the PC meeting.

February 2018 Amal Ahmed

 Organization

Program Committee
Amal Ahmed Northeastern University, USA and Inria, France
Nick Benton Facebook, UK
Josh Berdine Facebook, UK
Viviana Bono Università di Torino, Italy
Dominique Devriese KU Leuven, Belgium
Marco Gaboardi University at Buffalo, SUNY, USA
Roberto Giacobazzi Università di Verona, Italy and IMDEA Software Institute,
Spain
Philipp Haller KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Sweden
Matthew Hammer University of Colorado Boulder, USA
Fritz Henglein University of Copenhagen, Denmark
Jan Hoffmann Carnegie Mellon University, USA
Cătălin Hriţcu Inria Paris, France
Suresh Jagannathan Purdue University, USA
Limin Jia Carnegie Mellon University, USA
Naoki Kobayashi University of Tokyo, Japan
Xavier Leroy Inria Paris, France
Aleksandar Nanevski IMDEA Software Institute, Spain
Michael Norrish Data61 and CSIRO, Australia
Andreas Rossberg Google, Germany
Davide Sangiorgi Università di Bologna, Italy and Inria, France
Peter Sewell University of Cambridge, UK
Éric Tanter University of Chile, Chile
Niki Vazou University of Maryland, USA
Steve Zdancewic University of Pennsylvania, USA

Additional Reviewers

Danel Ahman Mariangiola Dezani

S. Akshay Derek Dreyer
Aws Albarghouthi Ronald Garcia
Jade Alglave Deepak Garg
Vincenzo Arceri Samir Genaim
Samik Basu Victor Gomes
Gavin Bierman Peter Habermehl
Filippo Bonchi Matthew Hague
Thierry Coquand Justin Hsu
X Organization

Zhenjiang Hu Andreas Nuyts

Peter Jipsen Paulo Oliva
Shin-ya Katsumata Dominic Orchard
Andrew Kennedy Luca Padovani
Heidy Khlaaf Brigitte Pientka
Neelakantan Krishnaswami Benjamin C. Pierce
César Kunz Andreas Podelski
Ugo Dal Lago Chris Poskitt
Paul Levy Francesco Ranzato
Kenji Maillard Andrey Rybalchenko
Roman Manevich Sriram Sankaranarayanan
Paulo Mateus Tetsuya Sato
Antoine Miné Sandro Stucki
Stefan Monnier Zachary Tatlock
Andrzej Murawski Bernardo Toninho
Anders Møller Viktor Vafeiadis
Vivek Notani
RustBelt: Logical Foundations for the Future
of Safe Systems Programming

Derek Dreyer

Max Planck Institute for Software Systems (MPI-SWS), Germany

dreyer@mpi-sws.org

Abstract. Rust is a new systems programming language, developed at Mozilla,

that promises to overcome the seemingly fundamental tradeoff in language
design between high-level safety guarantees and low-level control over resource
management. Unfortunately, none of Rust’s safety claims have been formally
proven, and there is good reason to question whether they actually hold.
Specifically, Rust employs a strong, ownership-based type system, but then
extends the expressive power of this core type system through libraries that
internally use unsafe features.
In this talk, I will present RustBelt (http://plv.mpi-sws.org/rustbelt), the first
formal (and machine-checked) safety proof for a language representing a real-
istic subset of Rust. Our proof is extensible in the sense that, for each new Rust
library that uses unsafe features, we can say what verification condition it must
satisfy in order for it to be deemed a safe extension to the language. We have
carried out this verification for some of the most important libraries that are used
throughout the Rust ecosystem.
After reviewing some essential features of the Rust language, I will describe
the high-level structure of the RustBelt verification and then delve into detail
about the secret weapon that makes RustBelt possible: the Iris framework for
higher-order concurrent separation logic in Coq (http://iris-project.org). I will
explain by example how Iris generalizes the expressive power of O’Hearn’s
original concurrent separation logic in ways that are essential for verifying the
safety of Rust libraries. I will not assume any prior familiarity with concurrent
separation logic or Rust.
This is joint work with Ralf Jung, Jacques-Henri Jourdan, Robbert Krebbers,
and the rest of the Iris team.
 Contents

Language Design

Consistent Subtyping for All . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Ningning Xie, Xuan Bi, and Bruno C. d. S. Oliveira

HOBiT: Programming Lenses Without Using Lens Combinators . . . . . . . . . . 31

Kazutaka Matsuda and Meng Wang

Dualizing Generalized Algebraic Data Types by Matrix Transposition . . . . . . 60

Klaus Ostermann and Julian Jabs

Deterministic Concurrency: A Clock-Synchronised Shared

Memory Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Joaquín Aguado, Michael Mendler, Marc Pouzet, Partha Roop,
and Reinhard von Hanxleden

Probabilistic Programming

An Assertion-Based Program Logic for Probabilistic Programs . . . . . . . . . . . 117

Gilles Barthe, Thomas Espitau, Marco Gaboardi, Benjamin Grégoire,
Justin Hsu, and Pierre-Yves Strub

Fine-Grained Semantics for Probabilistic Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

Benjamin Bichsel, Timon Gehr, and Martin Vechev

How long, O Bayesian network, will I sample thee? A program

analysis perspective on expected sampling times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Kevin Batz, Benjamin Lucien Kaminski, Joost-Pieter Katoen,
and Christoph Matheja

Relational Reasoning for Markov Chains in a Probabilistic Guarded

Lambda Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Alejandro Aguirre, Gilles Barthe, Lars Birkedal, Aleš Bizjak,
Marco Gaboardi, and Deepak Garg

Types and Effects

Failure is Not an Option: An Exceptional Type Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245

Pierre-Marie Pédrot and Nicolas Tabareau

Let Arguments Go First . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272

Ningning Xie and Bruno C. d. S. Oliveira
XIV Contents

Behavioural Equivalence via Modalities for Algebraic Effects. . . . . . . . . . . . 300

Alex Simpson and Niels Voorneveld

Explicit Effect Subtyping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327

Amr Hany Saleh, Georgios Karachalias, Matija Pretnar,
and Tom Schrijvers

Concurrency

A Separation Logic for a Promising Semantics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357

Kasper Svendsen, Jean Pichon-Pharabod, Marko Doko, Ori Lahav,
and Viktor Vafeiadis

Logical Reasoning for Disjoint Permissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385

Xuan-Bach Le and Aquinas Hobor

Deadlock-Free Monitors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415

Jafar Hamin and Bart Jacobs

Fragment Abstraction for Concurrent Shape Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442

Parosh Aziz Abdulla, Bengt Jonsson, and Cong Quy Trinh

Security

Reasoning About a Machine with Local Capabilities: Provably Safe

Stack and Return Pointer Management. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
Lau Skorstengaard, Dominique Devriese, and Lars Birkedal

Modular Product Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502

Marco Eilers, Peter Müller, and Samuel Hitz

Program Verification

A Fistful of Dollars: Formalizing Asymptotic Complexity Claims

via Deductive Program Verification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
Armaël Guéneau, Arthur Charguéraud, and François Pottier

Verified Learning Without Regret: From Algorithmic Game Theory

to Distributed Systems with Mechanized Complexity Guarantees . . . . . . . . . 561
Samuel Merten, Alexander Bagnall, and Gordon Stewart

Program Verification by Coinduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589

Brandon Moore, Lucas Peña, and Grigore Rosu

Velisarios: Byzantine Fault-Tolerant Protocols Powered by Coq . . . . . . . . . . 619

Vincent Rahli, Ivana Vukotic, Marcus Völp,
and Paulo Esteves-Verissimo
 Contents XV

Program Analysis and Automated Verification

Evaluating Design Tradeoffs in Numeric Static Analysis for Java . . . . . . . . . 653

Shiyi Wei, Piotr Mardziel, Andrew Ruef, Jeffrey S. Foster,
and Michael Hicks

An Abstract Interpretation Framework for Input Data Usage. . . . . . . . . . . . . 683

Caterina Urban and Peter Müller

Higher-Order Program Verification via HFL Model Checking. . . . . . . . . . . . 711

Naoki Kobayashi, Takeshi Tsukada, and Keiichi Watanabe

Quantitative Analysis of Smart Contracts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 739

Krishnendu Chatterjee, Amir Kafshdar Goharshady, and Yaron Velner

Session Types and Concurrency

Session-Typed Concurrent Contracts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 771

Hannah Gommerstadt, Limin Jia, and Frank Pfenning

A Typing Discipline for Statically Verified Crash Failure Handling

in Distributed Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 799
Malte Viering, Tzu-Chun Chen, Patrick Eugster, Raymond Hu,
and Lukasz Ziarek

On Polymorphic Sessions and Functions: A Tale of Two

(Fully Abstract) Encodings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 827
Bernardo Toninho and Nobuko Yoshida

Concurrent Kleene Algebra: Free Model and Completeness . . . . . . . . . . . . . 856

Tobias Kappé, Paul Brunet, Alexandra Silva, and Fabio Zanasi

Concurrency and Distribution

Correctness of a Concurrent Object Collector for Actor Languages . . . . . . . . 885

Juliana Franco, Sylvan Clebsch, Sophia Drossopoulou, Jan Vitek,
and Tobias Wrigstad

Paxos Consensus, Deconstructed and Abstracted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 912

Álvaro García-Pérez, Alexey Gotsman, Yuri Meshman, and Ilya Sergey

On Parallel Snapshot Isolation and Release/Acquire Consistency. . . . . . . . . . 940

Azalea Raad, Ori Lahav, and Viktor Vafeiadis

Eventual Consistency for CRDTs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 968

Radha Jagadeesan and James Riely
XVI Contents

Compiler Verification

A Verified Compiler from Isabelle/HOL to CakeML . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 999

Lars Hupel and Tobias Nipkow

Compositional Verification of Compiler Optimisations

on Relaxed Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1027
Mike Dodds, Mark Batty, and Alexey Gotsman

Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1057

Language Design
 Consistent Subtyping for All

Ningning Xie(B) , Xuan Bi, and Bruno C. d. S. Oliveira

The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong

{nnxie,xbi,bruno}@cs.hku.hk

Abstract. Consistent subtyping is employed in some gradual type sys-

tems to validate type conversions. The original definition by Siek and
Taha serves as a guideline for designing gradual type systems with
subtyping. Polymorphic types à la System F also induce a subtyping
relation that relates polymorphic types to their instantiations. However
Siek and Taha’s definition is not adequate for polymorphic subtyping.
The first goal of this paper is to propose a generalization of consistent
subtyping that is adequate for polymorphic subtyping, and subsumes
the original definition by Siek and Taha. The new definition of consis-
tent subtyping provides novel insights with respect to previous polymor-
phic gradual type systems, which did not employ consistent subtyping.
The second goal of this paper is to present a gradually typed calcu-
lus for implicit (higher-rank) polymorphism that uses our new notion
of consistent subtyping. We develop both declarative and (bidirectional)
algorithmic versions for the type system. We prove that the new calculus
satisfies all static aspects of the refined criteria for gradual typing, which
are mechanically formalized using the Coq proof assistant.

1 Introduction
Gradual typing [21] is an increasingly popular topic in both programming
language practice and theory. On the practical side there is a growing num-
ber of programming languages adopting gradual typing. Those languages include
Clojure [6], Python [27], TypeScript [5], Hack [26], and the addition of Dynamic to
C# [4], to cite a few. On the theoretical side, recent years have seen a large body of
research that defines the foundations of gradual typing [8,9,13], explores their use
for both functional and object-oriented programming [21,22], as well as its appli-
cations to many other areas [3,24].
A key concept in gradual type systems is consistency [21]. Consistency weak-
ens type equality to allow for the presence of unknown types. In some gradual
type systems with subtyping, consistency is combined with subtyping to give
rise to the notion of consistent subtyping [22]. Consistent subtyping is employed
by gradual type systems to validate type conversions arising from conventional
subtyping. One nice feature of consistent subtyping is that it is derivable from
the more primitive notions of consistency and subtyping. As Siek and Taha [22]
put it this shows that “gradual typing and subtyping are orthogonal and can be
combined in a principled fashion”. Thus consistent subtyping is often used as a
guideline for designing gradual type systems with subtyping.
c The Author(s) 2018
A. Ahmed (Ed.): ESOP 2018, LNCS 10801, pp. 3–30, 2018.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-89884-1_1
4 N. Xie et al.

