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Studies in Computational Intelligence 845

Roger Lee Editor

Software
Engineering
Research,
Management
and Applications
Studies in Computational Intelligence

Volume 845

Series Editor
Janusz Kacprzyk, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
The series “Studies in Computational Intelligence” (SCI) publishes new develop-
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Roger Lee
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Editor
Roger Lee
Software Engineering and Information
Technology Institute
Central Michigan University
Mount Pleasant, MI, USA

ISSN 1860-949X ISSN 1860-9503 (electronic)

Studies in Computational Intelligence
ISBN 978-3-030-24343-2 ISBN 978-3-030-24344-9 (eBook)
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Foreword

The purpose of the 17th International Conference on Software Engineering,

Artificial Intelligence Research, Management and Applications (SERA 2019) held
on May 29–31, 2019 at Honolulu, Hawaii is aimed at bringing together scientists,
engineers, computer users, and students to share their experiences and exchange
new ideas and research results about all aspects (theory, applications, and tools) of
Software Engineering Research, Management and Applications, and to discuss the
practical challenges encountered along the way and the solutions adopted to solve
them. The conference organizers selected the best 13 papers from those papers
accepted for presentation at the conference in order to publish them in this volume.
The papers were chosen based on review scored submitted by members of the
program committee and underwent further rigorous rounds of review.
In chapter “A QoS Aware Uplink Scheduler for IoT in Emergency Over LTE/
LTE-A Networks”, Jin Zhang, Yalong Wu, Wei Yu, and Chao Lu propose a
Quality of Service (QoS)-aware Normal Round Robin Uplink Scheduler
(QNRR-US) over Long-Term Evolution (LTE)/LTE-Advance (LTE-A) networks,
to efficiently allocate network resources with the rapidly growing connected IoT
devices.
In chapter “Emulation-Based Performance Evaluation of the Delay Tolerant
Networking (DTN) in Dynamic Network Topologies”, Weichao Gao, Hengshuo
Liang, James Nguyen, Fan Liang, Wei Yu, Chao Lu, and Mont Orpilla addresses
the performance issue of DTN in dynamic networks by conducting a series of
emulation-based experiments. Based on the experimental results, they are able to
provide general guidelines to evaluate an application for the potential benefits of
DTN, and the direction of optimizing the configuration for different applications in
dynamic networks.
In chapter “Teaching Distributed Software Architecture by Building an
Industrial Level E-Commerce Application”, Bingyang Wei, Yihao Li, Lin Deng,
and Nicholas Visalli propose a Project-Based Learning experience, which brings an
open-source full-fledged system to the classroom in order to effectively teach dis-
tributed software architecture.

v
vi Foreword

In chapter “KNN-Based Overlapping Samples Filter Approach for Classification

of Imbalanced Data”, Mar Mar Nwe and Khin Thidar Lynn propose an effective
under-sampling method for the classification of imbalanced and overlapping data
by using KNN-based overlapping samples filter approach. This paper summarizes
the performance analysis of three ensemble-based learning classifiers for the pro-
posed method.
In chapter “Spectrum-Based Bug Localization of Real-World Java Bugs”,
Cherry Oo and Hnin Min Oo propose an automated bug localization technique that
allows a programmer to be monitored up to the location of the error with little
human arbitration. They used the real-world Apache Commons Math and Apache
Commons Lang Java projects to examine the accuracy using spectrum-based bug
localization metric.
In chapter “The Role of Unconscious Bias in Software Project Failures”, Chris
Macnab and Sam Doctolero, address the alarming rate of Failures of The propose a
quantitative model of personalities that makes simple, testable predictions about
biases. They analyze the main biases of, in particular, software managers and how
their biases contribute to software failures.
In chapter “Analysis of Missing Data Using Matrix-Characterized
Approximations”, Thin Thin Soe and Myat Myat Min discuss the issues of verac-
ity related to data quality such as incomplete, inconsistent, vagueor noisy data that
creates a major challenge to data mining and data analysis. They present a rough
set-based matrix-represented approximations to compute lower and upper approxi-
mations. The experimental results show that the system outperforms when missing
data are characterized as “do not care” conditions than represented as lost values.
In chapter “Expansion of Cyber Attack Data from Unbalanced Datasets Using
Generative Adversarial Networks”, Tim Merino, Matt Stillwell, Mark Steele, Max
Coplan, Jon Patton, Alexander Stoyanov, and Lin Deng explore using Generative
Adversarial Networks (GANs) to improve the training and ultimately, performance
of cyberattack detection systems. They determine the feasibility of generating
cyberattack data from existing cyberattack datasets with the goal of balancing those
datasets with generated data.
In chapter “Fusion of Log-Mel Spectrogram and GLCM Feature in Acoustic
Scene Classification”, Mie Mie Oo and Lwin Lwin Oo address the important
problem of Acoustic Scene Classification (ASC). The purpose of the paper is to
extract the effective feature from the combination of signal processing approach and
image processing approach. The purpose of this feature is to reduce computational
time for classification.
In chapter “Improvement on Security of SMS Verification Codes”, Shushan
Zhao brings up the idea that requires the SMS verification code be sent to not only
the exact phone number but also the exact phone of the registered user and be used
to generate a One-time Passcode (OTP). They propose a possession-based SMS
verification framework and implementation algorithms in it, and analyze the
security and performance features of them.
Foreword vii

In chapter “An Alternative Development for RCANE Platform”, Toan Van

Nguyen and Geunwoong Ryu, proposed an RCANE platform that is presented to
solve the challenges of previous platforms and comply with the preconceived
perspectives of the current political, social, and economic systems to build up an
ecosystem for economy, society, and politics.
In chapter “Structural Relationship Data Analysis Between Relational Variables
and Benefit Sharing: Moderating Effect of Transaction-Specific Investment”,
Hae-Soo Pyun analyze the structural relationship data analysis between relational
variables and benefit sharing in the automobile industry, and analyze the moder-
ating effect of transaction-specific investment, to suggest the theoretical and prac-
tical implications. Based on the collected data, reliability analysis, validity analysis,
correlation analysis, and regression analysis were conducted.
In chapter “Beyond the Hawthorne Research: Relationship Between IT Company
Employees’ Perceived Physical Work Environment and Creative Behavior”,
Jin-Hua Zhang and Jun-Ho Lee demonstrates the relationship between IT company
employees’ perception of the organizational physical work environment, psycho-
logical well-being as a psychological factor, and creative behavior. Their study
demonstrates that perceived physical work environment has a significant effect on
creative behavior and that psychological well-being as a psychological factor.
It is our sincere hope that this volume provides stimulation and inspiration, and
that it will be used as a foundation for works to come.

May 2019 Program Chairs

Subrata Acharya
Towson University, Towson, USA
Contents

A QoS Aware Uplink Scheduler for IoT in Emergency Over

LTE/LTE-A Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Jin Zhang, Yalong Wu, Wei Yu and Chao Lu
Emulation-Based Performance Evaluation of the Delay Tolerant
Networking (DTN) in Dynamic Network Topologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Weichao Gao, Hengshuo Liang, James Nguyen, Fan Liang, Wei Yu,
Chao Lu and Mont Orpilla
Teaching Distributed Software Architecture by Building an Industrial
Level E-Commerce Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Bingyang Wei, Yihao Li, Lin Deng and Nicholas Visalli
KNN-Based Overlapping Samples Filter Approach for Classification
of Imbalanced Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Mar Mar Nwe and Khin Thidar Lynn
Spectrum-Based Bug Localization of Real-World Java Bugs . . . . . . . . . 75
Cherry Oo and Hnin Min Oo
The Role of Unconscious Bias in Software Project Failures . . . . . . . . . . 91
C. J. B. Macnab and Sam Doctolero
Analysis of Missing Data Using Matrix-Characterized
Approximations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Thin Thin Soe and Myat Myat Min
Expansion of Cyber Attack Data from Unbalanced Datasets
Using Generative Adversarial Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Tim Merino, Matt Stillwell, Mark Steele, Max Coplan, Jon Patton,
Alexander Stoyanov and Lin Deng

ix
x Contents

Beyond the Hawthorne Research: Relationship Between IT Company

Employees’ Perceived Physical Work Environment and Creative
Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Jin-Hua Zhang and Jun-Ho Lee
Structural Relationship Data Analysis Between Relational Variables
and Benefit Sharing: Moderating Effect of Transaction-Specific
Investment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Hae-Soo Pyun
Fusion of Log-Mel Spectrogram and GLCM Feature in Acoustic
Scene Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Mie Mie Oo and Lwin Lwin Oo
Improvement on Security of SMS Verification Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Shushan Zhao
An Alternative Development for RCANE Platform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Toan Van Nguyen and Geunwoong Ryu
Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Contributors

