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Quantum Computing by Practice Python Programming in the Cloud with Qiskit and IBM Q 2nd Edition Silva instant download

Quantum Computing by Practice: Python Programming in the Cloud with Qiskit and IBM-Q, Second Edition by Vladimir Silva provides a comprehensive guide to quantum computing concepts and practical programming using Python. The book covers fundamental topics such as quantum fields, qubits, and the IBM Quantum platform, along with exercises to reinforce learning. It is designed for readers interested in both the theoretical and practical aspects of quantum computing.

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100% found this document useful (3 votes)
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Quantum Computing by Practice Python Programming in the Cloud with Qiskit and IBM Q 2nd Edition Silva instant download

Quantum Computing by Practice: Python Programming in the Cloud with Qiskit and IBM-Q, Second Edition by Vladimir Silva provides a comprehensive guide to quantum computing concepts and practical programming using Python. The book covers fundamental topics such as quantum fields, qubits, and the IBM Quantum platform, along with exercises to reinforce learning. It is designed for readers interested in both the theoretical and practical aspects of quantum computing.

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Quantum Computing
by Practice
Python Programming in the Cloud
with Qiskit and IBM-Q
Second Edition

Vladimir Silva
Quantum Computing by Practice: Python Programming in the Cloud with Qiskit and
IBM-Q, Second Edition
Vladimir Silva
CARY, NC, USA

ISBN-13 (pbk): 978-1-4842-9990-6 ISBN-13 (electronic): 978-1-4842-9991-3


https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-9991-3

Copyright © 2024 by Vladimir Silva


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To my dear parents, Manuel and Anissia, and beloved siblings,
Natasha, Alfredo, Sonia, and Ivan.
Table of Contents
About the Author��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� xiii

About the Technical Reviewer���������������������������������������������������������������������������������xv


Introduction�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������xvii

Chapter 1: Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks of Reality������������������������������������� 1


Enter Max Planck, the Father of Quantum Mechanics������������������������������������������������������������������ 2
Planck Hits the Jackpot, Einstein Collects a Nobel Prize�������������������������������������������������������������� 4
The Nature of Light Before Planck������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 4
After Planck, Physics Will Never Be the Same������������������������������������������������������������������������� 5
Quantum Mechanics Comes in Many Flavors������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 9
Copenhagen Interpretation������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 9
Many Worlds Interpretation��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 21
Supplementary Interpretations���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 23
From Quantum Mechanics to Quantum Fields: Evolution or Revolution������������������������������������� 28
We Are All Made of Quantum Fields, but We Don’t Understand Them����������������������������������� 31
The Recipe to Build a Universe���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 32
The Fantastic Four Forces of Nature: Enter the Higgs Field�������������������������������������������������� 33
Standard Model and the Super-Equation of Physics������������������������������������������������������������� 35
Chasing the Unexplained������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 36
Dark Energy Will Determine the Ultimate Fate of the Universe��������������������������������������������� 39
Beyond the Standard Model�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 40
Exercises������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 42

v
Table of Contents

Chapter 2: Richard Feynman, Demigod of Physics, Father of the Quantum


Computer���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 49
Mysteries of QFT: The Plague on Infinities���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 50
Electron Scattering According to QED����������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 51
Perturbation Theory: If You Can’t Do Something Perfectly, Maybe Near Enough Is Good
Enough���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 53
Tackling Those Pesky Infinities with Renormalization����������������������������������������������������������� 53
Renormalization: Electrons Do Not Have Infinite Mass���������������������������������������������������������� 55
QFT’s Holy Trinity: Perturbation Theory, Renormalization, and Feynman Diagrams�������������� 56
Feynman Diagrams: Formulas in Disguise���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 57
Feynman Approach to Quantum Mechanics: The Path Integral��������������������������������������������� 57
Unraveling the Impossible: Feynman Diagrams to the Rescue��������������������������������������������� 58
A Few Simple Diagram Rules Are All That Is Needed������������������������������������������������������������ 60
The Strangeness of Virtual Particles�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 64
The Power of Feynman Diagrams to Simplify QFT-­QED Calculations������������������������������������ 65
Antimatter As Time Reverse Matter and the Mirror Universe������������������������������������������������������ 67
The Foundations of Quantum Theory Rest on Symmetries��������������������������������������������������� 68
Broken Symmetries Threaten to Break All of Physics Along with Them�������������������������������� 74
Particles in a Rewinding Universe����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 80
CPT Is Safe: The 70-Year Rollercoaster Ride for the Symmetries of Nature�������������������������� 81
Exercises������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 82