Unfortunately, as noted by Garcia et al. [13], notions of consistency and/or

consistent subtyping “become more difficult to adapt as type systems get more
complex ”. In particular, for the case of type systems with subtyping, certain
kinds of subtyping do not fit well with the original definition of consistent sub-
typing by Siek and Taha [22]. One important case where such mismatch happens
is in type systems supporting implicit (higher-rank) polymorphism [11,18]. It is
well-known that polymorphic types à la System F induce a subtyping relation
that relates polymorphic types to their instantiations [16,17]. However Siek and
Taha’s [22] definition is not adequate for this kind of subtyping. Moreover the
current framework for Abstracting Gradual Typing (AGT) [13] also does not
account for polymorphism, with the authors acknowledging that this is one of
the interesting avenues for future work.
Existing work on gradual type systems with polymorphism does not use
consistent subtyping. The Polymorphic Blame Calculus (λB) [1] is an explic-
itly polymorphic calculus with explicit casts, which is often used as a target
language for gradual type systems with polymorphism. In λB a notion of com-
patibility is employed to validate conversions allowed by casts. Interestingly λB
allows conversions from polymorphic types to their instantiations. For exam-
ple, it is possible to cast a value with type ∀a.a → a into Int → Int. Thus
an important remark here is that while λB is explicitly polymorphic, casting
and conversions are closer to implicit polymorphism. That is, in a conventional
explicitly polymorphic calculus (such as System F), the primary notion is type
equality, where instantiation is not taken into account. Thus the types ∀a.a → a
and Int → Int are deemed incompatible. However in implicitly polymorphic cal-
culi [11,18] ∀a.a → a and Int → Int are deemed compatible, since the latter type
is an instantiation of the former. Therefore λB is in a sense a hybrid between
implicit and explicit polymorphism, utilizing type equality (à la System F) for
validating applications, and compatibility for validating casts.
An alternative approach to polymorphism has recently been proposed by
Igarashi et al. [14]. Like λB their calculus is explicitly polymorphic. However,
in that work they employ type consistency to validate cast conversions, and
forbid conversions from ∀a.a → a to Int → Int. This makes their casts closer
to explicit polymorphism, in contrast to λB. Nonetheless, there is still same
flavour of implicit polymorphism in their calculus when it comes to interactions
between dynamically typed and polymorphically typed code. For example, in
their calculus type consistency allows types such as ∀a.a → Int to be related to
 → Int, where some sort of (implicit) polymorphic subtyping is involved.
The first goal of this paper is to study the gradually typed subtyping and con-
sistent subtyping relations for predicative implicit polymorphism. To accomplish
this, we first show how to reconcile consistent subtyping with polymorphism
by generalizing the original consistent subtyping definition by Siek and Taha
[22]. The new definition of consistent subtyping can deal with polymorphism,
 Consistent Subtyping for All 5

and preserves the orthogonality between consistency and subtyping. To slightly

rephrase Siek and Taha [22], the motto of our paper is that:

Gradual typing and polymorphism are orthogonal and can be combined

in a principled fashion.1

With the insights gained from our work, we argue that, for implicit polymor-
phism, Ahmed et al.’s [1] notion of compatibility is too permissive (i.e. too many
programs are allowed to type-check), and that Igarashi et al.’s [14] notion of type
consistency is too conservative. As a step towards an algorithmic version of con-
sistent subtyping, we present a syntax-directed version of consistent subtyping
that is sound and complete with respect to our formal definition of consistent
subtyping. The syntax-directed version of consistent subtyping is remarkably
simple and well-behaved, without the ad-hoc restriction operator [22]. More-
over, to further illustrate the generality of our consistent subtyping definition,
we show that it can also account for top types, which cannot be dealt with by
Siek and Taha’s [22] definition either.
The second goal of this paper is to present a (source-level) gradually typed
calculus for (predicative) implicit higher-rank polymorphism that uses our new
notion of consistent subtyping. As far as we are aware, there is no work on
bridging the gap between implicit higher-rank polymorphism and gradual typing,
which is interesting for two reasons. On one hand, modern functional languages
(such as Haskell) employ sophisticated type-inference algorithms that, aided by
type annotations, can deal with implicit higher-rank polymorphism. So a natural
question is how gradual typing can be integrated in such languages. On the other
hand, there is several existing work on integrating explicit polymorphism into
gradual typing [1,14]. Yet no work investigates how to move such expressive
power into a source language with implicit polymorphism. Therefore as a step
towards gradualizing such type systems, this paper develops both declarative
and algorithmic versions for a gradual type system with implicit higher-rank
polymorphism. The new calculus brings the expressive power of full implicit
higher-rank polymorphic into a gradually typed source language. We prove that
our calculus satisfies all of the static aspects of the refined criteria for gradual
typing [25], while discussing some issues related with the dynamic guarantee.
In summary, the contributions of this paper are:

– We define a framework for consistent subtyping with:

• a new definition of consistent subtyping that subsumes and generalizes that
of Siek and Taha [22], and can deal with polymorphism and top types.
• a syntax-directed version of consistent subtyping that is sound and com-
plete with respect to our definition of consistent subtyping, but still
guesses polymorphic instantiations.

1
Note here that we borrow Siek and Taha’s [22] motto mostly to talk about the
static semantics. As Ahmed et al. [1] show there are several non-trivial interactions
between polymorphism and casts at the level of the dynamic semantics.
6 N. Xie et al.

A <: B

Int <: Int Bool <: Bool Float <: Float Int <: Float

B1 <: A1 A2 <: B2
[li : Aii∈1...n+m ] <: [li : Ai∈1...n
i ]  <: 
A1 → A2 <: B1 → B2

A∼B

A1 ∼ B1 A2 ∼ B2 Ai ∼ Bi
A∼A A∼ ∼A
A1 → A2 ∼ B1 → B2 [li : Ai ] ∼ [li : Bi ]

Fig. 1. Subtyping and type consistency in FOb?<:

– Based on consistent subtyping, we present a declarative gradual type system

with predicative implicit higher-rank polymorphism. We prove that our cal-
culus satisfies the static aspects of the refined criteria for gradual typing [25],
and is type-safe by a type-directed translation to λB, and thus hereditarily
preserves parametricity [2].
– We present a complete and sound bidirectional algorithm for implementing
the declarative system based on the design principle of Garcia and Cimini
[12] and the approach of Dunfield and Krishnaswami [11].
– All of the metatheory of this paper, except some manual proofs for the algo-
rithmic type system, has been mechanically formalized in Coq2 .

2 Background and Motivation

In this section we review a simple gradually typed language with objects [22],
to introduce the concept of consistency subtyping. We also briefly talk about
the Odersky-Läufer type system for higher-rank types [17], which serves as the
original language on which our gradually typed calculus with implicit higher-
rank polymorphism is based.

2.1 Gradual Subtyping

Siek and Taha [22] developed a gradual typed system for object-oriented lan-
guages that they call FOb?<: . Central to gradual typing is the concept of con-
sistency (written ∼) between gradual types, which are types that may involve
the unknown type . The intuition is that consistency relaxes the structure of a
type system to tolerate unknown positions in a gradual type. They also defined
the subtyping relation in a way that static type safety is preserved. Their key
2
All supplementary materials are available at https://bitbucket.org/xieningning/
consistent-subtyping.
 Consistent Subtyping for All 7

insight is that the unknown type  is neutral to subtyping, with only  <: .
Both relations are found in Fig. 1.
A primary contribution of their work is to show that consistency and subtyp-
ing are orthogonal. To compose subtyping and consistency, Siek and Taha [22]
defined consistent subtyping (written ) in two equivalent ways:

Definition 1 (Consistent Subtyping à la Siek and Taha [22])

– A  B if and only if A ∼ C and C <: B for some C.

– A  B if and only if A <: C and C ∼ B for some C.

Both definitions are non-deterministic because of the intermediate type C. To

remove non-determinism, they proposed a so-called restriction operator, written
A|B that masks off the parts of a type A that are unknown in a type B.
A|B = case A, B of | (−, ) ⇒ 
| A1 → A2 , B1 → B2 = A1 |B1 → A2 |B2
| [l1 : A1 , ..., ln : An ], [l1 : B1 , ..., lm : Bm ] if n ≤ m ⇒ [l1 : A1 |B1 , ..., ln : An |Bn ]
| [l1 : A1 , ..., ln : An ], [l1 : B1 , ..., lm : Bm ] if n > m ⇒
[l1 : A1 |B1 , ..., lm : Am |Bm , ..., ln : An ]
| otherwise ⇒ A

With the restriction operator, consistent subtyping is simply defined as A  B ≡

A|B <: B|A . Then they proved that this definition is equivalent to Definition 1.

2.2 The Odersky-Läufer Type System

The calculus we are combining gradual typing with is the well-established pred-
icative type system for higher-rank types proposed by Odersky and Läufer [17].
One difference is that, for simplicity, we do not account for a let expression,
as there is already existing work about gradual type systems with let expres-
sions and let generalization (for example, see Garcia and Cimini [12]). Similar
techniques can be applied to our calculus to enable let generalization.
The syntax of the type system, along with the typing and subtyping judg-
ments is given in Fig. 2. An implicit assumption throughout the paper is that
variables in contexts are distinct. We save the explanations for the static seman-
tics to Sect. 4, where we present our gradually typed version of the calculus.

2.3 Motivation: Gradually Typed Higher-Rank Polymorphism

Our work combines implicit (higher-rank) polymorphism with gradual typing.

As is well known, a gradually typed language supports both fully static and fully
dynamic checking of program properties, as well as the continuum between these
two extremes. It also offers programmers fine-grained control over the static-to-
dynamic spectrum, i.e., a program can be evolved by introducing more or less
precise types as needed [13].
8 N. Xie et al.

Expressions e ::= x | n | λx : A. e | λx. e | e e

Types A, B ::= Int | a | A → B | ∀a.A
Monotypes τ, σ ::= Int | a | τ → σ
Contexts Ψ ::= ∅ | Ψ, x : A | Ψ, a

Ψ OL e : A

x:A∈Ψ Ψ, x : A OL e : B
OL
Var OL
Nat LamAnn
Ψ x:A Ψ n : Int Ψ OL λx : A. e : A → B

Ψ OL e1 : A1 → A2 Ψ OL e2 : A1 Ψ OL e : A1 Ψ  A1 <: A2

OL
App OL
Sub
Ψ e1 e2 : A2 Ψ e : A2

Ψ, x : τ OL e : B Ψ, a OL e : A
Lam Gen
Ψ OL λx. e : τ → B Ψ OL e : ∀a.A

Ψ  A <: B

a∈Ψ Ψ τ Ψ  A[a → τ ] <: B

CS-TVar CS-Int ForallL
Ψ  a <: a Ψ  Int <: Int Ψ  ∀a.A <: B

Ψ , a  A <: B Ψ  B1 <: A1 Ψ  A2 <: B2

ForallR CS-Fun
Ψ  A <: ∀a.B Ψ  A1 → A2 <: B1 → B2

Fig. 2. Syntax and static semantics of the Odersky-Läufer type system.

Haskell is a language that supports implicit higher-rank polymorphism, but

no gradual typing. Therefore some programs that are safe at run-time may be
rejected due to the conservativity of the type system. For example, consider the
following Haskell program adapted from Jones et al. [18]:
foo :: ([Int], [Char])
foo = let f x = (x [1, 2] , x [ a ,  b ]) in f reverse
This program is rejected by Haskell’s type checker because Haskell imple-
ments the Damas-Milner rule that a lambda-bound argument (such as x) can only
have a monotype, i.e., the type checker can only assign x the type [Int] → [Int],
or [Char] → [Char], but not ∀a.[a] → [a]. Finding such manual polymorphic
annotations can be non-trivial. Instead of rejecting the program outright, due to
missing type annotations, gradual typing provides a simple alternative by giving
x the unknown type (denoted ). With such typing the same program type-checks
and produces ([2, 1], [ b , a ]). By running the program, programmers can gain
some additional insight about the run-time behaviour. Then, with such insight,
they can also give x a more precise type (∀a.[a] → [a]) a posteriori so that
the program continues to type-check via implicit polymorphism and also grants
 Consistent Subtyping for All 9

Types A, B ::= Int | a | A → B | ∀a.A | 

Monotypes τ, σ ::= Int | a | τ → σ
Contexts Ψ ::= ∅ | Ψ, x : A | Ψ, a

A∼B

A1 ∼ B1 A2 ∼ B2 A∼B
A∼A A∼ ∼A
A1 → A2 ∼ B1 → B2 ∀a.A ∼ ∀a.B

Ψ  A <: B

Ψ , a  A <: B Ψ τ Ψ  A[a → τ ] <: B a∈Ψ

S-ForallR S-ForallL S-TVar
Ψ  A <: ∀a.B Ψ  ∀a.A <: B Ψ  a <: a

Ψ  B1 <: A1 Ψ  A2 <: B2
S-Int S-Fun S-Unknown
Ψ  Int <: Int Ψ  A1 → A2 <: B1 → B2 Ψ   <: 

Fig. 3. Syntax of types, consistency, and subtyping in the declarative system.

more static safety. In this paper, we envision such a language that combines the
benefits of both implicit higher-rank polymorphism and gradual typing.