Max Coplan Department of Computer and Information Sciences, Department of

Physics, Astronomy and Geosciences, Towson University, Towson, MD, USA
Lin Deng Department of Computer and Information Sciences, Towson University,
Towson, MD, USA
Sam Doctolero Schulich School of Engineering, University of Calgary, Calgary,
Canada
Weichao Gao Department of Computer and Information Sciences, Towson
University, Towson, MD, USA
Jun-Ho Lee Department of Business Administration, Hoseo University, Cheonan,
Chungnam, Korea
Yihao Li Institute for Software Technology, Graz University of Technology, Graz,
Austria
Fan Liang Department of Computer and Information Sciences, Towson
University, Towson, MD, USA
Hengshuo Liang Department of Computer and Information Sciences, Towson
University, Towson, MD, USA
Chao Lu Department of Computer and Information Systems, Towson University,
Towson, MD, USA
Khin Thidar Lynn University of Computer Studies Mandalay, Mandalay,
Myanmar
C. J. B. Macnab Schulich School of Engineering, University of Calgary, Calgary,
Canada
Tim Merino Department of Computer and Information Sciences, Department of
Mathematics, Towson University, Towson, MD, USA

xi
xii Contributors

Myat Myat Min Faculty of Computer Science, University of Computer Studies,

Mandalay, Myanmar
James Nguyen US Army Command, Control, Computers, Communications,
Cyber, Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance Center, Aberdeen, MD, USA
Toan Van Nguyen RCANE Lab, Seoul, Korea
Mar Mar Nwe University of Computer Studies Mandalay, Mandalay, Myanmar
Cherry Oo Software Engineering Lab, University of Computer Studies,
Mandalay, Myanmar
Hnin Min Oo Software Engineering Lab, University of Computer Studies,
Mandalay, Myanmar
Lwin Lwin Oo University of Computer Studies, Mandalay (UCSM), Mandalay,
Myanmar
Mie Mie Oo University of Computer Studies, Mandalay (UCSM), Mandalay,
Myanmar
Mont Orpilla US Army Command, Control, Computers, Communications, Cyber,
Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance Center, Aberdeen, MD, USA
Jon Patton Department of Computer and Information Sciences, Department of
Mathematics, Towson University, Towson, MD, USA
Hae-Soo Pyun Department of Business Administration, Namseoul University,
Cheonan-Si, South Korea
Geunwoong Ryu RCANE Lab, Seoul, Korea
Thin Thin Soe Web Mining Lab, University of Computer Studies, Mandalay,
Myanmar
Mark Steele Department of Computer and Information Sciences, Department of
Mathematics, Towson University, Towson, MD, USA
Matt Stillwell Department of Computer and Information Sciences, Towson
University, Towson, MD, USA
Alexander Stoyanov Department of Computer and Information Sciences,
Department of Mathematics, Towson University, Towson, MD, USA
Nicholas Visalli Department of Computer and Information Sciences, Towson
University, Towson, MD, USA
Bingyang Wei Department of Computer Science, Texas Christian University, Fort
Worth, TX, USA
Yalong Wu Department of Computer and Information Systems, Towson
University, Towson, MD, USA
Contributors xiii

Wei Yu Department of Computer and Information Systems, Towson University,

Towson, MD, USA
Jin-Hua Zhang Department of Business Administration, Hoseo University,
Cheonan, Chungnam, Korea
Jin Zhang Department of Computer and Information Systems, Towson
University, Towson, MD, USA
Shushan Zhao University of Pittsburgh at Bradford, Bradford, PA, USA
A QoS Aware Uplink Scheduler for IoT
in Emergency Over LTE/LTE-A
Networks

Jin Zhang, Yalong Wu, Wei Yu and Chao Lu

Abstract A massive number of Internet-of-Things (IoT) devices are deployed to

monitor and control a variety of physical objects as well as support a body of
smart-world applications. How to efficiently allocate network resources becomes a
challenging issue with the rapidly growing connected IoT devices. Depending on
applications, the burst of IoT traffic could lead to the bandwidth deficiency within a
short period of time and further deteriorates network performance. To tackle this
issue, in this paper we first propose a Quality of Service (QoS) aware Normal
Round Robin Uplink Scheduler (QNRR-US) over Long-Term Evolution (LTE)/LTE-
Advance (LTE-A) networks. QNRR-US assigns a higher priority to IoT data that re-
quires urgent treatment over normal IoT data, and then builds IoT devices’ scheduling
queues based on priorities of data traffic. Thus, QNRR-US guarantees high priority
data transmission. To provide fairness to IoT data, QNRR-US reserves some band-
width for low priority data traffic. Based on QNRR-US, we then propose the QoS
aware Bound Round Robin Uplink Scheduler (QBRR-US), which separates enor-
mous IoT devices with burst data traffics and pushes them into service and waiting
queue. The IoT devices in service queue take part in round robin resource allocation
until the transmission of urgent data from the IoT device is complete and the new
IoT device enters service queue from waiting queue for the next turn of resource
allocation. Through simulations in NS-3, our experimental results show that QBRR-
US outperforms the traditional proportional fair (PF) scheduler and QNRR-US with
respect to throughput, packet loss ratio, and packet delay.

J. Zhang · Y. Wu · W. Yu (B) · C. Lu
Department of Computer and Information Systems,
Towson University, Towson, MD 21252, USA
e-mail: wyu@towson.edu
J. Zhang
e-mail: jzhang13@students.towson.edu
Y. Wu
e-mail: ywu11@students.towson.edu
C. Lu
e-mail: clu@towson.edu

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 1

R. Lee (ed.), Software Engineering Research, Management and Applications,
Studies in Computational Intelligence 845,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24344-9_1
2 J. Zhang et al.

Keywords IoT · Uplink scheduling · QoS aware · LTE networks · Bandwidth

distribution · Performance evaluation · Emergency

1 Introduction

The Internet of Things (IoT) is a promising technology which aims to connect the
global world via numerous smart sensors and actuating devices [1–4]. IoT devices are
deployed to support a variety of smart-world systems including smart home, smart
healthcare, smart transportation, smart grid, smart manufacturing, and smart agri-
culture, among others [5–15]. The network connection of IoT can be wired through
Ethernet cable or wireless through Bluetooth, ZigBee, Wi-Fi, or a cellular network
such as Long-Term Evolution (LTE), LTE Advanced (LTE-A), or the fifth genera-
tion (5G) of mobile communication [16, 17]. Due to the capability of supporting
complex territory, wireless networks, specifically LTE/LTE-A networks, become the
common infrastructure for IoT. Nonetheless, with the rapidly increasing number of
IoT devices around the world (forecast to reach 20.35 billion by 2019 [18]), the
shortage of bandwidth resource proves to be a challenging issue in a LTE/LTE-A
IoT network. To address the problem, a number of network resource allocations and
scheduling schemes have been proposed [19–21]. The 3rd Generation Partnership
Project (3GPP) also integrates high frequency transmission and mini-slot into 5G new
radio standard to overcome the gap between bandwidth shortage and the explosive
growth of IoT devices.
Nonetheless, some IoT applications have not been fully considered in these solu-
tions. For instance, IoT devices could generate a large bulk of data within a short time
period depending on applications, including emergency, failure detection, response,
and others [22]. The amount of data goes far beyond the capacity of bandwidth,
leading to the rapid deterioration of data transmission performance with respect to
throughput, packet loss ratio (PLR), and packet delay, especially of those transmis-
sions sending from IoT devices that deal with emergency and failure detection and
response. Given the importance of such information, it calls for designing mecha-
nisms to effective data transmission from those IoT devices in LTE/LTE-A networks.
In this paper, we made the following contributions.

• We propose a quality of service (QoS)-aware Normal Round Robin uplink traffic

scheduling (QNRR-US) scheme to handle data traffic from IoT devices that require
urgent treatment in the LTE/LTE-A network. The requirement of QoS in LTE is
recorded by QoS Class Identifier (QCI). The QoS-based scheduler in eNodeB
(eNB) allocates bandwidth resource according to QCI value. QNRR-US creates a
new critical emergency IoT data type with a higher priority level than normal data
types in a QCI table. Generally speaking, QNRR-US grants a minimum data rate
to IoT devices (called UEs in LTE/LTE-A) on the sequence of their priority. When
a data rate requested by IoT devices exceeds channel capacity, the data traffic with
low priority will be dropped. Thus, the IoT devices with high priority data obtain
A QoS Aware Uplink Scheduler for IoT in Emergency … 3

more bandwidth to transmit data. Furthermore, considering fairness, QNRR-US

reserves a limited amount of resource to IoT devices with lower priority data traffic.
• Considering that enormous IoT devices (which have the same priority) may report
urgent data at the same time, the data traffic is still beyond the capacity of bandwidth
after dropping lower priority data traffic as QNRR-US does. To address this issue,
we propose the QoS aware Bound Round Robin uplink traffic scheduling (QBRR-
US) scheme, which is enhanced by QNRR-US. The core of QBRR-US is to adopt
the Bound Round Robin (BRR) algorithm and add priority into scheduling as
QNRR-US does. BRR algorithm separates emergency IoT devices with service
and waiting states, then pushes them in service and waiting queues. IoT devices
in service queue are allocated resources until all available resources have run out.
Those emergency IoT devices in a waiting queue have to wait until IoT devices
in a service queue have sent out their emergency information and dequeue from
the service queue. Then, the devices in the waiting queue have an opportunity to
enter service queue and join the BRR resource allocation process.
• To validate the effectiveness of QBRR-US, we design a simulation experiment
using NS-3 [23], which is an open source and widely used simulation platform
in networking research and education. It allows the designer to create and config-
ure network nodes, network channels, network devices, and network applications
separately. Thus, it provides ways to simulate the IoT application and infrastruc-
ture. Particularly, NS-3 includes sophisticated LTE/LTE-A network modules and
corresponding modules for network performance data collection, which benefits
us to build our simulation IoT network based on LTE/LTE-A. Our evaluated IoT
network consists of one eNB and a number of UEs as IoT devices, which are ran-
domly deployed on the communication coverage area of eNB. Due to collecting
data from IoT devices in main task in IoT networks, we mainly evaluate the uplink
transmissions from IoT devices to eNB. The first part of our experiment evaluated
the performance of an IoT network with increasing bandwidth and raising IoT
devices which are in emergency state. The results demonstrate that IoT uplink
performance deteriorates rapidly along the increasing of emergency IoT devices.
In second part, we implement the three uplink transmission scenarios using tra-
ditional proportional fair (PF) scheduler [24], QNRR-US, and QBRR-US that we
proposed. The simulation results show that our QBRR-US outperforms the other
two baseline uplink schedulers with respect to the throughput, PLR, and packet
delay of emergency traffic.

The remainder of this paper is organized as follows: In Sect. 2, we conduct a

literature review. In Sect. 3, we introduce a system model and an existing uplink
scheduler over LTE/LTE-A. In Sect. 4, we present our proposed QNRR-US and
QBRR-US scheduling schemes. In Sect. 5, we introduce the experimental design and
configuration and analyze the experimental results of QBRR-US and two baseline
schedulers with respect to a set of performance metrics. In Sect. 6, we conclude the
paper and give final remarks.
4 J. Zhang et al.