Chapter 3: Behold, the Qubit Revolution����������������������������������������������������������������� 87


Your Friendly Neighborhood Quantum Computer������������������������������������������������������������������������ 87
Two-Photon Quantum Interference���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 93
Mathematics Behind Photonic Interference�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 95
Output States of the Control-Z Gate�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 97
Lowering Error Rates������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 99
Superconducting Loops vs. Linear Optics��������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 100
Superconducting Loops������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 100
Breaking Out of the Lab: IBM-Q Qubit Design���������������������������������������������������������������������� 102
Pros and Cons of Superconductor Loops���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 109

vi
Table of Contents

The Many Flavors of the Qubit�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 110


Exercises����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 116

Chapter 4: Enter IBM Quantum: A One-of-a-Kind Platform for


Quantum Computing in the Cloud������������������������������������������������������������������������� 119
Getting Your Feet Wet with IBM Quantum��������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 120
Quantum composer������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 120
Quantum Gates�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 121
Quantum Backends Available for Use���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 123
Entanglement: Bell and GHZ States������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 128
Two Qubit Entanglement with Bell States��������������������������������������������������������������������������� 128
Three Qubit Entanglement with GHZ States Tests��������������������������������������������������������������� 133
Super Determinism: A Way Out of the Spookiness. Was Einstein Right All Along?�������������� 136
Remote Access via the REST API���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 139
Authentication��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 140
List Available Backends������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 141
Get Backend Parameters����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 143
Get the Status of a Processor’s Queue�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 146
List Jobs in the Execution Queue���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 147
Get Account Information������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 149
List User’s Experiments������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 150
Run a Job on Hardware������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 152
Get the API Version�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 154
Exercises����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 155

Chapter 5: Mathematical Foundation: Time to Dust Up That Linear Algebra�������� 159


Qubit 101: Vector, Matrices, and Complex Numbers����������������������������������������������������������������� 160
Transpose of a Matrix MT����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 161
Conjugate Transpose or Adjoint Mϯ�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 162
Complex Numbers: The Mathematical Magic Hats�������������������������������������������������������������� 162
Euler’s Identity: A Wonderful Masterpiece�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 164
Tensor Product of a Matrix ⊗��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 165

vii
Table of Contents

Postulates of Quantum Mechanics������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 167


Postulate 1: State and Vector Space������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 167
Postulate 2: Observables and Operators����������������������������������������������������������������������������� 167
Postulate 3: Measurement��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 168
Postulate 4: Collapse of the Wave Function������������������������������������������������������������������������� 168
Postulate 5: Unitary Transformations����������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 169
Linear Algebra and Quantum Mechanics Cheat Sheet�������������������������������������������������������������� 169
Algebraic Representation of the Qubit�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 172
Dirac’s Ket Notation������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 172
Superposition Is a Fancy Word�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 174
Kets Are Column Vectors����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 174
Orient Yourself in the Bloch Sphere������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 174
Changing the State of a Qubit with Quantum Gates������������������������������������������������������������������ 176
NOT Gate (Pauli X)���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 177
Truly Quantum: Super Positions with the Hadamard Gate��������������������������������������������������� 178
Measurement of a Quantum State Is Trickier Than You Think��������������������������������������������� 179
Generalized Single Qubit Gates������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 180
Unitary Matrices Are Good for Quantum Gates�������������������������������������������������������������������� 181
Other Single Qubit Gates����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 182
Qubit Entanglement with the Controlled-NOT Gate������������������������������������������������������������� 182
Universal Quantum Computation Delivers Shortcuts over Classical Computation�������������������� 184
Gate Identity Cheat Sheet��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 184
Quantum Gate vs Boolean Gate Cheat Sheet���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 186
Exercises����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 187

Chapter 6: Qiskit, Awesome SDK for Quantum Programming in Python�������������� 189


Installing Qiskit������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 189
Setting Up in Windows�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 190
Setting Up in Linux CentOS�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 191
Credentials Configuration���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 195

viii
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Your First Quantum Program����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 196


Quantum Lab: A Hidden Jewel Within the Cloud Console���������������������������������������������������� 199
SDK Internals: Circuit Compilation��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 201
Running in a Real Quantum Device������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 206
Result Visualization Types��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 213
Noise Models and Fake Providers��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 218
Exercises����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 222
Extended Qiskit Exercises��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 223