3 Revisiting Consistent Subtyping

In this section we explore the design space of consistent subtyping. We start

with the definitions of consistency and subtyping for polymorphic types, and
compare with some relevant work. We then discuss the design decisions involved
towards our new definition of consistent subtyping, and justify the new definition
by demonstrating its equivalence with that of Siek and Taha [22] and the AGT
approach [13] on simple types.
The syntax of types is given at the top of Fig. 3. We write A, B for types.
Types are either the integer type Int, type variables a, functions types A → B,
universal quantification ∀a.A, or the unknown type . Though we only have one
base type Int, we also use Bool for the purpose of illustration. Note that mono-
types τ contain all types other than the universal quantifier and the unknown
type . We will discuss this restriction when we present the subtyping rules.
Contexts Ψ are ordered lists of type variable declarations and term variables.

3.1 Consistency and Subtyping

We start by giving the definitions of consistency and subtyping for polymorphic

types, and comparing our definitions with the compatibility relation by Ahmed
et al. [1] and type consistency by Igarashi et al. [14].
10 N. Xie et al.

Consistency. The key observation here is that consistency is mostly a structural

relation, except that the unknown type  can be regarded as any type. Following
this observation, we naturally extend the definition from Fig. 1 with polymorphic
types, as shown at the middle of Fig. 3. In particular a polymorphic type ∀a.A
is consistent with another polymorphic type ∀a.B if A is consistent with B.

Subtyping. We express the fact that one type is a polymorphic generalization

of another by means of the subtyping judgment Ψ  A <: B. Compared with
the subtyping rules of Odersky and Läufer [17] in Fig. 2, the only addition is
the neutral subtyping of . Notice that, in the rule S-ForallL, the universal
quantifier is only allowed to be instantiated with a monotype. The judgment
Ψ  τ checks all the type variables in τ are bound in the context Ψ . For space
reasons, we omit the definition. According to the syntax in Fig. 3, monotypes
do not include the unknown type . This is because if we were to allow the
unknown type to be used for instantiation, we could have ∀a.a → a <:  → 
by instantiating a with . Since  →  is consistent with any functions A → B,
for instance, Int → Bool, this means that we could provide an expression of
type ∀a.a → a to a function where the input type is supposed to be Int →
Bool. However, as we might expect, ∀a.a → a is definitely not compatible with
Int → Bool. This does not hold in any polymorphic type systems without gradual
typing. So the gradual type system should not accept it either. (This is the so-
called conservative extension property that will be made precise in Sect. 4.3.)
Importantly there is a subtle but crucial distinction between a type variable
and the unknown type, although they all represent a kind of “arbitrary” type.
The unknown type stands for the absence of type information: it could be any
type at any instance. Therefore, the unknown type is consistent with any type,
and additional type-checks have to be performed at runtime. On the other hand,
a type variable indicates parametricity. In other words, a type variable can only
be instantiated to a single type. For example, in the type ∀a.a → a, the two
occurrences of a represent an arbitrary but single type (e.g., Int → Int, Bool →
Bool), while  →  could be an arbitrary function (e.g., Int → Bool) at runtime.

Comparison with Other Relations. In other polymorphic gradual calculi, consis-

tency and subtyping are often mixed up to some extent. In λB [1], the compat-
ibility relation for polymorphic types is defined as follows:

A≺B A[X → ] ≺ B
Comp-AllR Comp-AllL
A ≺ ∀X.B ∀X.A ≺ B

Notice that, in rule Comp-AllL, the universal quantifier is always instantiated

to . However, this way, λB allows ∀a.a → a ≺ Int → Bool, which as we discussed
before might not be what we expect. Indeed λB relies on sophisticated runtime
checks to rule out such instances of the compatibility relation a posteriori.
 Consistent Subtyping for All 11

∼ ∼
⊥ ( → Int) → Int
Int → Int Int → 
<: <: <: <:
(∀a.a → Int) → Int ∼ (∀a. → Int) → Int ∀a.a ⊥
∼
(a) (b)
∼
⊥ ((( → Int) → Int) → Bool) → (Int → )
<: <:
(((∀a.a → Int) → Int) → Bool) → (∀a.a) ∼ ⊥

(c)

Fig. 4. Examples that break the original definition of consistent subtyping.

Igarashi et al. [14] introduced the so-called quasi-polymorphic types for types
that may be used where a ∀-type is expected, which is important for their pur-
pose of conservativity over System F. Their type consistency relation, involving
polymorphism, is defined as follows3 :

A∼B A∼B B = ∀a.B   ∈ Types(B)

∀a.A ∼ ∀a.B ∀a.A ∼ B

Compared with our consistency definition in Fig. 3, their first rule is the same
as ours. The second rule says that a non ∀-type can be consistent with a ∀-type
only if it contains . In this way, their type system is able to reject ∀a.a → a ∼
Int → Bool. However, in order to keep conservativity, they also reject ∀a.a → a ∼
Int → Int, which is perfectly sensible in their setting (i.e., explicit polymorphism).
However with implicit polymorphism, we would expect ∀a.a → a to be related
with Int → Int, since a can be instantiated to Int.
Nonetheless, when it comes to interactions between dynamically typed and
polymorphically typed terms, both relations allow ∀a.a → Int to be related with
 → Int for example, which in our view, is some sort of (implicit) polymorphic
subtyping combined with type consistency, and that should be derivable by the
more primitive notions in the type system (instead of inventing new relations).
One of our design principles is that subtyping and consistency is orthogonal, and
can be naturally superimposed, echoing the same opinion of Siek and Taha [22].

3.2 Towards Consistent Subtyping

With the definitions of consistency and subtyping, the question now is how to
compose these two relations so that two types can be compared in a way that
takes these two relations into account.
3
This is a simplified version.
12 N. Xie et al.

Unfortunately, the original definition of Siek and Taha [22] (Definition 1) does
not work well with our definitions of consistency and subtyping for polymorphic
types. Consider two types: (∀a.a → Int) → Int, and ( → Int) → Int. The first
type can only reach the second type in one way (first by applying consistency,
then subtyping), but not the other way, as shown in Fig. 4a. We use ⊥ to mean
that we cannot find such a type. Similarly, there are situations where the first
type can only reach the second type by the other way (first applying subtyping,
and then consistency), as shown in Fig. 4b.
What is worse, if those two examples are composed in a way that those types
all appear co-variantly, then the resulting types cannot reach each other in either
way. For example, Fig. 4c shows such two types by putting a Bool type in the
middle, and neither definition of consistent subtyping works.

Observations on Consistent Subtyping Based on Information Propagation. In

order to develop the correct definition of consistent subtyping for polymorphic
types, we need to understand how consistent subtyping works. We first review
two important properties of subtyping: (1) subtyping induces the subsumption
rule: if A <: B, then an expression of type A can be used where B is expected;
(2) subtyping is transitive: if A <: B, and B <: C, then A <: C. Though con-
sistent subtyping takes the unknown type into consideration, the subsumption
rule should also apply: if A  B, then an expression of type A can also be used
where B is expected, given that there might be some information lost by con-
sistency. A crucial difference from subtyping is that consistent subtyping is not
transitive because information can only be lost once (otherwise, any two types
are a consistent subtype of each other). Now consider a situation where we have
both A <: B, and B  C, this means that A can be used where B is expected,
and B can be used where C is expected, with possibly some loss of information.
In other words, we should expect that A can be used where C is expected, since
there is at most one-time loss of information.

Observation 1. If A <: B, and B  C, then A  C.

This is reflected in Fig. 5a. A symmetrical observation is given in Fig. 5b:

Observation 2. If C  B, and B <: A, then C  A.

From the above observations, we see what the problem is with the original
definition. In Fig. 5a, if B can reach C by T1 , then by subtyping transitivity, A
can reach C by T1 . However, if B can only reach C by T2 , then A cannot reach
C through the original definition. A similar problem is shown in Fig. 5b.
However, it turns out that those two problems can be fixed using the same
strategy: instead of taking one-step subtyping and one-step consistency, our def-
inition of consistent subtyping allows types to take one-step subtyping, one-step
consistency, and one more step subtyping. Specifically, A <: B ∼ T2 <: C (in
Fig. 5a) and C <: T1 ∼ B <: A (in Fig. 5b) have the same relation chain:
subtyping, consistency, and subtyping.
 Consistent Subtyping for All 13

∼
T1 C A

<: <:  <:
∼
B T2  T1 B
∼

<: <: <:

A C ∼ T2

(a) (b)

Fig. 5. Observations of consistent subtyping

∼
A2 A3 A1 = (((∀a.a → Int) → Int) → Bool) → (∀a.a)
<: <: A2 = ((∀a.a → Int) → Int) → Bool) → (Int → Int)
A3 = ((∀a. → Int) → Int) → Bool) → (Int → )
A1  A4
A4 = ((( → Int) → Int) → Bool) → (Int → )

Fig. 6. Example that is fixed by the new definition of consistent subtyping.

Definition of Consistent Subtyping. From the above discussion, we are ready to

modify Definition 1, and adapt it to our notation:

Definition 2 (Consistent Subtyping)

Ψ  A <: C C∼D Ψ  D <: B

Ψ AB

With Definition 2, Fig. 6 illustrates the correct relation chain for the broken
example shown in Fig. 4c. At first sight, Definition 2 seems worse than the origi-
nal: we need to guess two types! It turns out that Definition 2 is a generalization
of Definition 1, and they are equivalent in the system of Siek and Taha [22].
However, more generally, Definition 2 is compatible with polymorphic types.

Proposition 1 (Generalization of Consistent Subtyping)

– Definition 2 subsumes Definition 1.

– Definition 1 is equivalent to Definition 2 in the system of Siek and Taha [22].

3.3 Abstracting Gradual Typing

Garcia et al. [13] presented a new foundation for gradual typing that they
call the Abstracting Gradual Typing (AGT) approach. In the AGT approach,
gradual types are interpreted as sets of static types, where static types refer
to types containing no unknown types. In this interpretation, predicates and
14 N. Xie et al.

functions on static types can then be lifted to apply to gradual types. Central
to their approach is the so-called concretization function. For simple types, a
concretization γ from gradual types to a set of static types4 is defined as follows:
Definition 3 (Concretization)
γ(Int) = {Int} γ(A → B) = γ(A) → γ(B) γ() = {All static types}
Based on the concretization function, subtyping between static types can be
lifted to gradual types, resulting in the consistent subtyping relation:
: B if and only if A1 <:
Definition 4 (Consistent Subtyping in AGT). A <
B1 for some A1 ∈ γ(A), B1 ∈ γ(B).
Later they proved that this definition of consistent subtyping coincides with
that of Siek and Taha [22] (Definition 1). By Proposition 1, we can directly con-
clude that our definition coincides with AGT:
Proposition 2 (Equivalence to AGT on Simple Types). A  B iff
A<: B.
However, AGT does not show how to deal with polymorphism (e.g. the inter-
pretation of type variables) yet. Still, as noted by Garcia et al. [13], it is a promis-
ing line of future work for AGT, and the question remains whether our definition
would coincide with it.
Another note related to AGT is that the definition is later adopted by
Castagna and Lanvin [7], where the static types A1 , B1 in Definition 4 can be
algorithmically computed by also accounting for top and bottom types.

3.4 Directed Consistency

Directed consistency [15] is defined in terms of precision and static subtyping:
A A A <: B B B
A  B 
The judgment A B is read “A is less precise than B”. In their setting, precision
is defined for type constructors and subtyping for static types. If we interpret
this definition from AGT’s point of view, finding a more precise static type5
has the same effect as concretization. Namely, A A implies A ∈ γ(A ) and
 
B B implies B ∈ γ(B ). Therefore we consider this definition as AGT-style.
From this perspective, this definition naturally coincides with Definition 2.
The value of their definition is that consistent subtyping is derived composi-
tionally from static subtyping and precision. These are two more atomic relations.
At first sight, their definition looks very similar to Definition 2 (replacing by
<: and <: by ∼). Then a question arises as to which one is more fundamental. To
answer this, we need to discuss the relation between consistency and precision.
4
For simplification, we directly regard type constructor → as a set-level operator.
5
The definition of precision of types is given in appendix.
 Consistent Subtyping for All 15

Relating Consistency and Precision. Precision is a partial order (anti-symmetric

and transitive), while consistency is symmetric but not transitive. Nonetheless,
precision and consistency are related by the following proposition:

Proposition 3 (Consistency and Precision)

– If A ∼ B, then there exists (static) C, such that A C, and B C.
– If for some (static) C, we have A C, and B C, then we have A ∼ B.