2 Related Works

In view of expanding connected IoT devices and limited network resources, resource
allocation and scheduling play a significant role in IoT networks performance. Con-
sidering most data transmission in IoT is from end-users, a body of research efforts
have been investigated on uplink scheduling for IoT applications [8, 11, 25–36].
Existing uplink scheduling schemes focus on diverse perspectives including specific
IoT applications, heterogeneous networks, and new features introduced in 5G.
There have been a number of research efforts devoted to improve uplink schedul-
ing for specific applications or network structure [26, 30, 31, 34, 35]. For example,
Wang et al. [32] proposed a scheduling algorithm for a camera surveillance system
in cellular networks to meet the coverage requirement by minimizing the number of
allocated RBs to each camera. Amarasekara et al. [35] designed two schedulers for
smart grid periodic and emergency situations as well as introduced random delay for
smart meter packet flows to ensure the data transmission in an emergency.
Regarding resource management and performance assessment on IoT networks,
there have been a number of existing efforts [21, 26, 31, 33, 37]. For example,
Ghavimi et al. [26] designed a scheduling algorithm based on a group-based M2M
communication, which cluster M2M devices according to not only their QoS features,
but also network transmission protocol. Also, the network throughput is optimized
via the Lagrange duality theory on resource allocation. Carlesso et al. and He et al.
presented scheduling algorithms for networks where smart grid and human to human
(H2H) coexist [31, 33]. Specifically, Carlesso et al. [31] proposed a scheduling pol-
icy for the co-existing network of smart grid and real-time application. The policy
reduced negative impact of smart grid periodic traffics on real-time traffic through
scheduling RBs based on the combined characteristics of smart grid traffic, includ-
ing channel quality, and traffic priority, etc. He et al. in [33] formulated the uplink
resource allocation problem to the sum-throughput optimization problem for a M2M
and H2H co-existence network, then solved the optimization problem by using the
Lagrange dual algorithm.
Related to the development of 5G, some research efforts have been conducted to
design uplink scheduling algorithms involving new features (such as transmission
repetition) of 5G. For example, Yu et al. [28] proposed an uplink link adaption scheme
involving transmission repetition. An inner loop link adaption in this scheme is used
to reduce block error ratio by adjusting repetition number while an outer loop link
adaption is applied to coordinate Modulation and Coding Scheme (MCS) value and
repetition number. Also, Liu et al. [29] developed a quality-of-control-driven uplink
scheduler to guarantee the stability of a control loop in 5G networks by handling the
control loop as a network application.
Unlike existing research efforts, in this paper we propose QBRR-US, a QoS-
aware uplink scheduler, for IoT in emergency situation in which a large burst of data
is generated within a short interval. The objective of QBRR-US is not to optimize
the whole network throughput like some researches have done. QBRR-US attempts
A QoS Aware Uplink Scheduler for IoT in Emergency … 5

to sustain the quality of emergency data transmission over a LTE/LTE-A network

to guarantee the throughput of data transmission from emergency IoT devices and
reduce the packet loss ratio and packet delay on uplink communication.

3 System Model

In this section, we first present scheduling process in a LTE/LTE-A network and then
describe the traditional PF scheduler used as baseline.

3.1 Resource Allocation

LTE adopts Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDMA) modulation

scheme for downlink and Single Carrier FDMA (SC-FDMA) for uplink. In both
modulation schemes, to reduce process overhead, channel resource is grouped into
resource blocks (RBs). A RB has two dimensions: (i) frequency domain and (ii)
time domain. In frequency domain, bandwidth is divided into subcarriers spacing
of 15 KHz. In time domain, time is split into time slots of 0.5 ms. One RB consists
of 12 subcarriers and 1 time slot. Radio resource allocation is executed every 1 ms,
which is defined as Transmission Time Interval (TTI). Then, a pair of time slots
(consisting of two consecutive RBs, also referred as one subframe) is the minimum
unit of resource distribution. One subframe contains 12 or 14 symbols (Fig. 1).
Generally speaking, Media Access Control (MAC) layer scheduler allocates RBs
according to Channel Quality Indicator (CQI) and QCI report. In uplink scheduling,
RBs are allocated per UE, not per bearer. UE measures the radio channel quality
between UE and eNB, and then reports it through CQI to eNB. The eNB selects

Fig. 1 Subframe and

resource blocks
6 J. Zhang et al.

a Modulation and Coding Scheme (MCS) value based on CQI report. Every MCS
value corresponds to a transport block size (TBS), which tells how many bits can be
transmitted per TTI. QCI demonstrates the transmission requirement of data traffic
or applications. Every QCI connects with a priority level. Commonly, the scheduler
in MAC layer will discard the lowest priority level traffic when congestion occurs.

3.2 Proportional Fair (PF) Scheduler

We consider the PF scheduler as the baseline scheme, in comparison with the QNRR
and QBRR uplink schedulers that we propose in this paper. The PF scheduler aims to
obtain the highest throughput in a LTE/LTE-A network. It does not consider the QoS
of individual traffic in scheduling. The same RB pair is allocated for a user when its
instantaneous channel quality is higher than its own average channel condition over
time. It also maintains a good trade-off between spectral efficiency and fairness.
The data rate is the indicator of channel quality. We now describe how to obtain
the data rate of one RB. Denote Ui as a user, i ∈ N as index for users, the symbol
as S j and j ( j ∈ N) as the index of symbols, R Bk as RB, k ∈ N as index for RB.
Also, denote Ns as the number of OFDM symbols in 1 RB, and Mi, j as the number
of MCS constellation states used by the user Ui on symbol S j , and Ci, j as the code
rate associated with Mi, j . The bit rate Ri,k for the user Ui on the R Bk is defined as

Ci, j log2 (Mi, j )Ns

Ri,k = , (1)
τ
where τ is the time duration of 1 RB and its value is set to 0.5 ms. At the start of
every TTI, RBs are assigned to users. The mapping relation between user and RB is
determined by
Ri,k
î = argmax . (2)
i=1,2,...,N Ri

Here, Ri is the historical throughput of user Ui , î is the index of user who has the
maximum ratio of current data rate to its throughput history. R Bk should be allocated
to user Uî .

4 Our Approach

In this section, we first present the challenging issue of data transmission in emer-
gency IoT devices and then propose two uplink schedulers to address the issue.
A QoS Aware Uplink Scheduler for IoT in Emergency … 7

4.1 Problem Statement

Generally speaking, the IoT network consists of a connected massive number of

low-power devices that send small volumes of data traffic. In some situations, such
as emergency, or failure detection and recovery, IoT devices could generate a large
amount of data within a short period of time. For example, phasor measurement
unit (PMU) in the smart grid reports measurements in low frequency from 10 to 60
samples per second in normal cases. When an emergency occurs, the report rate could
reach 15,000 samples per second [38]. The data pattern of PMU in an emergency
can be represented in Fig. 2.
IoT devices generate bulk data when an emergency occurs. Numerous emergency
IoT devices request connection approximately at the same time. In LTE/LTE-A, these
connection request means to activate large amount of random access procedure (used
by UEs to initiate connection with eNB in LTE/LTE-A), which results into heavy
control signal collision. Furthermore, the shortage of bandwidth prevents a number
of IoT devices from being granted resources in a timely manner. They have to hold the
data and wait for resources in future TTI. In view of the characteristics of IoT devices
(e.g., normally it is low cost and transmits small data load), emergency IoT devices
have limited ability to store data, the emergency data or fragment of them could be
lost before the emergency IoT device has opportunity to send it out. Nonetheless, the
integrity and timeliness of emergency data is crucial in emergency process. Main-
taining a quality and stable communication from emergency IoT devices to eNB
is more critical than getting a high overall throughput when an emergency situation
occurs. In summary, there are two key issues for IoT in an emergency, one is resource
shortage and the other is the integration of data.
For the first issue, increasing bandwidth is an obvious solution. Nonetheless,
given that an IoT device usually supports limited uplink bandwidth, raising uplink
bandwidth makes a limited improvement on bandwidth shortage for emergency data
traffic. Reasonable resource allocation is more efficient for increasing emergency
data traffic and reducing the packet loss rate. In this paper, our QNRR-US introduces
QoS into resource scheduling, and attaches a higher priority for emergency data than
normal IoT data. The resource allocation based on QoS means that high priority
emergency data traffic can preempt more resource from low priority data flow when
the channel resource is not sufficient for data transmission. Our designed QBRR-US
is a QoS concerned scheduler as QNRR-US. Different from QNRR-US, QBRR-
US builds a particular scheduling queue based on priority. QBRR-US confines the

Fig. 2 Emergency data

pattern
8 J. Zhang et al.

number of emergency IoT devices competing for resource through the management of
queue. Only partial emergency IoT devices take part into the resource allocation every
TTI. Furthermore, for those emergency IoT devices who get transmission resource,
QBRR-US adopts non-preemptive policy. Once an emergency device starts data
transmission, it is entitled to send whole bulk emergency data generated. QBRR-US
alleviates the transmission conflicts through reducing the connected emergency link
at the same time. Moreover, the non-preemptive policy ensures the bulk emergency
data will be sent with minimal delay.

4.2 QNRR Uplink Scheduler

QNRR uplink scheduler (QNRR-US) aims to promote the transmission performance

of emergency information. Considering the different levels of importance for emer-
gency IoT data and normal IoT data, QNRR-US introduces a QoS requirement into
resource processing. It attaches a higher priority to emergency data type than normal
data in QoS and records it into QCI table. QCI is a mechanism that 3GPP released in
LTE/LTE-A standard to ensure appropriate QoS for every bearer traffic [39]. A QCI
index has four main properties: resource type, priority level, packet delay budget, and
packet loss rate. The scheduler can determine the volume of resources and allocation
order for bearers based on their QCI. To support the emergency communication,
3GPP has successively added new QCI indexes for emergency situations including
QCI index 65 for Mission Critical-push-to-talk (MCPTT) voice, and index 69 for
MCPTT signaling in release 12. QNRR-US adds an emergency IoT data type with
high priority. We set the emergency property just below QCI index 65 and 69, which
is usually used for public safety or first response. The high priority of emergency IoT
data means that it is allowed to preempt the RBs from almost all data types except
the type of QCI index 65 and 69 for emergency IoT data traffic.
After locating the priority level of emergency data, QNRR-US processes and
forwards data traffic based on their priorities. For the normal situation, when the
data traffic from all flows do not reach the capacity of bandwidth, QNRR-US acts as
traditional QoS-aware uplink scheduler. There are three steps in scheduling for all
IoT devices which request connection: (i) allocating the minimum data rate for all
devices on the sequence of data traffic priority, (ii) allocating the remaining resource
for the UE that currently has the highest priority, (iii) if there is still resource left, go
run step (ii) for the next highest priority UE, till all RBs are assigned.
Once an emergency occurs, the data generated from emergency IoT devices usu-
ally overwhelms the capacity of bandwidth. In this situation, QNRR-US still dis-
tributes the resource on priority order of data traffic as step (i), but no step (ii) and
(iii) since eNB has not enough resource for all devices. Then, next TTI, step (i) is
repeated. All emergency devices have the same priority, eNB adopts round robin
A QoS Aware Uplink Scheduler for IoT in Emergency … 9

algorithm to ensure that all of them have the opportunity to send data. To avoid the
starvation, QNRR-US reserves fixed bandwidth for low priority data traffics. Through
introducing QoS into scheduling, emergency devices receive more resource than nor-
mal devices due to high priority.
We separate data flows into three categories: (i) data traffic of high priority level 1
(HD-L1), which is for public safety or first response, (ii) high priority level 2 (HD-L2)
data traffic, which is emergency IoT data traffic (ED), and (iii) low priority data traffic
(LD) of all normal data traffic. Notice that HD-L1 has the highest priority. HD-L2 is
the second highest priority for data traffic except the one in crisis. LD represents all
other data flows with lower priorities than ED traffic flows. The QNRR-US scheduling
process is represented as Fig. 3.
Three queues are built for devices with HD-L1, HD-L2, LD separately. From
Fig. 3, we can see that HD-L1 data is allocated resource firstly. Then, all emergency
devices take part into the round robin scheduling. In TTI 1, after RBs allocation for
devices with HD-L1, only emergency device 1–5 (in HD-L2) get RBs because of
the shortage of resource. In TTI 2, eNB moves forward to distribute resource for
next group of emergency device 6–9 as round robin algorithm demands. QNRR-US
applies the round robin algorithm for all emergency devices. The communication
performance between emergency devices and eNB is improved comparing to a non-
QoS aware scheduler because more resources are allocated to high priority ED. The
devices with LD can only get resources from the preserved RBs that are reserved for
them.

Fig. 3 Queues and RBs allocation in QNRR-US

10 J. Zhang et al.

4.3 QBRR Uplink Scheduler

QBRR-US adopts a QoS aware strategy like QNRR-US. The resource allocation steps
for a normal situation in QBRR-US is the same as QNRR-US. Nonetheless, when
an emergency occurs, eNB uses round robin algorithm just on partial emergency
devices in QBRR-US instead of all emergency devices in QNRR-US. The scheduler
process of QBRR-US is illustrated in Fig. 4.
In QBRR-US, the ED queue is separated into two parts: a service queue and
a waiting queue. The eNB allocates resources to devices in HD-L1, HD-L2(ED)
service queue and LD. The devices in an ED waiting queue have to wait until some
devices dequeue from the ED service queue after the data transmission is complete.
For example, from Fig. 4, we can see devices 1–5 get the RBs in TTI 1. In TTI 2,
same devices 1–5 obtain the RBs until they have sent out their bulk emergency data.
Then, those devices are dequeued from the ED service queue, the devices in the
waiting queue get into the service queue and join the resource allocation.
At the beginning, when an emergency appears, the ED service queue is empty,
all emergency devices enter a waiting queue by first come first service policy. The
first device in the waiting queue enters a service queue and eNB allocates RBs for
it. Afterwards, the next device moves from the waiting queue to the service queue
for RBs until available bandwidth capacity has run out. Then, QBRR-US handles
resource allocation as we represent in Fig. 4.
The RBs allocation algorithm and queues maintenance algorithm in QBRR-US are
described in Algorithms 1 and 2, respectively. We use Q HD , Q LD , Q SED and Q WED
to stand for HD-L1 queue, LD queue, ED service queue, and ED waiting queue,
respectively. Let D represent UE and eNB holds an allocation map of RBs, which is
defined as M(RB, D). Denote NRB as the number of RBs for network bandwidth, the
item (R Bi , Ds ) in map M presents that RBi is allocated to UEs , where 1 < i < NRB ,

Fig. 4 Queues and RBs allocation in QBRR-US

A QoS Aware Uplink Scheduler for IoT in Emergency … 11

Table 1 Notations for Algorithms 1 and 2

R Bi RB i
Ds : UE s
NRB : Number of RBs
Rmin : Minimum data rate
R R Bi : Data rate of R Bi
M(R B, D): Allocation map of RBs
(R Bi , Ds ): R Bi is assigned to UEs
QH D: Queue of UEs with high priority data
QSE D: Service Queue of UEs with emergency data
QW E D: Waiting Queue of UEs with emergency data
QLD: Queue of UEs with low priority data

s ∈ N. If a Ds is in Q HD , we record it as Ds ∈ Q HD . So does Ds ∈ Q LD , Ds ∈ Q SED ,

and Ds ∈ Q WED . All notation for Algorithms 1 and 2 are listed in Table 1.

Algorithm 1 RBs allocation in QBRR-US

Require: RB Map M(R Bi , Ds ), Q H D , Q S E D ,Q L D
Ensure: Updated M(R Bi , Ds ) for next TTI
1: while exist non-allocated R Bi do
2: if Q H D is not empty then
3: Ds ⇐ dequeue element from Q H D
4: for current Rmin of Ds > 0 do
5: allocate R Bi to Ds
6: update current Rmin by subtract R R Bi
7: end for
8: else if Q S E D is not empty And (N R B left) > (N R B for LD) then
9: Ds ⇐ dequeue element from Q S E D
10: for current Rmin of Ds > 0 do
11: allocate R Bi to Ds
12: update current Rmin by subtract R R Bi
13: end for
14: else if Q L D is not empty then
15: Ds ⇐ dequeue element from Q L D
16: for current Rmin of Ds > 0 do
17: allocate R Bi to Ds
18: update current Rmin by subtract R R Bi
19: end for
20: end if
21: end while

Algorithm 1 indicates the RBs allocation process of QBRR-US in one TTI when
an emergency occurs. As a precondition, the devices requesting for resources should
have entered into scheduling queues, including HD queue, ED service queue, and
12 J. Zhang et al.

LD queue. At the beginning of a new TTI, eNB starts allocating RBs one by one. If
there is an available RB, eNB checks the scheduling queues by priority order (e.g.,
HD, ED and LD). This RB will be allocated to the first device in the scheduling
queues. Given the shortage of resource, QBRR-US allocates a minimum data rate
for devices. Thus, after this RB allocation, eNB checks whether the allocated data
rate meets the device’s minimum data rate requirement. If so, jump to next device. If
not, allocate next RB for the same device. Algorithm 1 checks every RB and binds
it with a device. Thus, the time complexity of Algorithm 1 is the number of RBs,
denoted as O(NRB ).

Algorithm 2 : Queues Maintenance in QBRR-US

Require: Q H D , Q S E D , Q W E D ,Q L D
Ensure: updated queues of UE for next TTI
1: for new UE requests connection do
2: enter Q H D ,Q W E D , and Q L D based on priority level
3: end for
4: for all UE in Q H D do
5: if UE has data to send then
6: distribute RBs to UE through Algorithm 1
7: update remaining data volume
8: else
9: dequeue UE from Q H D
10: end if
11: end for
12: for all UE in Q S E D do
13: if UE has data to send then
14: distribute RBs to UE through Algorithm 1
15: update remaining data volume
16: else
17: dequeue an UE from Q S E D
18: moving a element form Q W E D to Q S E D
19: end if
20: end for
21: for all UE in Q L D do
22: if UE has data to send then
23: distribute RBs to UE through Algorithm 1
24: update remaining data volume
25: else
26: dequeue UE from Q L D queue
27: end if
28: end for

Algorithm 2 illustrates the queues maintenance of QBRR-US in emergency situa-

tion. QBRR-US maintains four queues: HD, LD, ED service, and ED waiting queue.
The elements in a scheduling queue also record the property of data volume that
needs to be transmitted, except UE index. All devices enter corresponding queues
based on priority level of their data flow. After eNB allocates RBs for a device in a
TTI, the remaining data volume of the device is reduced. eNB adjusts the amount of
A QoS Aware Uplink Scheduler for IoT in Emergency … 13

remaining data of devices in queue. If there is no data left, which means the device has
sent out whole emergent bulk data, it will be dequeued from the scheduling queue.
Particularly, when a device is dequeued from an ED service queue, the first element
in the waiting queue will move forward to the service queue. Algorithm 2 checks
elements in queues and allocates resources for them. Thus, the time complexity of
Algorithm 2 is the number of activated devices, denoted as O(NUE ).

5 Performance Evaluation

In this section, we first illustrate the experiment design to validate the QBRR-US
that we proposed and details of the network configuration as well as parameters for
simulation scenarios. Then, we demonstrate the uplink communication performance
related to three key metrics (i.e., throughput, PLR, and delay) in an emergency along
with the increased number of IoT devices on distinct bandwidths. At last, we compare
the uplink transmission performance with PF, QNRR and QBRR uplink schedulers.
The experimental results validate that QBRR-US that we proposed effectively im-
proves the transmission performance regarding emergency throughput, PLR, and
packet delay.