It may seem that precision is a more atomic relation, since consistency can be
derived from precision. However, recall that consistency is in fact an equivalence
relation lifted from static types to gradual types. Therefore defining consistency
independently is straightforward, and it is theoretically viable to validate the
definition of consistency directly. On the other hand, precision is usually con-
nected with the gradual criteria [25], and finding a correct partial order that
adheres to the criteria is not always an easy task. For example, Igarashi et al.
[14] argued that term precision for System FG is actually nontrivial, leaving
the gradual guarantee of the semantics as a conjecture. Thus precision can be
difficult to extend to more sophisticated type systems, e.g. dependent types.
Still, it is interesting that those two definitions illustrate the correspondence
of different foundations (on simple types): one is defined directly on gradual
types, and the other stems from AGT, which is based on static subtyping.

3.5 Consistent Subtyping Without Existentials

Definition 2 serves as a fine specification of how consistent subtyping should
behave in general. But it is inherently non-deterministic because of the two
intermediate types C and D. As with Definition 1, we need a combined relation to
directly compare two types. A natural attempt is to try to extend the restriction
operator for polymorphic types. Unfortunately, as we show below, this does not
work. However it is possible to devise an equivalent inductive definition instead.

Attempt to Extend the Restriction Operator. Suppose that we try to extend the
restriction operator to account for polymorphic types. The original restriction
operator is structural, meaning that it works for types of similar structures.
But for polymorphic types, two input types could have different structures due
to universal quantifiers, e.g., ∀a.a → Int and (Int → ) → Int. If we try to
mask the first type using the second, it seems hard to maintain the information
that a should be instantiated to a function while ensuring that the return type is
masked. There seems to be no satisfactory way to extend the restriction operator
in order to support this kind of non-structural masking.

Interpretation of the Restriction Operator and Consistent Subtyping. If the

restriction operator cannot be extended naturally, it is useful to take a step
back and revisit what the restriction operator actually does. For consistent sub-
typing, two input types could have unknown types in different positions, but we
only care about the known parts. What the restriction operator does is (1) erase
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school, church, and King Arthur's Round Table; but especially the church, and
its Saxon kings' monuments, which I esteemed a worthy antiquity.
The 12th of November was the battle of Brentford, surprisingly fought; and
to the great consternation of the City, had his Majesty (as it was believed he
would) pursued his advantage. I came in with my horse and arms just at the
retreat; but was not permitted to stay longer than the 15th, by reason of the
army marching to Gloucester; which would have left both me and my brothers
exposed to ruin, without any advantage to his Majesty.
7th December, 1642. I went from Wotton to London, to
LONDON
see the so much celebrated line of communication, and on
the 10th returned to Wotton, nobody knowing of my having been in his
Majesty's army.
10th March, 1643. I went to Hartingford-berry to visit my cousin, Keightly.
11th March, 1643. I went to see my Lord of Salisbury's Palace at Hatfield,
where the most considerable rarity, besides the house (inferior to few then in
England for its architecture), were the garden and vineyard, rarely well
watered and planted. They also showed us the picture of Secretary Cecil, in
Mosaic work, very well done by some Italian hand.
I must not forget what amazed us exceedingly in the night before, namely,
a shining cloud in the air, in shape resembling a sword, the point reaching to
the north; it was as bright as the moon, the rest of the sky being very serene.
It began about eleven at night, and vanished not till above one, being seen by
all the south of England. I made many journeys to and from London.
15th April, 1643. To Hatfield, and near the town of Hertford I went to see
Sir J. Harrison's house new built. Returning to London, I called to see his
Majesty's house and gardens at Theobald's, since demolished by the rebels.
2d May, 1643. I went from Wotton to London, where I saw the furious and
zealous people demolish that stately Cross in Cheapside.
On the 4th I returned, with no little regret, for the confusion that
threatened us. Resolving to possess myself in some quiet, if it might be, in a
time of so great jealousy, I built by my brother's permission, a study, made a
fish-pond, an island, and some other solitudes and retirements at Wotton;
which gave the first occasion of improving them to those waterworks and
gardens which afterward succeeded them, and became at that time the most
famous of England.
 12th July, 1643. I sent my black menage horse and furniture with a friend
to his Majesty, then at Oxford.
23d July, 1643. The Covenant being pressed, I absented myself; but,
finding it impossible to evade the doing very unhandsome things, and which
had been a great cause of my perpetual motions hitherto between Wotton
and London, October the 2d, I obtained a license of his Majesty, dated at
Oxford and signed by the King, to travel again.
6th November, 1643. Lying by the way from Wotton at Sir Ralph Whitfield's,
at Blechingley (whither both my brothers had conducted me), I arrived at
London on the 7th, and two days after took boat at the Tower-wharf, which
carried me as far as Sittingbourne, though not without danger, I being only in
a pair of oars, exposed to a hideous storm: but it pleased God that we got in
before the peril was considerable. From thence, I went by post to Dover,
accompanied with one Mr. Thicknesse, a very dear friend of mine.
11th November, 1643. Having a reasonable good passage, though the
weather was snowy and untoward enough, we came before Calais, where, as
we went on shore, mistaking the tide, our shallop struck on the sands, with
no little danger; but at length we got off.
Calais is considered an extraordinary well-fortified place, in the old castle
and new citadel regarding the sea. The haven consists of a long bank of sand,
lying opposite to it. The market place and the church are remarkable things,
besides those relics of our former dominion there. I remember there were
engraven in stone, upon the front of an ancient dwelling which was showed
us, these words in English—"God save the King," together with the name of
the architect and date. The walls of the town are substantial; but the situation
toward the land is not pleasant, by reason of the marshes and low grounds
about it.
12th November, 1643. After dinner we took horse with the Messagere,
hoping to have arrived at Boulogne that night; but there fell so great a snow,
accompanied with hail, rain, and sudden darkness, that we had much ado to
gain the next village; and in this passage, being to cross a valley by a
causeway, and a bridge built over a small river, the rain that had fallen making
it an impetuous stream for near a quarter of a mile, my horse slipping had
almost been the occasion of my perishing. We none of us went to bed; for the
soldiers in those parts leaving little in the villages, we had enough to do to get
ourselves dry, by morning, between the fire and the fresh straw. The next day
early, we arrived at Boulogne.
 This is a double town, one part of it situate on a high rock, or downs; the
other, called the lower town, is yet with a great declivity toward the sea; both
of them defended by a strong castle, which stands on a notable eminence.
Under the town runs the river, which is yet but an inconsiderable brook. Henry
VIII., in the siege of this place is said to have used those great leathern guns
which I have since beheld in the Tower of London, inscribed, "Non Marte opus
est cui non deficit Mercurius"; if at least the history be true, which my Lord
Herbert doubts.
The next morning, in some danger of parties [Spanish] surprising us, we
came to Montreuil, built on the summit of a most conspicuous hill, environed
with fair and ample meadows; but all the suburbs had been from time to time
ruined, and were now lately burnt by the Spanish inroads. This town is
fortified with two very deep dry ditches; the walls about the bastions and
citadel are a noble piece of masonry. The church is more glorious without
than within; the market place large; but the inhabitants are miserably poor.
The next day, we came to Abbeville, having passed all this way in continual
expectation of the volunteers, as they call them. This town affords a good
aspect toward the hill from whence we descended: nor does it deceive us; for
it is handsomely built, and has many pleasant and useful streams passing
through it, the main river being the Somme, which discharges itself into the
sea at St. Valery, almost in view of the town. The principal church is a very
handsome piece of Gothic architecture, and the ports and ramparts sweetly
planted for defense and ornament. In the morning, they brought us choice of
guns and pistols to sell at reasonable rates, and neatly made, being here a
merchandise of great account, the town abounding in gunsmiths.
 Hence we advanced to Beauvais, another town
ST. DENIS
of good note, and having the first vineyards we
had seen. The next day to Beaumont, and the morrow to Paris,
having taken our repast at St. Denis, two leagues from that great
city. St. Denis is considerable only for its stately cathedral, and the
dormitory of the French kings, there inhumed as ours at
Westminster Abbey. The treasury is esteemed one of the richest in
Europe. The church was built by King Dagobert,15 but since much
enlarged, being now 390 feet long, 100 in breadth, and 80 in height,
without comprehending the cover: it has also a very high shaft of
stone, and the gates are of brass. Here, while the monks conducted
us, we were showed the ancient and modern sepulchers of their
kings, beginning with the founder to Louis his son, with Charles
Martel and Pepin, son and father of Charlemagne. These lie in the
choir, and without it are many more: among the rest that of Bertrand
du Guesclin, Constable of France; in the chapel of Charles V., all his
posterity; and near him the magnificent sepulcher of Francis I., with
his children, wars, victories, and triumphs engraven in marble. In the
nave of the church lies the catafalque, or hearse, of Louis XIII.,
Henry II., a noble tomb of Francis II., and Charles IX. Above are
bodies of several Saints; below, under a state of black velvet, the
late Louis XIII., father of this present monarch. Every one of the ten
chapels, or oratories, had some Saints in them; among the rest, one
of the Holy Innocents. The treasury is kept in the sacristy above, in
which are crosses of massy gold and silver, studded with precious
stones, one of gold three feet high, set with sapphires, rubies, and
great oriental pearls. Another given by Charles the Great, having a
noble amethyst in the middle of it, stones and pearls of inestimable
value. Among the still more valuable relics are, a nail from our
Savior's Cross, in a box of gold full of precious stones; a crucifix of
the true wood of the Cross, carved by Pope Clement III., enchased
in a crystal covered with gold; a box in which is some of the Virgin's
hair; some of the linen in which our blessed Savior was wrapped at
his nativity; in a huge reliquary, modeled like a church, some of our
Savior's blood, hair, clothes, linen with which he wiped the Apostles'
feet; with many other equally authentic toys, which the friar who
conducted us would have us believe were authentic relics. Among
the treasures is the crown of Charlemagne, his seven-foot high
scepter and hand of justice, the agraffe of his royal mantle, beset
with diamonds and rubies, his sword, belt, and spurs of gold; the
crown of St. Louis, covered with precious stones, among which is
one vast ruby, uncut, of inestimable value, weighing 300 carats
(under which is set one of the thorns of our blessed Savior's crown),
his sword, seal, and hand of justice. The two crowns of Henry IV.,
his scepter, hand of justice, and spurs. The two crowns of his son
Louis. In the cloak-royal of Anne of Bretagne is a very great and rare
ruby. Divers books covered with solid plates of gold, and studded
with precious stones. Two vases of beryl, two of agate, whereof one
is esteemed for its bigness, color, and embossed carving, the best
now to be seen: by a special favor I was permitted to take the
measure and dimensions of it; the story is a Bacchanalia and
sacrifice to Priapus; a very holy thing truly, and fit for a cloister! It is
really antique, and the noblest jewel there. There is also a large
gondola of chrysolite, a huge urn of porphyry, another of calcedon, a
vase of onyx, the largest I had ever seen of that stone; two of
crystal; a morsel of one of the waterpots in which our Savior did his
first miracle; the effigies of the Queen of Saba, of Julius, Augustus,
Mark Antony, Cleopatra, and others, upon sapphires, topazes,
agates, and cornelians: that of the queen of Saba16 has a Moorish
face; those of Julius and Nero on agates are rarely colored and cut.
A cup in which Solomon was used to drink, and an Apollo on a great
amethyst. There lay in a window a mirror of a kind of stone said to
have belonged to the poet Virgil. Charlemagne's chessmen, full of
Arabic characters. In the press next the door, the brass lantern full of
crystals, said to have conducted Judas and his company to
apprehend our blessed Savior. A fair unicorn's horn, sent by a king of
Persia, about seven feet long. In another press (over which stands
the picture in oil of their Orleans Amazon with her sword), the
effigies of the late French kings in wax, like ours in Westminster,
covered with their robes; with a world of other rarities. Having
rewarded our courteous friar, we took horse for
PARIS
Paris, where we arrived about five in the afternoon.
In the way were fair crosses of stone carved with fleur-de-lis at
every furlong's end, where they affirm St. Denis rested and laid
down his head after martyrdom, carrying it from the place where
this monastery is builded. We lay at Paris at the Ville de Venice;
where, after I had something refreshed, I went to visit Sir Richard
Browne, his Majesty's Resident with the French king.
5th December, 1643. The Earl of Norwich came as Ambassador
extraordinary: I went to meet him in a coach and six horses, at the
palace of Monsieur de Bassompière, where I saw that gallant
person, his gardens, terraces, and rare prospects. My lord was
waited on by the master of the ceremonies, and a very great
cavalcade of men of quality, to the Palais Cardinal, where on the 23d
he had audience of the French king, and the queen Regent his
mother, in the golden chamber of presence. From thence, I
conducted him to his lodgings in Rue St. Denis, and so took my
leave.
24th December, 1643. I went with some company to see some
remarkable places without the city: as the Isle, and how it is
encompassed by the Rivers Seine and the Ouse. The city is divided
into three parts, whereof the town is greatest. The city lies between
it and the University in form of an island. Over the Seine is a stately
bridge called Pont Neuf, begun by Henry III. in 1578, finished by
Henry IV. his successor. It is all of hewn freestone found under the
streets, but more plentifully at Montmartre, and consists of twelve
arches, in the midst of which ends the point of an island, on which
are built handsome artificers' houses. There is one large passage for
coaches, and two for foot passengers three or four feet higher, and
of convenient breadth for eight or ten to go abreast. On the middle
of this stately bridge, on one side, stands the famous statue of
Henry the Great on horseback, exceeding the natural proportion by
much; and, on the four faces of a stately pedestal (which is
composed of various sorts of polished marbles and rich moldings),
inscriptions of his victories and most signal actions are engraven in
brass. The statue and horse are of copper, the work of the great
John di Bologna, and sent from Florence by Ferdinand the First, and
Cosmo the Second, uncle and cousin to Mary de Medicis, the wife of
King Henry, whose statue it represents. The place where it is erected
is inclosed with a strong and beautiful grate of iron, about which
there are always mountebanks showing their feats to the idle
passengers. From hence is a rare prospect toward the Louvre and
suburbs of St. Germains, the Isle du Palais, and Nôtre Dame. At the
foot of this bridge is a water-house, on the front whereof, at a great
height, is the story of Our Savior and the woman of Samaria pouring
water out of a bucket. Above, is a very rare dial of several motions,
with a chime, etc. The water is conveyed by huge wheels, pumps,
and other engines, from the river beneath. The confluence of the
people and multitude of coaches passing every moment over the
bridge, to a new spectator is an agreeable diversion. Other bridges
there are, as that of Nôtre Dame and the Pont-au-Change, etc., fairly
built, with houses of stone, which are laid over this river; only the
Pont St. Anne, landing the suburbs of St. Germains at the Tuileries,
is built of wood, having likewise a water house in the midst of it, and
a statue of Neptune casting water out of a whale's mouth, of lead,
but much inferior to the Samaritan.
The University lies southwest on higher ground, contiguous to,
but the lesser part of, Paris. They reckon no less than sixty-five
colleges; but they in nothing approach ours at Oxford for state and
order. The booksellers dwell within the University. The schools (of
which more hereafter) are very regular.
The suburbs are those of St. Denis, Honoré, St. Marcel, St.
Jaques, St. Michael, St. Victoire, and St. Germains, which last is the
largest, and where the nobility and persons of best quality are
seated: and truly Paris, comprehending the suburbs, is, for the
material the houses are built with, and many noble and magnificent
piles, one of the most gallant cities in the world; large in circuit, of a
round form, very populous, but situated in a bottom, environed with
gentle declivities, rendering some places very dirty, and making it
smell as if sulphur were mingled with the mud; yet it is paved with a
kind of freestone, of near a foot square, which renders it more easy
to walk on than our pebbles in London.
On Christmas eve, I went to see the Cathedral at Nôtre Dame,
erected by Philip Augustus, but begun by King Robert, son of Hugh
Capet. It consists of a Gothic fabric, sustained with 120 pillars, which
make two aisles in the church round about the choir, without
comprehending the chapels, being 174 paces long, 60 wide, and 100
high. The choir is inclosed with stonework graven with the sacred
history, and contains forty-five chapels chancelled with iron. At the
front of the chief entrance are statues in relievo of the kings, twenty-
eight in number, from Childebert to the founder, Philip; and above
them are two high square towers, and another of a smaller size,
bearing a spire in the middle, where the body of the church forms a
cross. The great tower is ascended by 389 steps, having twelve
galleries from one to the other. They greatly reverence the crucifix
over the screen of the choir, with an image of the Blessed Virgin.
There are some good modern paintings hanging on the pillars. The
most conspicuous statute is the huge colossal one of St. Christopher;
with divers other figures of men, houses, prospects and rocks, about
this gigantic piece; being of one stone, and more remarkable for its
bulk than any other perfection. This is the prime church of France for
dignity, having archdeacons, vicars, canons, priests, and chaplains in
good store, to the number of 127. It is also the palace of the
archbishop. The young king was there with a great and martial
guard, who entered the nave of the church with drums and fifes, at
the ceasing of which I was entertained with the church music; and
so I left him.
4th January, 1644. I passed this day with one Mr. J. Wall, an Irish
gentleman, who had been a friar in Spain, and afterward a reader in
St. Isodore's chair, at Rome; but was, I know not how, getting away,
and pretending to be a soldier of fortune, an absolute cavalier,
having, as he told us, been a captain of horse in Germany. It is
certain he was an excellent disputant, and so strangely given to it
that nothing could pass him. He would needs persuade me to go
with him this morning to the Jesuits' College, to witness his
polemical talent. We found the Fathers in their Church at the Rue St.
Antoine, where one of them showed us that noble fabric, which for
its cupola, pavings, incrustations of marble, the pulpit, altars
(especially the high altar), organ, lavatorium, etc., but above all, for
the richly carved and incomparable front I esteem to be one of the
most perfect pieces of architecture in Europe, emulating even some
of the greatest now at Rome itself. But this not being what our friar
sought, he led us into the adjoining convent, where, having shown
us the library, they began a very hot dispute on some points of
divinity, which our cavalier contested only to show his pride, and to
that indiscreet height, that the Jesuits would hardly bring us to our
coach, they being put beside all patience. The next day, we went
into the University, and into the College of Navarre, which is a
spacious, well-built quadrangle, having a very noble library.
Thence to the Sorbonne, an ancient fabric built by one Robert de
Sorbonne, whose name it retains, but the restoration which the late
Cardinal de Richelieu has made to it renders it one of the most
excellent modern buildings; the sumptuous church, of admirable
architecture, is far superior to the rest. The cupola, portico, and
whole design of the church, are very magnificent.
We entered into some of the schools, and in that of divinity we
found a grave Doctor in his chair, with a multitude of auditors, who
all write as he dictates; and this they call a Course. After we had sat
a little, our cavalier started up, and rudely enough began to dispute
with the doctor; at which, and especially as he was clad in the
Spanish habit, which in Paris is the greatest bugbear imaginable, the
scholars and doctor fell into such a fit of laughter, that nobody could
be heard speak for a while: but silence being obtained, he began to
speak Latin, and made his apology in so good a style, that their
derision was turned to admiration; and beginning to argue, he so
baffled the Professor, that with universal applause they all rose up,
and did him great honors, waiting on us to the very street and our
coach, and testifying great satisfaction.
2d February, 1644. I heard the news of my nephew George's
birth, which was on January 15th, English style, 1644.
3d February, 1644. I went to the Exchange. The late addition to
the buildings is very noble; but the galleries where they sell their
petty merchandise nothing so stately as ours at London, no more
than the place where they walk below, being only a low vault.
The Palaise, as they call the upper part, was built in the time of
Philip the Fair, noble and spacious. The great Hall annexed to it, is
arched with stone, having a range of pillars in the middle, round
which, and at the sides, are shops of all kinds, especially
booksellers'. One side is full of pews for the clerks of the advocates,
who swarm here (as ours at Westminster). At one of the ends stands
an altar, at which mass is said daily. Within are several chambers,
courts, treasuries, etc. Above that is the most rich and glorious Salle
d'Audience, the chamber of St. Louis, and other superior Courts
where the Parliament sits, richly gilt on embossed carvings and frets,
and exceedingly beautified.
Within the place where they sell their wares, is another narrower
gallery, full of shops and toys, etc., which looks down into the
prison-yard. Descending by a large pair of stairs, we passed by
Sainte Chapelle, which is a church built by St. Louis, 1242, after the
Gothic manner: it stands on another church, which is under it,
sustained by pillars at the sides, which seem so weak as to appear
extraordinary in the artist. This chapel is most famous for its relics,
having as they pretend, almost the entire crown of thorns: the agate
patine, rarely sculptured, judged one of the largest and best in
Europe. There was now a very beautiful spire erecting. The court
below is very spacious, capable of holding many coaches, and
surrounded with shops, especially engravers', goldsmiths', and
watchmakers'. In it are a fair fountain and portico. The Isle du Palais
consists of a triangular brick building, whereof one side, looking to
the river, is inhabited by goldsmiths. Within the court are private
dwellings. The front, looking on the great bridge, is possessed by
mountebanks, operators, and puppet-players. On the other part, is
the every day's market for all sorts of provisions, especially bread,
herbs, flowers, orange trees, choice shrubs. Here is a shop called
NOAH'S ARK, where are sold all curiosities, natural or artificial,
Indian or European, for luxury or use, as cabinets, shells, ivory,
porcelain, dried fishes, insects, birds, pictures, and a thousand exotic
extravagances. Passing hence, we viewed the port Dauphine, an
arch of excellent workmanship; the street bearing the same name, is
ample and straight.
4th February, 1644. I went to see the Marais de Temple, where
are a noble church and palace, heretofore dedicated to the Knights
Templar, now converted to a piazza, not much unlike ours at Covent
Garden; but large and not so pleasant, though built all about with
divers considerable palaces.
The Church of St. Geneviève is a place of great devotion,
dedicated to another of their Amazons, said to have delivered the
city from the English; for which she is esteemed the tutelary saint of
Paris. It stands on a steep eminence, having a very high spire, and is
governed by canons regular. At the Palais Royal Henry IV. built a fair
quadrangle of stately palaces, arched underneath. In the middle of a
spacious area, stands on a noble pedestal a brazen statue of Louis
XIII., which, though made in imitation of that in the Roman capitol,
is nothing so much esteemed as that on the Pont Neuf.
The hospital of the Quinze-Vingts, in the Rue St. Honoré, is an
excellent foundation; but above all is the Hôtel Dieu for men and
women, near Nôtre Dame, a princely, pious, and expensive
structure. That of the Charité gave me great satisfaction, in seeing
how decently and christianly the sick people are attended, even to
delicacy. I have seen them served by noble persons, men and
women. They have also gardens, walks, and fountains. Divers
persons are here cut for the stone, with great success, yearly in May.
The two Châtelets (supposed to have been built by Julius Cæsar) are
places of judicature in criminal causes; to which is a strong prison.
The courts are spacious and magnificent.
8th February, 1644. I took coach and went to see the famous
Jardine Royale, which is an inclosure walled in, consisting of all
varieties of ground for planting and culture of medical simples. It is
well chosen, having in it hills, meadows, wood and upland, natural
and artificial, and is richly stored with exotic plants. In the middle of
the parterre is a fair fountain. There is a very fine house, chapel,
laboratory, orangery, and other accommodations for the President,
who is always one of the king's chief physicians.
From hence, we went to the other side of the town, and to some
distance from it, to the Bois de Vincennes, going by the Bastille,
which is the fortress, tower, and magazine of this great city. It is
very spacious within, and there the Grand Master of the artillery has
his house, with fair gardens and walks.
The Bois de Vincennes has in it a square and noble castle, with
magnificent apartments, fit for a royal court, not forgetting the