5.1 Simulation Scenarios

We design three scenarios in our experiment: PF, QNRR and QBRR scenarios. Specif-
ically, a PF scenario adopts PF uplink scheduler for uplink transmission. PF scheduler
aims to achieve the highest network throughput by distributing RBs according to the
quality of transmission channel. Those devices in good channel state will get more re-
sources for data transmission. QNRR and QBRR scenarios adopt QNRR and QBRR
uplink scheduler separately. Both of them are QoS aware scheduler. They maintain
scheduling queues of IoT devices according to the priority of their data traffics. The
eNB allocates RBs based on these scheduling queues. In QNRR scenarios, all UEs
enter scheduling queues and compete for resources, whether in normal or emergency
situations. Nonetheless, in QBRR scenarios, when the allocated data rate exceeds
the bandwidth capacity, like the situation in an emergency, partial devices are ex-
cluded from resource allocation in waiting state until some devices have sent out
their continuous bulk data and release RBs.

5.2 Scope of Experiment

In our experiment, the following key metrics are defined and employed to evalu-
ate the performance of IoT networks over LTE/LTE-A networks: (i) Throughput.
14 J. Zhang et al.

It is defined as the number of bits per second (bps) that eNB receives from those
devices that report emergency information. As uploading is the main process of IoT
applications, we evaluate the uplink performance of LTE/LTE-A network. The de-
vices in an emergency send out a burst of data packets to eNB within a short period
of time. This metric demonstrates the volume of data that eNB receives from emer-
gency devices in unit time on the PDCP layer. (ii) Packet Loss Ratio. It is the ratio
between the actual received data bytes of eNB and total transmitted data bytes sent
from IoT device per second. It is also collected from the PDCP layer. (iii) Delay. It
is measured as the average transmitting time of packets from IoT devices to eNB.
Delay is collected from the PDCP layer, which means that every delay value is the
time interval starting from the moment when a packet is sent out from the device’s
PDCP layer to the moment when the eNB’s PDCP layer receives the packet.

5.3 Network Infrastructure and Parameters

In the following, we describe the network structure and configuration details in our
experiment. The simulation in our paper focuses on the wireless communication,
the Evolved Universal Terrestrial Radio Access (E-UTRA) section in LTE. E-UTRA
consists of eNBs and UEs. We build a single cell wireless network in NS-3. NS-3 is an
open source network platform for research and education [23]. It provides a delicate
LTE module and the trace methods to simulate the LTE network and measure the
network performance. It allows the designer to create node, protocol, and application
separately. The flexibility of NS-3 assists researchers to build complicated networks
as they require.
In our experiment, we position a macro cell (also called eNB in LTE) and all
UEs dispersed around it following the uniform distribution within its coverage. For
the three scenarios we described, we set 1/6 UEs as emergency IoT devices that
generate large amounts of emergency data. Other UEs remain in normal situations
with lower priority and periodic data generated. We ignored the data traffic of HD-L1
in the experiment setting because this type of data has no impact on our scheduling
performance evaluation. HD-L1 data traffic gets the same volume of resources in
QNRR and QBRR scenarios all the time. While in PF scenario, all UEs are processed
in same way no matter what type. All parameters of our IoT simulation over LTE/LTE-
A network in NS-3 are listed as Table 2.
Data Pattern. We adopt the profile of data load from a phasor measurement unit
(PMU) in the smart grid as a data pattern [40], which is an example for demonstrating
our approaches. The smart grid belongs to critical energy IoT systems. PMU is a
smart device used to measure AC waveforms (voltages and currents) on a electricity
grid. It reports the measurement results periodically. The reporting rate depends on
actual applications. Commonly speaking, the range of the reporting rate is from 10
samples to 120 samples per second in a smart grid [40]. We choose PMU reporting
rate as 48 samples per second for normal situation. In emergency situation, PMU
generates approximate 5000–15,000 samples per second [38]. We set the reporting
A QoS Aware Uplink Scheduler for IoT in Emergency … 15

Table 2 NS-3 simulation parameters

Parameter Value
UE Tx Power 23 dBm
UE Height 1m
UE category CAT-0
eNB Tx Power 46 dBm
eNB Height 30 m
eNB Sensitivity Level −93.5 dBm
UlEarfcn 18,100
Uplink Central Band Frequency 1930.0 MHz
DlEarfcn 100
Downlink Central Band Frequency 2120.0 MHz
Antennas SISOa
Uplink Data Rate 1 Mbps
Propagation Loss Module COST231
Transport Layer Protocol UDPb
Uplink Bandwidth (MHz) 1.4, 3, 5, 10, 15, 20
Number of Uplink Resource Block 6, 15, 25, 50, 75, 100
Simulation Time 30 s
a Single Input Single Output (SISO)
b User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

rate as 7000–7500 samples per second to simulate emergency situation. One PMU
sample is a packet of 38 bytes. Then, the total sampling data rate of an emergency
UE is above 7000 sample × 38 bytes = 2.128 Mbps to 7500 sample × 38 bytes, which
equals to 2.28 Mbps.
Network Environment. We position all UEs in eNB coverage on suburban envi-
ronments. The coverage distance is determined by power of transmitter, sensitivity of
receiver, and transmission environment. First, the uplink transmitter should be UEs.
We adopted CAT-0 category on the UE end, which is a new UE category designed
for IoT and M2M networks in LTE release 12. According to 3GPP TS 36.101, its
transmission power was set to 23 dBm. Second, from the 3GPP standard TS36.104
for LTE, the eNB reception radio sensitivity level was −98.8 dBm for 1.4 MHz,
−95 dBm for 3 MHz, −93.5 dBm for the other 5, 10, 15, and 20 MHz bandwidths
[41]. We consider −93.5 dBm as the eNB radio sensitivity level to guarantee the
quality on all bandwidth. At last, we assumed the wireless network was located in a
suburban environment. NS-3 provided propagation loss model COST231 to mimic
suburban environment.
According to the settings of UE’s power, eNB’s sensitivity level, and propagation
model above, the transmission coverage for suburban environment in our experiment
should be 327 m. We set it as 300 m to rule out the impact of radio attenuation on
simulation results.
16 J. Zhang et al.

Uplink Bandwidth Setting. According to 3GPP Specification 36.306, CAT-0 UE

supports uplink bandwidth of 1.4, 3, 5, 10, 15 and 20 MHz. The corresponding number
of RBs for these bandwidths are 6, 15, 25, 50, 75, and 100. CAT-0 UE has only one
antenna and the uplink and downlink data rate of it reduces to 1 Mbps comparing to
CAT-1. In the experiment, we first evaluated the uplink communication performance
with heavy data traffic on all six common bandwidths that CAT-0 supports. In view
of similar tendencies of simulation results on six bandwidths, we selected a middle
bandwidth 10 MHz (50 RBs) for our three evaluation scenarios (i.e., PF, QNRR, and
QBRR scenarios).

5.4 Network Performance in Emergency

Figures 5, 6 and 7 show the uplink transmission performance (e.g., throughput, PLR
and delay) with increasing emergency UEs on all distinct uplink bandwidths that
CAT-0 supports. As a result of heavy traffic load in emergency, the total throughput
in emergency approximately equals the capacity of bandwidth, which does not reflect
any change of communication performance. The throughput in this plot is the average
throughput of individual UEs. From Fig. 5, we can see that the average throughput
falls down fast along with the growth of UEs from 5 to 50, no matter the bandwidth.
It displays that extending bandwidth is not an effective method to maintain uplink
throughput in this heavy load situation. Furthermore, the packet loss ratio also grows
when more UEs start to transmit emergency information. From Fig. 6, we can see
PLR increases from around 20% to over 80% when the number of activated UEs
grow from 5 to 50 on 10 MHz bandwidth. The same tendency as PLR appears for
the average delay of packets showed in Fig. 7. An increase of active emergency UEs
results in a rise of average delay with respect to packet transmission from UEs to eNB.

Fig. 5 Average throughput

in emergency 104
15
Average Throughput

10
(bps/UE)

0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40 20
45 15
50 10
5
number of UEs 3
1.4
Bandwidth (MHz)
Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
early men long before real history began. After these animals had been
domesticated by the hunters and trappers, some men became shepherds
and herdsmen and wandered from place to place with their flocks and herds
in search of the best pastures.
Presently another step was taken toward civilized life. Men had long known
that the seeds of some of the wild grasses and plants were good to eat.
Now some one noticed that if these seeds were sown they sprang up and
brought forth many more seeds. Then it was discovered that the seeds grew
better and yielded a more abundant crop if the ground were broken up and
made soft before the seed was sown. Because of these discoveries some
men began to be farmers. By cultivation, the wild grasses which grew in the
fields or beside the rivers were developed into wheat, oats, barley, and rice,
the great cereals of the world.
When men began to procure their food by cultivating the soil it became
necessary for them to remain in the same place in order to gather the
harvest when it ripened. They could no longer wander from place to place
as they had done when they were only hunters or shepherds. They now
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In this way the beginning of farming led to a settled life and the making of
permanent homes.
Probably the earliest men had only such shelter from the rain and protection
from wild animals as the trees gave them. After a time men began to live in
dens and caves in the earth. These people are called the "cave dwellers".
Still later men built huts by bending young trees together, weaving branches
between them, and covering the whole structure with leaves and bark.
When the hut was built of poles covered with the skins of animals it became
a tent. Many of the people who wandered from place to place with their
flocks and herds dwelt in tents.
When men settled near the fields that they were beginning to cultivate, they
built permanent homes of stone plastered with mud or of bricks made of
clay and dried in the sun. The roofs were covered with brush or timber.
Then fire places and rude chimneys were added to these simple houses,
and in other ways man's dwelling place was gradually improved.
The first clothing was probably made from the leaves of trees or from
grasses matted together. When man became a good hunter he wore the
skins of the animals that he killed. The ancestors of all of us were once clad
in skins. The women of those early days used to cure the skins of small
animals by drying them. They then made garments of them by sewing them
together with needles of bone and the sinews of animals for thread.
The women scraped and worked the large skins until they were soft and
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their tents. Still later, the women learned to spin yarn from wool sheared
from the sheep and from the thread of the flax which they were beginning
to raise. The next step was to weave the yarn and the thread into woolen
and linen cloth.
It was because early man had the mind to invent and the hands to make
the weapons, tools, and utensils which he needed that he was able to make
such progress in procuring food, shelter, and clothing.
Man's first weapon was a club. A stone which he used to crack nuts with
probably was his earliest tool. At first he simply found stones of the right
shape for his purpose. Then he began to chip a piece of flint until it had a
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axes and spears.
It was a great day in the long climb toward civilized ways of living when
some unknown inventor made the first bow. With arrows tipped with sharp
bits of stone, man could now kill the larger animals. Stone knives were used
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scraping and softening the skins to fit them for use.
By using pieces of flint with rough edges as saws and files, men began to
make tools of horn, bones, and shells. They now possessed daggers and
hammers of horn and awls and needles of bone.
 The Evolution of the House