chapel. It is the chief prison for persons of quality. About it there is a
park walled in, full of deer; and in one part there is a grove of
goodly pine trees.
The next day, I went to see the Louvre with more attention, its
several courts and pavilions. One of the quadrangles, begun by
Henry IV., and finished by his son and grandson, is a superb, but
mixed structure. The cornices, moldings, and compartments, with
the insertion of several colored marbles, have been of great
expense.
We went through the long gallery, paved with white and black
marble, richly fretted and painted à fresco. The front looking to the
river, though of rare work for the carving, yet wants of that
magnificence which a plainer and truer design would have
contributed to it.
 In the Cour aux Tuileries is a princely fabric; the winding
geometrical stone stairs, with the cupola, I take to be as bold and
noble a piece of architecture as any in Europe of the kind. To this is
a corps de logis, worthy of so great a prince. Under these buildings,
through a garden in which is an ample fountain, was the king's
printing house, and that famous letter so much esteemed. Here I
bought divers of the classic authors, poets, and others.
We returned through another gallery, larger, but not so long,
where hung the pictures of all the kings and queens and prime
nobility of France.
Descending hence, we were let into a lower very large room,
called the Salle des Antiques, which is a vaulted Cimelia, destined for
statues only, among which stands that so celebrated Diana of the
Ephesians, said to be the same which uttered oracles in that
renowned Temple. Besides these colossean figures of marble, I must
not forget the huge globe suspended by chains. The pavings,
inlayings, and incrustations of this Hall, are very rich.
In another more private garden toward the Queen's apartment is
a walk, or cloister, under arches, whose terrace is paved with stones
of a great breadth; it looks toward the river, and has a pleasant
aviary, fountain, stately cypresses, etc. On the river are seen a
prodigious number of barges and boats of great length, full of hay,
corn, wood, wine, and other commodities, which this vast city daily
consumes. Under the long gallery we have described, dwell
goldsmiths, painters, statuaries, and architects, who being the most
famous for their art in Christendom have stipends allowed them by
the King. Into that of Monsieur Saracin we entered, who was then
molding for an image of a Madonna to be cast in gold of a great size
to be sent by the Queen Regent to Loretto, as an offering for the
birth of the Dauphin, now the young King.
I finished this day with a walk in the great garden of the Tuileries,
rarely contrived for privacy, shade, or company, by groves,
plantations of tall trees, especially that in the middle, being of elms,
the other of mulberries; and that labyrinth of cypresses; not omitting
the noble hedges of pomegranates, fountains, fish-ponds, and an
aviary; but, above all, the artificial echo, redoubling the words so
distinctly; and, as it is never without some fair nymph singing to its
grateful returns; standing at one of the focuses, which is under a
tree or little cabinet of hedges, the voice seems to descend from the
clouds; at another, as if it was underground. This being at the
bottom of the garden, we were let into another, which being kept
with all imaginary accurateness as to the orangery, precious shrubs,
and rare fruits, seemed a Paradise. From a terrace in this place we
saw so many coaches, as one would hardly think could be
maintained in the whole city, going, late as it was in the year, toward
the course, which is a place adjoining, of near an English mile long,
planted with four rows of trees, making a large circle in the middle.
This course is walled about, near breast high, with squared
freestone, and has a stately arch at the entrance, with sculpture and
statues about it, built by Mary di Medicis. Here it is that the gallants
and ladies of the Court take the air and divert themselves, as with us
in Hyde Park, the circle being capable of containing a hundred
coaches to turn commodiously, and the larger of the plantations for
five or six coaches abreast.
Returning through the Tuileries, we saw a building in which are
kept wild beasts for the King's pleasure, a bear, a wolf, a wild boar, a
leopard, etc.
27th February, 1644. Accompanied with some
ST. CLOUD
English gentlemen, we took horse to see St.
Germains-en-Laye, a stately country house of the King, some five
leagues from Paris. By the way, we alighted at St. Cloud, where, on
an eminence near the river, the Archbishop of Paris has a garden, for
the house is not very considerable, rarely watered and furnished
with fountains, statues, and groves; the walks are very fair; the
fountain of Laocoon is in a large square pool, throwing the water
near forty feet high, and having about it a multitude of statues and
basins, and is a surprising object. But nothing is more esteemed
than the cascade falling from the great steps into the lowest and
longest walk from the Mount Parnassus, which consists of a grotto,
or shell-house, on the summit of the hill, wherein are divers
waterworks and contrivances to wet the spectators; this is covered
with a fair cupola, the walls painted with the Muses, and statues
placed thick about it, whereof some are antique and good. In the
upper walks are two perspectives, seeming to enlarge the alleys, and
in this garden are many other ingenious contrivances. The palace, as
I said, is not extraordinary. The outer walls only painted à fresco. In
the court is a Volary, and the statues of Charles IX., Henry III., IV.,
and Louis XIII., on horseback, mezzo-relievo'd in plaster. In the
garden is a small chapel; and under shelter is the figure of
Cleopatra, taken from the Belvidere original, with others. From the
terrace above is a tempest well painted; and thence an excellent
prospect toward Paris, the meadows, and river.
At an inn in this village is a host who treats all the great persons
in princely lodgings for furniture and plate, but they pay well for it,
as I have done. Indeed, the entertainment is very splendid, and not
unreasonable, considering the excellent manner of dressing their
meat, and of the service. Here are many debauches and excessive
revelings, as being out of all noise and observance.
From hence, about a league further, we went to see Cardinal
Richelieu's villa, at Ruell. The house is small, but fairly built, in form
of a castle, moated round. The offices are toward the road, and over
against it are large vineyards, walled in. But, though the house is not
of the greatest, the gardens about it are so magnificent, that I doubt
whether Italy has any exceeding it for all rarities of pleasure. The
garden nearest the pavilion is a parterre, having in the midst divers
noble brass statues, perpetually spouting water into an ample basin,
with other figures of the same metal; but what is most admirable is
the vast inclosure, and variety of ground, in the large garden,
containing vineyards, cornfields, meadows, groves (whereof one is
of perennial greens), and walks of vast length, so accurately kept
and cultivated, that nothing can be more agreeable. On one of these
walks, within a square of tall trees, is a basilisk of copper, which,
managed by the fountaineer, casts water near sixty feet high, and
will of itself move round so swiftly, that one can hardly escape
wetting. This leads to the Citronière, which is a noble conserve of all
those rarities; and at the end of it is the Arch of Constantine, painted
on a wall in oil, as large as the real one at Rome, so well done, that
even a man skilled in painting, may mistake it for stone and
sculpture. The sky and hills, which seem to be between the arches,
are so natural, that swallows and other birds, thinking to fly through,
have dashed themselves against the wall. I was infinitely taken with
this agreeable cheat. At the further part of this walk is that plentiful,
though artificial cascade, which rolls down a very steep declivity, and
over the marble steps and basins, with an astonishing noise and
fury; each basin hath a jetto in it, flowing like sheets of transparent
glass, especially that which rises over the great shell of lead, from
whence it glides silently down a channel through the middle of a
spacious gravel walk, terminating in a grotto. Here are also fountains
that cast water to a great height, and large ponds, two of which
have islands for harbor of fowls, of which there is store. One of
these islands has a receptacle for them built of vast pieces of rock,
near fifty feet high, grown over with moss, ivy, etc., shaded at a
competent distance with tall trees: in this rupellary nidary do the
fowl lay eggs, and breed. We then saw a large and very rare grotto
of shell-work, in the shape of Satyrs, and other wild fancies: in the
middle stands a marble table, on which a fountain plays in divers
forms of glasses, cups, crosses, fans, crowns, etc. Then the
fountaineer represented a shower of rain from the top, met by small
jets from below. At going out, two extravagant musketeers shot us
with a stream of water from their musket barrels. Before this grotto
is a long pool into which ran divers spouts of water from leaden
escalop basins. The viewing this paradise made us
ST. GERMAINS
late at St. Germains.
The first building of this palace is of Charles V., called the Sage;
but Francis I. (that true virtuoso) made it complete; speaking as to
the style of magnificence then in fashion, which was with too great a
mixture of the Gothic, as may be seen in what there is remaining of
his in the old Castle, an irregular piece as built on the old
foundation, and having a moat about it. It has yet some spacious
and handsome rooms of state, and a chapel neatly painted. The new
Castle is at some distance, divided from this by a court, of a lower,
but more modern design, built by Henry IV. To this belong six
terraces, built of brick and stone, descending in cascades toward the
river, cut out of the natural hill, having under them goodly vaulted
galleries; of these, four have subterranean grots and rocks, where
are represented several objects in the manner of scenes and other
motions, by force of water, shown by the light of torches only;
among these, is Orpheus with his music; and the animals, which
dance after his harp; in the second, is the King and Dolphin;17 in the
third, is Neptune sounding his trumpet, his chariot drawn by sea
horses; in the fourth, the story of Perseus and Andromeda; mills;
hermitages; men fishing; birds chirping; and many other devices.
There is also a dry grot to refresh in; all having a fine prospect
toward the river, and the goodly country about it, especially the
forest. At the bottom, is a parterre; the upper terrace nearly half a
mile in length, with double declivities, arched and balustered with
stone, of vast and royal cost.
In the pavilion of the new Castle are many fair rooms, well
painted, and leading into a very noble garden and park, where is a
pall-mall, in the midst of which, on one of the sides, is a chapel, with
stone cupola, though small, yet of a handsome order of architecture.
Out of the park you go into the forest, which being very large, is
stored with deer, wild boars, wolves, and other wild game. The
Tennis Court, and Cavallerizzo, for the menaged horses, are also
observable.
We returned to Paris by Madrid, another villa of
PARIS
the King's, built by Francis I., and called by that
name to absolve him of his oath that he would not go from Madrid
(in which he was prisoner), in Spain, but from whence he made his
escape. This house is also built in a park, and walled in. We next
called in at the Bonnes-hommes, well situated, with a fair chapel and
library.
1st March, 1644. I went to see the Count de Liancourt's Palace in
the Rue de Seine, which is well built. Toward his study and
bedchamber joins a little garden, which, though very narrow, by the
addition of a well-painted perspective, is to appearance greatly
enlarged; to this there is another part, supported by arches in which
runs a stream of water, rising in the aviary, out of a statue, and
seeming to flow for some miles, by being artificially continued in the
painting, when it sinks down at the wall. It is a very agreeable
deceit. At the end of this garden is a little theater, made to change
with divers pretty scenes, and the stage so ordered, with figures of
men and women painted on light boards, and cut out, and, by a
person who stands underneath, made to act as if they were
speaking, by guiding them, and reciting words in different tones, as
the parts require. We were led into a round cabinet, where was a
neat invention for reflecting lights, by lining divers sconces with thin
shining plates of gilded copper.
In one of the rooms of state was an excellent painting of Poussin,
being a Satyr kneeling; over the chimney, the Coronation of the
Virgin, by Paulo Veronese; another Madonna over the door, and that
of Joseph, by Cigali; in the Hall, a Cavaliero di Malta, attended by his
page, said to be of Michael Angelo; the Rape of Proserpine, with a
very large landscape of Correggio. In the next room are some
paintings of Primaticcio, especially the Helena, the naked Lady
brought before Alexander, well painted, and a Ceres. In the
bedchamber a picture of the Cardinal de Liancourt, of Raphael,
rarely colored. In the cabinet are divers pieces of Bassano, two of
Polemburg, four of Paulo Brill, the skies a little too blue. A Madonna
of Nicholao, excellently painted on a stone; a Judith of Mantegna;
three women of Jeronimo; one of Stenwick; a Madonna after Titian,
and a Magdalen of the same hand, as the Count esteems it: two
small pieces of Paulo Veronese, being the Martyrdoms of St. Justina
and St. Catherine; a Madonna of Lucas Van Leyden, sent him from
our King; six more of old Bassano; two excellent drawings of Albert;
a Magdalen of Leonardo da Vinci; four of Paulo; a very rare Madonna
of Titian, given him also by our King; the Ecce Homo, shut up in a
frame of velvet, for the life and accurate finishing exceeding all
description. Some curious agates, and a chaplet of admirable
invention, the intaglios being all on fruit stones. The Count was so
exceeding civil, that he would needs make his lady go out of her
dressing room, that he might show us the curiosities and pictures in
it.
We went thence to visit one Monsieur Perishot, one of the
greatest virtuosos in France, for his collection of pictures, agates,
medals, and flowers, especially tulips and anemonies. The chiefest of
his paintings was a Sebastian, of Titian.
From him we went to Monsieur Frene's, who showed us many
rare drawings, a Rape of Helen in black chalk; many excellent things
of Sneiders, all naked; some of Julio and Michael Angelo; a Madonna
of Passignano; some things of Parmensis, and other masters.
The next morning, being recommended to one Monsieur de
Hausse, President of the Parliament, and once Ambassador at Venice
for the French King, we were very civilly received, and showed his
library. Among his paintings were a rare Venus and Adonis of
Veronese, a St. Anthony, after the first manner of Correggio, and a
rare Madonna of Palma.
Sunday, the 6th of March, I went to Charenton, two leagues from
Paris, to hear and see the manner of the French Protestant Church
service. The place of meeting they call the Temple, a very fair and
spacious room, built of freestone, very decently adorned with
paintings of the Tables of the Law, the Lord's Prayer, and Creed. The
pulpit stands at the upper end in the middle, having an inclosure of
seats about it, where the Elders and persons of greatest quality and
strangers, sit; the rest of the congregation on forms and low stools,
but none in pews, as in our churches, to their great disgrace, as
nothing so orderly, as here the stools and other cumber are removed
when the assembly rises. I was greatly pleased with their
harmonious singing the Psalms, which they all learn perfectly well,
their children being as duly taught these, as their catechism.
In our passage, we went by that famous bridge over the Marne,
where that renowned echo returns the voice of a good singer nine or
ten times.
7th March, 1644. I set forward with some company toward
Fontainebleau, a sumptuous Palace of the King's, like ours at
Hampton Court, about fourteen leagues from the city. By the way,
we pass through a forest so prodigiously encompassed with hideous
rocks of whitish hard stone, heaped one on another in mountainous
heights, that I think the like is nowhere to be found more horrid and
solitary. It abounds with stags, wolves, boars, and not long after a
lynx, or ounce, was killed among them, which had devoured some
passengers. On the summit of one of these gloomy precipices,
intermingled with trees and shrubs, the stones hanging over, and
menacing ruin, is built an hermitage. In these solitudes, rogues
frequently lurk and do mischief (and for whom we were all well
appointed with our carabines); but we arrived safe in the evening at
the village, where we lay at the Horne, going early next morning to
the Palace.
This House is nothing so stately and uniform as Hampton Court,
but Francis I. began much to beautify it; most of all Henry IV. (and
not a little) the late King. It abounds with fair halls, chambers, and
galleries; in the longest, which is 360 feet long, and 18 broad, are
painted the Victories of that great Prince, Henry IV. That of Francis
I., called the grand Gallery, has all the King's palaces painted in it;
above these, in sixty pieces of excellent work in fresco, is the History
of Ulysses, from Homer, by Primaticcio, in the time of Henry III.,
esteemed the most renowned in Europe for the design. The Cabinet
is full of excellent pictures, especially a Woman, of Raphael. In the
Hall of the Guards is a piece of tapestry painted on the wall, very
naturally, representing the victories of Charles VII. over our
countrymen. In the Salle des Festins is a rare Chimney-piece, and
Henry IV. on horseback, of white marble, esteemed worth 18,000
crowns; Clementia and Pax, nobly done. On columns of jasper, two
lions of brass. The new stairs, and a half circular court, are of
modern and good architecture, as is a chapel built by Louis XIII., all
of jasper, with several incrustations of marble through the inside.
Having seen the rooms, we went to the volary, which has a
cupola in the middle of it, great trees and bushes, it being full of
birds who drank at two fountains. There is also a fair tennis court,
and noble stables; but the beauty of all are the gardens. In the
Court of the Fountains stand divers antiquities and statues,
especially a Mercury. In the Queen's Garden is a Diana ejecting a
fountain, with numerous other brass statues.
The great Garden, 180 toises long and 154 wide, has in the
center a fountain of Tyber of a Colossean figure of brass, with the
Wolf over Romulus and Remus. At each corner of the garden rises a
fountain. In the garden of the piscina, is a Hercules of white marble;
next, is that of the pines, and without that a canal of an English mile
in length, at the end of which rise three jettos in the form of a fleur-
de-lis, of a great height; on the margin are excellent walks planted
with trees. The carps come familiarly to hand (to be fed). Hence
they brought us to a spring, which they say being first discovered by
a dog, gave occasion of beautifying this place, both with the palace
and gardens. The white and terrific rocks at some distance in the
forest, yield one of the most august and stupendous prospects
imaginable. The park about this place is very large, and the town full
of noblemen's houses.
Next morning, we were invited by a painter, who was keeper of
the pictures and rarities, to see his own collection. We were led
through a gallery of old Rosso's work, at the end of which, in
another cabinet, were three Madonnas of Raphael, and two of
Andrea del Sarto. In the Academy where the painter himself
wrought, was a St. Michael of Raphael, very rare; St. John Baptist of
Leonardo, and a Woman's head; a Queen of Sicily, and St. Margaret
of Raphael; two more Madonnas, whereof one very large, by the
same hand; some more of del Sarto; a St. Jerome, of Perino del
Vaga; the Rape of Proserpine, very good; and a great number of
drawings.
Returning part of our way to Paris, that day, we visited a house
called Maison Rouge, having an excellent prospect, grot, and
fountains, one whereof rises fifty feet, and resembles the noise of a
tempest, battle of guns, etc., at its issue.
Thence to Essone, a house of Monsieur Essling, who is a great
virtuoso; there are many good paintings in it; but nothing so
observable as his gardens, fountains, fish-pools, especially that in a
triangular form, the water cast out by a multitude of heads about it;
there is a noble cascade and pretty baths, with all accommodations.
Under a marble table is a fountain of serpents twisting about a
globe.
We alighted next at Corbeil, a town famous for the siege by Henry
IV. Here we slept, and returned next morning to Paris.
18th March, 1644. I went with Sir J. Cotton, a Cambridgeshire
Knight, a journey into Normandy. The first day, we passed by
Gaillon, the Archbishop of Rouen's Palace. The gardens are highly
commended, but we did not go in, intending to reach Pontoise by
dinner. This town is built in a very gallant place, has a noble bridge
over the Oise, and is well refreshed with fountains.
This is the first town in Normandy, and the furthest that the
vineyards extend to on this side of the country, which is fuller of
plains, wood, and inclosures, with some towns toward the sea, very
like England.
We lay this night at a village, called Magny. The
ROUEN
next day, descending a very steep hill, we dined at
Fleury, after riding five leagues down St. Catherine, to Rouen, which
affords a goodly prospect, to the ruins of that chapel and mountain.
This country so abounds with wolves that a shepherd whom we met,
told us one of his companions was strangled by one of them the day
before, and that in the midst of his flock. The fields are mostly
planted with pears and apples, and other cider fruits. It is plentifully
furnished with quarries of stone and slate, and hath iron in
abundance.
I lay at the White Cross, in Rouen, which is a very large city, on
the Seine, having two smaller rivers besides, called the Aubette and
Robec. There stand yet the ruins of a magnificent bridge of stone,
now supplied by one of boats only, to which come up vessels of
considerable burden. The other side of the water consists of
meadows, and there have the Reformed a church.
The Cathedral Nôtre Dame was built, as they acknowledge, by the
English; some English words graven in Gothic characters upon the
front seem to confirm it. The towers and whole church are full of
carving. It has three steeples, with a pyramid; in one of these, I saw
the famous bell so much talked of, thirteen feet in height, thirty-two
round, the diameter eleven, weighing 40,000 pounds.
In the Chapel d'Amboise, built by a Cardinal of that name, lies his
body, with several fair monuments. The choir has behind it a great
dragon painted on the wall, which they say had done much harm to
the inhabitants, till vanquished by St. Romain, their Archbishop; for
which there is an annual procession. It was now near Easter, and
many images were exposed with scenes and stories representing the
Passion; made up of little puppets, to which there was great resort
and devotion, with offerings. Before the church is a fair palace. St.
Ouen is another goodly church and an abbey with fine gardens. Here
the King hath lodgings, when he makes his progress through these
parts. The structure, where the Court of Parliament is kept, is very
magnificent, containing very fair halls and chambers, especially La
Chambre Dorée. The town-house is also well built, and so are some
gentlemen's houses; but most part of the rest are of timber, like our
merchants' in London, in the wooden part of the city.
21st March, 1644. On Easter Monday, we dined at Totes, a
solitary inn between Rouen and Dieppe, at which latter place we
arrived. This town is situated between two mountains, not
unpleasantly, and is washed on the north by our English seas.
The port is commodious; but the entrance difficult. It has one
very ample and fair street, in which is a pretty church. The Fort
Pollet consists of a strong earth-work, and commands the haven, as
on the other side does the castle, which is also well fortified, with
the citadel before it; nor is the town itself a little strong. It abounds
with workmen, who make and sell curiosities of ivory and tortoise-
shells; and indeed whatever the East Indies afford of cabinets,
porcelain, natural and exotic rarities, are here to be had, with
abundant choice.
23d March, 1644. We passed along the coast by a very rocky and
rugged way, which forced us to alight many times before we came to
Havre de Grace, where we lay that night.
The next morning, we saw the citadel, strong and regular, well
stored with artillery and ammunition of all sorts: the works furnished
with fair brass cannon, having a motto, Ratio ultima Regum. The
allogements of the garrison are uniform; a spacious place for
drawing up the soldiers, a pretty chapel, and a fair house for the
Governor. The Duke of Richelieu being now in the fort, we went to
salute him; who received us very civilly, and commanded that we
should be showed whatever we desired to see. The citadel was built
by the late Cardinal de Richelieu, uncle of the present Duke, and
may be esteemed one of the strongest in France. The haven is very
capacious.
When we had done here, we embarked ourselves and horses to
pass to Honfleur, about four or five leagues distant, where the Seine
falls into the sea. It is a poor fisher-town, remarkable for nothing so
much as the odd, yet useful habits which the good women wear, of
bears' and other skins, as of rugs at Dieppe, and all along these
maritime coasts.

CAEN
 25th March, 1644. We arrived at Caen, a noble and beautiful
town, situate on the river Orne, which passes quite through it, the
two sides of the town joined only by a bridge of one entire arch. We
lay at the Angel, where we were very well used, the place being
abundantly furnished with provisions, at a cheap rate. The most
considerable object is the great Abbey and Church, large and rich,
built after the Gothic manner, having two spires and middle lantern
at the west end, all of stone. The choir round and large, in the
center whereof elevated on a square, handsome, but plain sepulcher,
is this inscription:
"Hoc sepulchrum invictissimi juxta et clementissimi conquestoris,
Gulielmi, dum viverat Anglorum Regis, Normannorum Cenomannorumque
Principis, hujus insignis Abbatiae piissimi Fundatoris: Cum anno 1562
vesano hæreticorum furore direptum fuisset, pio tandem nobilium
ejusdem Abbatiae religiosorum gratitudinis sensu in tam beneficum
largitorem, instauratum fuit, aº D'ni 1642. D'no Johanne de Bailhache
Assætorii proto priore. D.D."

On the other side are these monkish rhymes:

"Qui rexit rigidos Northmannos, atq. Britannos

Audacter vicit, fortiter obtinuit,
Et Cenomanensis virtute coërcuit ensis,
Imperiique sui Legibus applicuit.
Rex magnus parvâ jacet hâc Gulielm' in Urnâ,
Sufficit et magno parva domus Domino.
Ter septem gradibus te volverat atq. duobus
Virginis in gremio Phœbus, et hic obiit."