For many thousand years, stone arrow-heads, knives, and axes were made
with rough, chipped edges. This time is sometimes called the Old Stone
Age. When men had learned to make better tools of their stone knives and
axes by grinding and polishing them to a smooth, sharp edge, they had
entered upon the New Stone Age.
The next great forward step in human progress was taken when men
discovered metals and began to use them. Copper was the first metal used,
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Presently it was discovered that if a little tin were mixed with the copper it
made a harder metal called bronze. So many weapons, tools, and
ornaments were made of bronze that the time when it was used is called
the Bronze Age.
Iron is the most useful of all the metals. It is much harder than bronze and
better suited in every way for making tools and implements. It took man a
long time to learn how to use it, because it is not so easy to work as copper
and bronze. When man made this "king of metals" his servant, he traveled a
long, long way on the road which leads to civilization.
The men invented the weapons and some of the tools of the earliest ages.
But it is probable that the women first made many useful tools and utensils.
Women wove the first baskets to use in gathering and carrying berries,
nuts, and other articles of food. They used to cover fish with clay in order to
bake them in the coals and they noticed how the fires hardened the clay.
Then by molding clay over baskets so that they could be hung over the fire,
women gradually learned how to make earthenware pots and bowls.
Afterwards they cut spoons, ladles, and drinking cups from shells, gourds,
and the horns of animals. In these ways our foremothers made their first
cooking utensils and their first dishes for holding and serving food and
drink.

Clay Bowls and Woven Baskets

Women were not only the first basket-makers and potters. They were also
the first spinners and weavers. They ground the first grain into flour with
mortars and pestles of stone. Later they made simple mills for this purpose.
In fact, women who lived before the dawn of history, began nearly all the
household arts and crafts and in this way helped all the people who have
lived since then.
Our earliest ancestors, like ourselves, found it necessary to carry things
from place to place. But they lived long before the days of the railroad and
the steamship. The first burdens were borne by the women. They followed
the men who hunted, and carried the meat and the hides of the slain
animals back to the camp. After the dog, the donkey, and the horse had
been tamed, articles to be transported were packed upon their backs or
dragged upon the ground behind them. Sleds were made in the northern
lands. Canoes and boats were built by the dwellers by the rivers and the
sea. Last of all, the wheeled cart was invented. All these things are older
than history.
We often call our own time the age of invention. The steam engine, the
telegraph, and the many uses of electricity are all modern. They have made
wonderful changes in our ways of living. But these changes in our lives are
not as remarkable as were those made in the lives of our earliest ancestors
so long ago by such inventions as the fishhook and the bow and arrow, and
such discoveries as how to make fire, how to make pottery, how to
domesticate animals and plants, and how to smelt and work the metals.
Nowadays children have homes and are cared for by their parents. Among
the very earliest men there was nothing like our homes or our families. Each
person found his own food and took care of himself. Of course, mothers
cared for their babies, but nobody took care of a child after he was large
enough to find his own food. Then he had to shift for himself. When he
wanted his breakfast or his dinner he dug roots or hunted for berries, nuts,
or acorns. Sometimes he feasted upon birds' eggs or upon a rabbit or a
squirrel which he had caught. The honey which he found in the nests of the
wild bees was his only candy and he was apt to get well stung in taking it.
He lived in constant fear of the wild animals around him and usually slept in
a tree for safety. He spent his entire life in this way.
There are many things that people can do better by working together. It
took many years for early men to learn to help one another. When they
became cave dwellers and learned how to make fire, the first family group
began to be formed. This group was called the clan. The clan simply means
those who were kin to each other; that is, a number of men and women
who believed that they were descended from a common ancestor. At first
the common ancestor was a woman, the clan mother. In those days,
relationship was always counted on the mother's side. When a man married
he went to live with the clan of his wife. In the course of time groups of
clans came to be called tribes.

The Development of Transportation

A long time later, after the animals had been domesticated and men had
come to own flocks and herds and other things that we call property, the
father became the head of the family, as we know it today. Our kind of a
family with the father as its head existed before history began.
Words had to be invented, just as tools were. At first men had no language.
Very slowly they gave names to the things about them and learned to talk
to each other. Mothers sang jingles and lullabies to their babies. Around the
campfire at night men told how they had hunted the wild beasts. Women
talked as they gathered and prepared food or dressed the skins of the wild
animals. Mothers wanted their children to be brave and wise, so they told
them stories about the bravest and wisest of their clan in the olden time.
Perhaps this is why children, and older people too for that matter, have
always been fond of stories. In these ways languages grew and the simple
beginnings of literature were made.
People have always been fond of ornaments. The earliest men wore
necklaces of teeth and claws. Later they made beads of bronze or of gold.
The women tried to make their baskets and their clothes as beautiful as
possible by coloring them with natural dyes. Some of the men liked to draw
pictures of wild animals upon pieces of bone or upon the walls of their
homes in the caves. People learned to count upon their fingers, and to use
various parts of their bodies, like the finger, the hand, and the arm, as
measures of length. For example, the cubit of which we read in the Bible
was the distance from the elbow to the end of the middle finger. Our arts
and sciences have grown from such crude and simple beginnings.
Our early ancestors lived in fear of many things about them. They thought
that fire, the rivers, the sea, the sun, and many other natural objects were
alive and could harm them or help them. So they offered gifts to all these
things and prayed to them for help. Early men also believed that the souls
of their ancestors lived after death, and that these ancestors could help
them or harm them. They thought that if they offered gifts of food, and
drink at the graves of their dead, the spirits of the departed would be
pleased and would protect the living members of their families. If, on the
other hand, the dead were neglected or forgotten they would become evil
spirits who might bring great misfortune upon the living. They also thought
that if the dead were not properly buried they would become ghosts,
haunting the places they had known when they were alive. Because of
these ideas early men were very careful to worship their ancestors. The first
religions of the world grew out of these beliefs and practices of primitive
men with reference to nature and to their own ancestors.
—From "Our Beginnings in Europe and America",
by Smith Burnham.
Courtesy of The John C. Winston Co.
Questions

1. Make a list of the things in everyday life which we take for granted
as necessities which the earliest men had to learn how to make.
2. What was the earliest important discovery made by man? Do you
think this was as important as the discovery of electricity? Why? Name
any inventions that have come into common use within your own or
your parents' lifetime.
3. Before man discovered fire, what did he eat? Mention two steps by
which he came to have better food to eat.
4. Mention in order five kinds of dwellings which the early men lived in,
and three kinds of clothing which they wore.
5. What useful things did women do in these early days?
6. Why is your hand more useful than the paw of an animal?
7. From what source did each article of food on your dinner table to-
day come? How many people had something to do with this food
before it reached you?
8. Compare the clothing of people to-day with that of primitive man.
Are we more or less dependent on others for food and clothing than
primitive man?
9. We are still making new words. Make a list of words that have come
into use since the World War began.
 TRY THIS
This nonsense test must be worked out carefully or it may fool you. You
will need only a small piece of paper for your answers.

1. If your name is Geraldine, or if you are not yet past 37 years of age, or

"If lollypops grow on butternut trees

And godgillies ride on the galloping breeze"—

sign your name anywhere on your paper. Then, if you have signed your
name, never mind the second paragraph, but skip to the third.
2. Rub out your name and write the name of the first president of the
United States in its stead. Then take the remaining paragraph.
3. Write your name again in some other part of your paper and hand it in.
PUTTING WORDS WHERE THEY BELONG
Arrange your paper with your name on the first line and your grade on the
second line. Divide the rest of your paper into four parts with lines drawn as
shown below. Let the lines be drawn up as far as the third line of your
paper.

SHIP
AGRICULTURE MINING MANUFACTURING
BUILDING

Write the words, ship building, agriculture, mining, manufacturing, at the top of
the four spaces on the fourth line, as shown above.
Below is a long list of words that is not very well arranged. On your paper
re-arrange the words so that every word that concerns ship building is placed
in the first list, and every word that concerns agriculture is placed in the
second list, and every word that concerns mining or manufacturing is placed in
its proper list. If you finish before the others wait quietly for them to
complete their work.

ore crane mast dock

mill loom bulkheads blast
weaving cultivation drill crop
irrigation keel fertilizer carpets
launch safety-lamp silk dyes
reaping lace soil rigging
riveter pick pump cave-in
shaft spinning anchor shuttle
miner steel plates elevator sowing
harvester grain textiles tractor
 MAKING MONEY EARN MONEY
The table given below tells how much your savings will amount to at four
per cent interest compounded semi-annually. One dollar a month is a little
less than twenty-five cents a week. From this table, answer the following
questions:
1. If you save one dollar a month, how much will you have in three years?
Five years? Eight years? Ten years?
2. If you save four dollars a month—less than a dollar a week—how much
will you have in six years? Ten years?
3. If you save ten dollars a month, how much will you have in seven years?
Ten years?
4. If you save five dollars a month for ten years, will you have more or less
than if you save ten dollars a month for five years?
5. Can you explain to the class how to read the table?