We went to the castle, which is strong and fair, and so is the

town-house, built on the bridge which unites the two towns. Here
are schools and an University for the Jurists.
The whole town is handsomely built of that excellent stone so
well known by that name in England. I was led to a pretty garden,
planted with hedges of alaternus, having at the entrance a screen at
an exceeding height, accurately cut in topiary work, with well
understood architecture, consisting of pillars, niches, friezes, and
other ornaments, with great curiosity; some of the columns curiously
wreathed, others spiral, all according to art.
28th March, 1644. We went toward Paris, lying
PARIS
the first night at Evreux, a Bishop's seat, an ancient
town, with a fair cathedral; so the next day we arrived at Paris.
1st April, 1644. I went to see more exactly the rooms of the fine
Palace of Luxemburg, in the Fauxbourg St. Germains, built by Mary
di Medicis, and I think one of the most noble, entire, and finished
piles that is to be seen, taking it with the garden and all its
accomplishments. The gallery is of the painting of Rubens, being the
history of the Foundress's Life, rarely designed; at the end of it is the
Duke of Orleans' library, well furnished with excellent books, all
bound in maroquin and gilded, the valance of the shelves being of
green velvet, fringed with gold. In the cabinet joining to it are only
the smaller volumes, with six cabinets of medals, and an excellent
collection of shells and agates, whereof some are prodigiously rich.
This Duke being very learned in medals and plants, nothing of that
kind escapes him. There are other spacious, noble, and princely
furnished rooms, which look toward the gardens, which are nothing
inferior to the rest.
The court below is formed into a square by a corridor, having over
the chief entrance a stately cupola, covered with stone: the rest is
cloistered and arched on pilasters of rustic work. The terrace
ascending before the front, paved with white and black marble, is
balustered with white marble, exquisitely polished.
Only the hall below is low, and the staircase somewhat of a heavy
design, but the facia toward the parterre which is also arched and
vaulted with stone, is of admirable beauty and full of sculpture.
The gardens are near an English mile in compass, inclosed with a
stately wall, and in a good air. The parterre is indeed of box, but so
rarely designed and accurately kept cut, that the embroidery makes
a wonderful effect to the lodgings which front it. 'Tis divided into
four squares and as many circular knots, having in the center a
noble basin of marble near thirty feet in diameter (as I remember),
in which a Triton of brass holds a dolphin, that casts a girandola of
water near thirty feet high, playing perpetually, the water being
conveyed from Arceuil by an aqueduct of stone, built after the old
Roman magnificence. About this ample parterre, the spacious walks
and all included, runs a border of freestone, adorned with pedestals
for pots and statues, and part of it near the steps of the terrace,
with a rail and baluster of pure white marble.
The walks are exactly fair, long, and variously descending and so
justly planted with limes, elms, and other trees, that nothing can be
more delicious, especially that of the hornbeam hedge, which being
high and stately, buts full on the fountain.
Toward the further end, is an excavation intended for a vast fish-
pool, but never finished, and near it is an inclosure for a garden of
simples, well kept; and here the Duke keeps tortoises in great
number, who use the pool of water on one side of the garden. Here
is also a conservatory for snow. At the upper part, toward the
palace, is a grove of tall elms cut into a star, every ray being a walk,
whose center is a large fountain.
The rest of the ground is made into several inclosures (all hedge-
work or rows of trees) of whole fields, meadows, bocages, some of
them containing divers acres.
Next the street side, and more contiguous to the house, are knots
in trail, or grass work, where likewise runs a fountain. Toward the
grotto and stables, within a wall, is a garden of choice flowers, in
which the duke spends many thousand pistoles. In sum, nothing is
wanted to render this palace and gardens perfectly beautiful and
magnificent; nor is it one of the least diversions to see the number
of persons of quality, citizens and strangers, who frequent it, and to
whom all access is freely permitted, so that you shall see some
walks and retirements full of gallants and ladies; in others
melancholy friars; in others, studious scholars; in others, jolly
citizens, some sitting or lying on the grass, others running and
jumping; some playing at bowls and ball, others dancing and
singing; and all this without the least disturbance, by reason of the
largeness of the place.
What is most admirable, you see no gardeners, or men at work,
and yet all is kept in such exquisite order, as if they did nothing else
but work; it is so early in the morning, that all is dispatched and
done without the least confusion.
I have been the larger in the description of this paradise, for the
extraordinary delight I have taken in those sweet retirements. The
Cabinet and Chapel nearer the garden-front have some choice
pictures. All the houses near this are also very noble palaces,
especially Petite Luxemburg. The ascent of the street is handsome
from its breadth, situation, and buildings.
I went next to view Paris from the top of St. Jacques' steeple,
esteemed the highest in the town, from whence I had a full view of
the whole city and suburbs, both which, as I judge, are not so large
as London: though the dissimilitude of their several forms and
situations, this being round, London long,—renders it difficult to
determine; but there is no comparison between the buildings,
palaces, and materials, this being entirely of stone and more
sumptuous, though I esteem our piazzas to exceed theirs.
Hence I took a turn in St. Innocent's churchyard, where the story
of the devouring quality of the ground (consuming bodies in twenty-
four hours), the vast charnels of bones, tombs, pyramids, and
sepulchers, took up much of my time, together with the
hieroglyphical characters of Nicholas Flamel's philosophical work,
who had founded this church, and divers other charitable
establishments, as he testifies in his book.
Here divers clerks get their livelihood by inditing letters for poor
maids and other ignorant people who come to them for advice, and
to write for them into the country, both to their sweethearts,
parents, and friends; every large gravestone serving for a table.
Joining to this church is a common fountain, with good relievos upon
it.
The next day I was carried to see a French gentleman's curious
collection, which abounded in fair and rich jewels of all sorts of
precious stones, most of them of great sizes and value; agates and
onyxes, some of them admirably colored and antique; nor inferior
were his landscapes from the best hands, most of which he had
caused to be copied in miniature; one of which, rarely painted on
stone, was broken by one of our company, by the mischance of
setting it up: but such was the temper and civility of the gentleman,
that it altered nothing of his free and noble humor.
The next morning, I was had by a friend to the garden of
Monsieur Morine, who, from being an ordinary gardener, is become
one of the most skillful and curious persons in France for his rare
collection of shells, flowers, and insects.
His garden is of an exact oval figure, planted with cypress, cut flat
and set as even as a wall: the tulips, anemones, ranunculuses,
crocuses, etc., are held to be of the rarest, and draw all the admirers
of that kind to his house during the season. He lived in a kind of
hermitage at one side of his garden, where his collection of porcelain
and coral, whereof one is carved into a large crucifix, is much
esteemed. He has also books of prints, by Albert [Durer], Van
Leyden, Callot, etc. His collection of all sorts of insects, especially of
butterflies, is most curious; these he spreads and so medicates, that
no corruption invading them, he keeps them in drawers, so placed
as to represent a beautiful piece of tapestry.
He showed me the remarks he had made on their propagation,
which he promised to publish. Some of these, as also of his best
flowers, he had caused to be painted in miniature by rare hands,
and some in oil.
 6th April, 1644. I sent my sister my own picture in water colors,18
which she requested of me, and went to see divers of the fairest
palaces of the town, as that of Vendôme, very large and stately;
Lougueville; Guise; Condé; Chevereuse; Nevers, esteemed one of
the best in Paris toward the river.
I often went to the Palais Cardinal, bequeathed by Richelieu to
the King, on condition that it should be called by his name; at this
time, the King resided in it, because of the building of the Louvre. It
is a very noble house, though somewhat low; the galleries, paintings
of the most illustrious persons of both sexes, the Queen's baths,
presence-chamber with its rich carved and gilded roof, theater, and
large garden, in which is an ample fountain, grove, and mall, worthy
of remark. Here I also frequently went to see them ride and exercise
the great horse, especially at the Academy of Monsieur du Plessis,
and de Veau, whose schools of that art are frequented by the
nobility; and here also young gentlemen are taught to fence, dance,
play on music, and something in fortification and the mathematics.
The design is admirable, some keeping near a hundred brave horses,
all managed to the great saddle.
12th April, 1644. I took coach, to see a general muster of all the
gens d'armes about the city, in the Bois de Boulogne, before their
Majesties and all the Grandees. They were reputed to be near
20,000, besides the spectators, who much exceeded them in
number. Here they performed all their motions; and, being drawn
up, horse and foot, into several figures, represented a battle.
The summer now drawing near, I determined to
ORLEANS
spend the rest of it in some more remote town on
the river Loire; and, on 19th of April, I took leave of Paris, and, by
the way of the messenger, agreed for my passage to Orleans.
The way from Paris to this city, as indeed most of the roads in
France, is paved with a small square freestone, so that the country
does not much molest the traveler with dirt and ill way, as in
England, only 'tis somewhat hard to the poor horses' feet, which
causes them to ride more temperately, seldom going out of the trot,
or grand pas, as they call it. We passed divers walled towns, or
villages; among others of note, Chartres and Etampes, where we lay
the first night. This has a fair church. The next day, we had an
excellent road; but had liked to come short home: for no sooner
were we entered two or three leagues into the Forest of Orleans
(which extends itself many miles), but the company behind us were
set on by rogues, who, shooting from the hedges and frequent
covert, slew four upon the spot. Among the slain was a captain of
Swiss, of the regiment of Picardy, a person much lamented. This
disaster made such an alarm in Orleans at our arrival, that the
Prevôt Marshal, with his assistants, going in pursuit, brought in two
whom they had shot, and exposed them in the great market place,
to see if any would take cognizance of them. I had great cause to
give God thanks for this escape; when coming to Orleans and lying
at the White Cross, I found Mr. John Nicholas, eldest son to Mr.
Secretary. In the night a cat kittened on my bed, and left on it a
young one having six ears, eight legs, two bodies from the middle
downward, and two tails. I found it dead, but warm, in the morning
when I awaked.
21st April, 1644. I went about to view the city, which is well built
of stone, on the side of the Loire. About the middle of the river is an
island, full of walks and fair trees, with some houses. This is
contiguous to the town by a stately stone bridge, reaching to the
opposite suburbs, built likewise on the edge of a hill, from whence is
a beautiful prospect. At one of the extremes of the bridge are strong
towers, and about the middle, on one side, is the statue of the Virgin
Mary, or Pieta, with the dead Christ in her lap, as big as the life. At
one side of the cross, kneels Charles VII., armed, and at the other
Joan d'Arc, armed also like a cavalier, with boots and spurs, her hair
disheveled, as the deliveress of the town from our countrymen,
when they besieged it. The figures are all cast in copper, with a
pedestal full of inscriptions, as well as a fair column joining it, which
is all adorned with fleurs-de-lis and a crucifix, with two saints
proceeding (as it were) from two branches out of its capital. The
inscriptions on the cross are in Latin: "Mors Christi in cruce nos á
contagione, labis et æternorum morborum sanavit." On the
pedestal: "Rex in hoc signo hostes profligavit, et Johanna Virgo
Aureliam obsidio liberavit. Non diu ab impiis diruta, restituta sunt hoc
anno D'ni 1578. Jean Buret, m. f."—"Octannoque Galliam servitute
Britannicâ liberavit. A Domino factum est illud, et est mirabile in
oculis nostris; in quorum memorià hæc nostræ fidei Insignia." To
this is made an annual procession on 12th of May, mass being sung
before it, attended with great ceremony and concourse of people.
The wine of this place is so strong, that the King's cup bearers are,
as I was assured, sworn never to give the King any of it: but it is a
very noble liquor, and much of it transported into other countries.
The town is much frequented by strangers, especially Germans, for
the great purity of the language here spoken, as well as for divers
other privileges, and the University, which causes the English to
make no long sojourn here, except such as can drink and debauch.
The city stands in the county of Bealse (Blaisois); was once styled a
Kingdom, afterward a Duchy, as at present, belonging to the second
son of France. Many Councils have been held here, and some Kings
crowned. The University is very ancient, divided now by the students
into that of four nations, French, High Dutch, Normans, and
Picardines, who have each their respective protectors, several
officers, treasurers, consuls, seals, etc. There are in it two
reasonable fair public libraries, whence one may borrow a book to
one's chamber, giving but a note under hand, which is an
extraordinary custom, and a confidence that has cost many libraries
dear. The first church I went to visit was St. Croix; it has been a
stately fabric, but now much ruined by the late civil wars. They
report the tower of it to have been the highest in France. There is
the beginning of a fair reparation. About this cathedral there is a
very spacious cemetery. The townhouse is also very nobly built, with
a high tower to it. The market place and streets, some whereof are
deliciously planted with limes, are ample and straight, so well paved
with a kind of pebble, that I have not seen a neater town in France.
In fine, this city was by Francis I. esteemed the most agreeable of
his vast dominions.
 28th April, 1644. Taking boat on the Loire, I went toward Blois,
the passage and river being both very pleasant. Passing Mehun, we
dined at Baugenci, and slept at a little town called St. Dieu. Quitting
our bark, we hired horses to Blois, by the way of Chambord, a
famous house of the King's, built by Francis I. in the middle of a
solitary park, full of deer, inclosed with a wall. I was particularly
desirous of seeing this palace, from the extravagance of the design,
especially the staircase, mentioned by Palladio. It is said that 1800
workmen were constantly employed in this fabric for twelve years: if
so, it is wonderful that it was not finished, it being no greater than
divers gentlemen's houses in England, both for room and circuit. The
carvings are indeed very rich and full. The staircase is devised with
four entries, or assents, which cross one another, so that though
four persons meet, they never come in sight, but by small loopholes,
till they land. It consists of 274 steps (as I remember), and is an
extraordinary work, but of far greater expense than use or beauty.
The chimneys of the house appear like so many towers. About the
whole is a large deep moat. The country about is full of corn, and
wine, with many fair noblemen's houses.
We arrived at Blois in the evening. The town is
BLOIS
hilly, uneven, and rugged, standing on the side of
the Loire, having suburbs joined by a stately stone bridge, on which
is a pyramid with an inscription. At the entrance of the castle is a
stone statue of Louis XII. on horseback, as large as life, under a
Gothic state; and a little below are these words:

"Hic ubi natus erat dextro Ludovicus Olympo,

Sumpsit honoratâ regia sceptra manu;
Felix quæ tanti fulsit Lux nuncia Regis!
Gallica non alio principe digna fuit."

Under this is a very wide pair of gates, nailed full of wolves and
wild-boars' heads. Behind the castle the present Duke Gaston had
begun a fair building, through which we walked into a large garden,
esteemed for its furniture one of the fairest, especially for simples
and exotic plants, in which he takes extraordinary delight. On the
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