Monthly 2
1 year 3 years 4 years 5 years
savings. years
$1 $12.24 $24.98 $38.24 $52.03 $66.39
$2 24.48 49.96 76.48 104.06 132.77
$3 36.73 74.94 114.71 156.10 199.16
$4 48.97 99.93 152.95 208.13 265.55
$5 61.21 124.91 191.19 260.16 331.94
$10 122.42 249.81 382.38 520.32 663.87

Monthly 6 7
8 years 9 years 10 years
savings. years years
$1 $81.32 $96.87 $113.04 $129.83 $147.35
$2 162.65 193.74 226.09 259.67 294.70
$3 243.97 290.61 339.13 389.50 442.05
$4 325.30 387.48 452.18 519.34 589.39
$5 406.62 484.35 565.22 649.17 736.74
$10 813.25 968.89 1,130.45 1,298.35 1,473.48
—From "Fifteen Lessons in Thrift".
 HEROES OF HISTORY
There were four children at the big second-story window that looked out
over the broad avenue where the historical pageant was to pass; four
children in very high spirits. Of course they were excited and happy; it was
a wonderful place for seeing, and it was a wonderful parade that they were
to watch—a celebration of the ending of the great World's War. The
procession was to take the form of a series of groups of figures representing
great persons from the history of the five important nations that had been
allies in the struggle. Alfred and Betty and Francis and Dick had been talking
for days about the great event. They were sure that they would enjoy it, for
though Alfred, the oldest, was not thirteen yet, and Dick, the baby, was but
seven, they all thought they knew something about history. And if they
weren't able to recognize all the characters in the pageant, they need only
ask Aunt Eleanor, who sat with them in the group at the window.
From far up the street came the sound of a band, and all the watchers
stood on tiptoe or craned their necks to catch the first glimpse of the
marching lines. It was a regimental band, with the colors carried proudly.
How everyone cheered for the lines of khaki soldiers who followed next!
Then noisy enthusiasm gave place to eager and interested questions about
the first historical group. And nobody in all the watching crowd had more
questions to ask than our windowful of children.
The center of the strangely costumed company was a blonde, bearded,
kingly figure, wearing a crown of gold, a coat of mail, and a long, flowing
cloak. One hand was on the jeweled hilt of his sword; the other clasped to
his breast a parchment-bound book. Behind him were two attendants. Aunt
Eleanor, watching her charges with as much interest as they watched the
street, saw that they looked puzzled, though Alfred was trying to pretend
that he knew the name of the king.
"You ought to feel honored, Alfred," said Aunt Eleanor. "That splendid
looking Englishman has the same name as you."
"Of course," said the boy, pretending that he had understood all the time.
"It's Alfred the Great. He," turning loftily to the younger children, who
couldn't be expected to know so much, "was the first really important king
of England. He was a great fighter, and finally conquered all his enemies.
But once he had to run away, after a battle, and hide in a peasant's hut in
disguise. The woman there didn't know who he was, and she went away
and left him to watch some cakes that were on the fire baking. He was so
busy thinking about how to get his kingdom back that he let them burn, and
when she came back she scolded him."
"Those queer round things that the other man is carrying on that wooden
tray must be the cakes," exclaimed Betty.
"Yes," said their aunt. "And do you see the musician with the harp? That is
to remind us that King Alfred was fond of music, and did all he could to help
it flourish. He was more than just a fighter; he wanted his people to learn
all they could, so he started schools, and he founded Oxford College, the
oldest college in England. Don't you see the book in his hand to show that
he was fond of reading? It was very unusual in those days, a thousand
years ago, for even a king so much as to know how to read. But right after
him in the procession is another warrior king who loved learning and music
and all the arts of peace."
And sure enough, as King Alfred of England passed out of sight, there
followed another kingly figure, very tall and clad all in iron. Helmet, shield,
gloves, boots—all were iron, and the wearer was terrible to look at, so
strong and merciless he seemed. Behind him came a group of horsemen
carrying iron spears with glittering points and with gay banners fluttering
from their shafts.
"Well," said Betty, "he may have loved peace, but he doesn't look it. Who is
he, anyway?"
"He represents the first great king of France, Charlemagne, a name that
means Charles the Great. He lived at about the same time with Alfred. He
was a great conqueror and overcame all his neighbors. He even led a huge
army across the Alps and conquered the northern part of Italy. There he
had himself crowned with a famous Iron Crown that was worn by the king
of that country. But when he was not fighting he was building beautiful
palaces and chapels, and encouraging all the learned men of the country."
"There seem to be a lot of soldiers in this parade," said nine-year-old
Francis, "Here comes another. Who's he?"
"He must be a Crusader," said Betty, "for he has a red cross on his white
cloak, and armor underneath it."
"He's a king, too," said little Dick. "He's got a crown on. What's a Crusader,
Auntie? And is he one?"
"The Crusaders lived about three hundred years later than Alfred and
Charlemagne. In that time the Turks—yes, the same kind of Turks whom
you have heard about as persecuting the poor little Armenian children—had
come into possession of the Holy Land in Palestine. All the Christian
countries wanted to drive them out, so that heathen might not be in
possession of Jerusalem and the Holy Sepulcher. So from France and Italy
and Germany and England great armies went out to fight against the
Saracens, as the Turks in Palestine were then called. And they wore red
crosses on their cloaks to show that they were going on a holy war."
"Did they get the land back?" asked Francis.
"Why, no, silly," cried Alfred. "Don't you remember just last year General
Allenby conquered Jerusalem, in the big war? The Turks had been there all
that time. But wasn't that Crusader," nodding toward the rider disappearing
in the distance, "somebody special?"
"Yes, indeed. You aren't the only boy here that has a king's name. This was
a king with the same name as Dick—Richard of England, whom his people
loved to call the Lion Hearted, because he was so brave. I could tell by the
banner with the lion on it that floated above his head. There are lots of fine
stories about King Richard. One tells how he was captured by an enemy on
the way home from one of the Crusades and kept shut up in a tower for a
year; and how he was found and rescued by a friend of his who was a
sweet singer, and who went about singing a little song that the king loved,
until at last he heard the king's voice sing in answer to him from the tower
window. Then there's a story of how he came back to England in disguise,
and kept his wicked brother John from stealing his throne. Some day you
must read Sir Walter Scott's famous novel, 'Ivanhoe,' which tells all about
the adventures of Richard in disguise."
A convenient gap in the procession had given Aunt Eleanor time to tell the
children this much about King Richard; but now another group, a very
soberly dressed company, too, claimed their attention. The central figure
was not a king in armor this time, but a grave, determined looking man clad
in black velvet, with a deep lace collar and a wide black hat and feather. The
children at once demanded his name.
"I must look at my program to find out who he is," said their aunt. "Oh, yes;
William of Orange. Both he and his little country, Holland, have a wonderful
story. Five hundred years ago the lands that are now Belgium and Holland
belonged to Spain. As time went on the Spanish king, Philip, oppressed
them more and more cruelly, and wouldn't let them have any freedom at all,
either in politics or religion. But they were a liberty-loving people, and
toward the end of the sixteenth century they rose in rebellion against Spain.
This stern-looking Hollander was their greatest leader. He was called William
the Silent, because of an event early in his career. One day the French king,
who was in league with Spain, and who thought Prince William was in
sympathy with their side, betrayed to him all the details of a secret plot.
William was filled with horror and very angry, but he kept perfectly still, and
didn't even show by the movement of an eyelash that he was anything but
friendly and interested. He was called 'silent', you see, not because he didn't
talk much, but because he could keep a secret."
"And was that when Holland and Belgium got to be independent countries?
And why aren't they all one country, then?"
"Oh, the part that is Holland won its independence then, though poor
William was murdered before the fight was finished. It was one of the
earliest of European republics. But the part that is Belgium came to terms
with Spain after William's death, and wasn't a separate country till long
after. You see, the Holland part was made up of people of the Protestant
religion, while the Belgian part, like Spain, was Catholic."
"I suppose that's why he's in this procession, because when he lived he
really belonged to Belgium as well as to Holland," said Alfred thoughtfully.
"Oh!" cried Betty, clapping her hands, "I know who that next lot are! The
lady in the ruff, with the little jeweled band in her hair, must be Queen
Elizabeth, and those are her courtiers. Now every one of us has a namesake
in the pageant, except Francis."
"If I'm not mistaken," said her aunt, "Francis has a namesake in this very
group. Yes, surely—do you see the man with the pointed beard and the
model of a ship in his hand? That is Sir Francis Drake, the great seaman.
Over and over his little ship went in chase of the Spaniards, who were
England's greatest enemies at this time. Elizabeth ruled at the same time
when the Dutch, too, were fighting Spain. There was nothing too daring or
dangerous for Drake to attempt. He was the first Englishman to sail around
the world, a voyage which took more than two years. Once he sailed right
into a Spanish harbor and burned all the Spanish ships there, which were
being made ready for an attack on England. And he and his friends, bold
adventurers like himself, laid the foundation of the power of England on the
sea."
"I suppose the man with the red velvet cloak is Raleigh, and that's the cloak
he spread down for Elizabeth to walk on."
"Yes. And do you see that kind, merry-looking man in black, with the simple
white collar, carrying an actor's mask in his hand? That must be
Shakespeare, the greatest writer of plays that ever lived. And I believe the
man beside him, holding a great roll of manuscript and a quill pen, is
Spenser, the poet who wrote a wonderful book called the 'Faerie Queen' in
honor of Queen Elizabeth."
"We've had somebody from France and Belgium and England," said Betty. "I
wonder if there won't be an American pretty soon?"
"There couldn't have been an American yet, stupid," Alfred informed her,
"because there weren't any people in our part of America in Queen
Elizabeth's time."
"Oh, so there weren't. There comes a soldier with an Indian chief and an
Indian girl close behind him—he must be American, or the Indians wouldn't
be there."
"Guess he's John Smith," spoke up Francis, "'cause I know he had his life
saved by Pocahontas—that's the Indian girl. But I don't know what else he
did."
"Oh, he was the leader of the first colony to be settled by the English in this
country. What colony was it, Alfred? You can tell, surely."
"Of course, Jamestown, in Virginia. That was why the Indians got mad at
him, because the white men were taking their lands away."
A burst of specially enthusiastic cheering arose from the street. The reason
for it was the approach of a kindly-faced gentleman in dark gray coat and
knee-breeches, with silver shoe-buckles and broad-brimmed Quaker hat. It
was William Penn, of course, looking for all the world like the statue on the
high City Hall tower. There was no need for Aunt Eleanor to give any
information about him, for these were Philadelphia children, who knew and
loved the founder of the "green country town" that had grown to be so
large a city. Nor was there any need to explain about the next figure to
arrive, a stately general on horseback, in white wig, cocked hat, and
Revolutionary uniform of blue and buff. Behind him, in an old-fashioned
carriage, rode Betsy Ross, holding the newly adopted Stars and Stripes, at
which the men in the crowd doffed their hats.
But the next figure puzzled our little group of children. It was a very short
man, stockily built, yet full of dignity. He, too, wore a cocked hat, and a
plain uniform. He walked with head bent forward and hands clasped behind
him, and his piercing black eyes looked at the ground. The children could
not guess who he was, so Aunt Eleanor had to tell them.
"That is the great French conquerer Napoleon Bonaparte. He began life as
an ordinary citizen, and won his way to the very top by his wonderful
military genius. He won so many battles in command of the French armies,
after the French Revolution at the end of the eighteenth century, that the
people chose him to be consul, a position something like that of the
president of a republic. Then he loved power so that he got control of the
government and had himself made emperor, so that France wasn't a
republic any more. After that he set out to conquer all of Europe, and he
nearly succeeded. But one winter he went to Russia, and the cold and snow
almost entirely destroyed his army; and he never could succeed in beating
England. It was the great English general, the Duke of Wellington, who
finally crushed Napoleon at the battle of Waterloo—you've heard of that?
Well, after that the fallen Emperor was sent away to a little island, St.
Helena, that belonged to England, and there he was kept a prisoner till the
end of his life."
"He was something like the German Kaiser in the World's War, wasn't he?"
said Alfred. "He wanted to conquer all Europe—and the United States, too."
"Yes, you'll learn that every once in so often history repeats itself. But we'll
hope that the Kaiser's effort to conquer the world will be the last of such
things, and that such a war may never be repeated."
"Oh, who is that rough looking man in the red flannel shirt?" cried Betty.
"That very red shirt tells me who he is," said her aunt. "Have you been
wondering when we were going to have one of the heroes of Italy? Well,
this is an Italian patriot named Garibaldi. About sixty years ago, when Italy
was struggling to get free from Austria, and to be an independent nation,
Garibaldi gathered together as many brave soldiers as he could, in the
southern part of the country, and they marched to the help of their
countrymen in a time of very great need. As a part of their uniform they
wore red shirts. But one of the most interesting things about Garibaldi is
that when his country wanted to give him a high position, he said he would
rather go back to the farm he had bought for himself, and live his life out as
a plain, ordinary man."
Little Dick had been keeping very still and listening, for all the people in the
parade had been those that he never had heard of before. But suddenly he
jumped to his feet in excitement. He, like every other child in the crowd,
knew who was that tall, awkward, homely person in the long black frock
coat and the high silk hat. There could be no mistaking that kind, sad face,
with the patient, farseeing eyes. Behind the great president rode two
soldierly figures—General Grant in his blue uniform, and General Lee in the
gray, on his beloved white horse, Traveller. Nor could there be any mistaking
of the energetic figure in hunting dress that followed him, whose face wore
a smile that could not be spoiled by the heavy eyeglasses that were so
familiar a part of a well-known countenance.
"Teddy," cheered the crowd, with the enthusiasm that always is stirred by
true, generous manliness.
The afternoon was growing late. One group remained, with which the
procession was to close. On horseback rode a tall, soldierly figure, dressed
in khaki, with an officer's hat bearing royal insignia, and with his breast
covered with medals. A pair of keen blue eyes smiled out of a clear-cut,
earnest face. Behind him, in an automobile, rode a thin, worn old man in
the scarlet robe and close scarlet cap of a cardinal.
"I need not tell you who they are," said Aunt Eleanor. "They stand to us for
the little country that in 1914 saved the world by sacrificing herself. King
Albert of Belgium led his own armies into battle; his queen, Elizabeth,
nursed the wounded in the hospitals; and Cardinal Mercier stayed with his
people to cheer and comfort them."
"I think they are the greatest heroes of all," said Betty softly.
"Any man is a hero, dear," said her aunt, "who spends his life for the help
and safety of his people, not thinking what it costs himself."
 —Mabel Dodge Holmes.
Questions

1. Make a list of the heroes whom you can remember in the procession.
2. Was there any one of them whom you did not know about before?
3. Which one would you like to read more about?
4. Do you know any facts about any of these heroes that are not told in
this story? If so, write a title for the story you can tell, and be ready to
tell it to your classmates.
5. Do you know the name of any hero whom you would have added to
those in the procession?
6. Some of the figures are not mentioned by name. Give the names of
any of these you remember.
 THE SKELETON IN ARMOR
In the poem that follows, the poet tells us of a strange and fearful
visitor that once came to him—the spirit of some ancient viking of the
Northland all dressed in armor and carrying sword and shield.
In order to understand the poem, you must remember that the vikings
were bold sea-rovers and fierce warriors who set out in their long swift
boats in search after plunder and adventure. Some of them are even
said to have come over to America long before Columbus ever dreamed
of the new world. The poem was suggested to Mr. Longfellow by the
finding of a skeleton clad in broken and rusted armor and buried in the
sands of the New England shore, and by a very ancient tower that must
have been built on the coast by the Northmen many years before 1492.
These two facts are true, but of course the story that the poet made of
them is merely a good story.
The poet's strange guest is one of these sea-robbers, who tells how as
a youth he had won the love of a blue-eyed princess of the far North,
only to find that her father forbade their marriage. In the first stanza
the poet asks a question; the rest of the poem tells what the spirit of
the viking said.
But you will want to read the story as the poet has told it.

"Speak! speak! thou fearful guest!

Who, with they hollow breast
Still in rude armor drest,
Comest to daunt me!
Wrapt not in Eastern balms,
But with thy fleshless palms
Stretched, as if asking alms,
Why dost thou haunt me?"

"Then, from those cavernous eyes

Pale flashes seemed to rise,
As when the Northern skies
Gleam in December;
And, like the water's flow
Under December's snow,
Came a dull voice of woe
From the heart's chamber.

"I was a Viking old!

My deeds, though manifold,
No Skald in song has told,
No Saga taught thee!
Take heed, that in thy verse
Thou dost the tale rehearse,
Else dread a dead man's curse;
For this I sought thee.

"Far in the Northern Land,

By the wild Baltic's strand,
I, with my childish hand,
Tamed the gerfalcon;
And, with my skates fast-bound,
Skimmed the half-frozen Sound,
That the poor whimpering hound
Trembled to walk on.

"Oft to his frozen lair

Tracked I the grisly bear,
While from my path the hare
Fled like a shadow;
Oft through the forest dark
Followed the were-wolf's bark,
Until the soaring lark
Sang from the meadow.

"But when I older grew,

Joining a corsair's crew,
O'er the dark sea I flew
With the marauders.
Wild was the life we led;
Many the souls that sped,
Many the hearts that bled,
By our stern orders.

"Once as I told in glee

Tales of the stormy sea,
Soft eyes did gaze on me,
Burning yet tender;
And as the white stars shine
On the dark Norway pine,
On that dark heart of mine
Fell their soft splendor.

"I wooed the blue-eyed maid,

Yielding, yet half afraid,
And in the forest's shade
Our vows were plighted.
Under its loosened vest
Fluttered her little breast,
Like birds within their nest
By the hawk frighted.

"Bright in her father's hall

Shields gleamed upon the wall,
Loud sang the minstrels all,
Chanting his glory;
When of old Hildebrand
I asked his daughter's hand,
Mute did the minstrels stand
To hear my story.

"While the brown ale he quaffed,

Loud then the champion laughed
And as the wing-gusts waft
The sea-foam brightly,
So the loud laugh of scorn,
Out of those lips unshorn,
From the deep drinking-horn
Blew the foam lightly.

"She was a Prince's child,

I but a Viking wild,
And though she blushed and smiled,
I was discarded!
Should not the dove so white
Follow the sea-mew's flight,
Why did they leave that night
Her nest unguarded?

"Scarce had I put to sea,

Bearing the maid with me,
Fairest of all was she
Among the Norsemen!
When on the white sea-strand,
Waving his armed hand,
Saw we old Hildebrand,
With twenty horsemen.
 I Wooed the Blue-Eyed Maid

"Then launched they to the blast,

Bent like a reed each mast,
Yet we were gaining fast,
When the wind failed us;
And with a sudden flaw
Came round the gusty Skaw,
So that our foe we saw
Laugh as he hailed us.

"And as to catch the gale

Round veered the flapping sail,
Death! was the helmsman's hail,
Death without quarter!
Mid-ships with iron keel
Struck we her ribs of steel;
Down her black hulk did reel
Through the black water!

"As with his wings aslant,

Sails the fierce cormorant,
Seeking some rocky haunt,
With his prey laden,
So toward the open main,
Beating the sea again,
Through the wild hurricane,
Bore I the maiden.

"Three weeks we westward bore,

And when the storm was o'er,
Cloud-like we saw the shore
Stretching to leeward;
There for my lady's bower
Built I the lofty tower,
Which, to this very hour,
Stands looking seaward.

"There lived we many years;

Time dried the maiden's tears;
She had forgot her fears,
She was a mother;
Death closed her mild blue eyes,
Under that tower she lies;
Ne'er shall the sun arise
On such another!

"Still grew my bosom then,

Still as a stagnant fen!
Hateful to me were men,
The sunlight hateful!
In the vast forest here,
Clad in my warlike gear,
Fell I upon my spear,
O, death was grateful!
"Thus, seamed with many scars,
Bursting these prison bars,
Up to its native stars
My soul ascended!
There from the flowing bowl
Deep drinks the warrior's soul,
Skoal! to the Northland! skoal!"
Thus the tale ended.
—Henry Wadsworth Longfellow.
Courtesy of Houghton, Mifflin Company.
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