Chapter 7: Start Your Engines: From Quantum Random Numbers to


Teleportation and Super Dense Coding����������������������������������������������������������������� 229
Quantum Random Number Generation������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 229
Random Bit Generation Using the Hadamard Gate�������������������������������������������������������������� 230
Putting Randomness Results to the Test����������������������������������������������������������������������������� 235
Super Dense Coding������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 237
Circuit for composer������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 239
Running in Python��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 240
Looking at the Results��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 242
Quantum Teleportation�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 244
Circuit for composer������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 246
Running in Python��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 247
Looking at the Results��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 252
Exercises����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 254

Chapter 8: Game Theory: With Quantum Mechanics, Odds Are Always


in Your Favor�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 259
Counterfeit Coin Puzzle������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 260
Counterfeit Coin, the Quantum Way������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 262
Step 1: Query the Quantum Beam Balance������������������������������������������������������������������������� 262
Step 2: Construct the Quantum Balance������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 265
Step 3: Identify the False Coin��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 266
Generalization for Any Number of False Coins�������������������������������������������������������������������� 270

ix
Table of Contents

Mermin-Peres Magic Square���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 271


Mermin-Peres Magic Square Exercise�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 272
Quantum Winning Strategy�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 273
Shared Entangled State������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 273
Unitary Transformations������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 275
Measure in the Computational Basis����������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 281
Answers for the Mermin-Peres Magic Square Exercise������������������������������������������������������ 286

Chapter 9: Quantum Advantage with Deutsch-Jozsa, Bernstein-Vazirani, and


Simon’s Algorithms���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 289
Phase Kickback������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 291
Kickback with Arbitrary Phases������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 293
Deutsch-Jozsa�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 294
Bernstein-Vazirani (BV)������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 299
Simon’s Algorithm��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 302
Rules for Simon Oracle Construction����������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 307
Dissecting Simon’s Oracle��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 307
Extended Practice Exercises����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 310

Chapter 10: Advanced Algorithms: Unstructured Search and Integer


Factorization with Grover and Shor���������������������������������������������������������������������� 313
Quantum Unstructured Search�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 314
Phase Inversion������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 315
Inversion About the Mean���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 316
Practical Implementation���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 318
Generalized Circuit�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 321
Integer Factorization with Shor’s Algorithm������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 324
Challenging Asymmetric Cryptography with Quantum Factorization���������������������������������� 325
Period Finding��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 326
Shor’s Algorithm by ProjectQ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 330

x
Table of Contents

Chapter 11: Quantum in the Real World: Advanced Chemistry and


Protein Folding����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 339
The Significance of Eigenvalues����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 339
Eigenvalues in a Quantum Computer���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 342
Why Use a Quantum Computer������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 343
Molecule Ground States������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 344
The Lattice��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 344
The Heisenberg Spin ½ Hamiltonian����������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 346
The VQE������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 350
The Results�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 352
Protein Folding�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 355
The Protein Folding Problem����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 356
Protein Folding Using a Quantum Computer����������������������������������������������������������������������� 357
Exciting Times Lie Ahead���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 364

Appendix: Exercise Answers�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 367

Index��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 399

xi
About the Author
Vladimir Silva was born in Quito, Ecuador. He received a System’s Analyst degree from
the Polytechnic Institute of the Army in 1994. In the same year, he came to the United
States as an exchange student pursuing an M.S. degree in Computer Science at Middle
Tennessee State University. After graduation, he joined IBM as a software engineer. His
interests include Quantum Computing, Neural Nets, and Artificial Intelligence. He also
holds numerous IT certifications including OCP, MCSD, and MCP. He has written many
technical books in the fields of distributed computing and security. His previous books
include Grid Computing for Developers (Charles River Media), Practical Eclipse Rich
Client Platform Projects (Apress), Pro Android Games (Apress), and Advanced Android 4
Games (Apress).

xiii
About the Technical Reviewer
Jason Whitehorn is an experienced entrepreneur and soft-
ware developer and has helped many companies automate
and enhance their business solutions through data synchro-
nization, SaaS architecture, and machine learning. Jason
obtained his Bachelor of Science in Computer Science from
Arkansas State University, but he traces his passion for de-
velopment back many years before then, having first taught
himself to program BASIC on his family’s computer while
still in middle school.
When he’s not mentoring and helping his team at work, writing, or pursuing one of
his many side-projects, Jason enjoys spending time with his wife and four children and
living in the Tulsa, Oklahoma, region. More information about Jason can be found on his
website: https://jason.whitehorn.us.

xv
Introduction
The Quantum Computing Revolution
I wrote this book to be the ultimate guide for programming a quantum computer in the
cloud. IBM has made their quantum rig (known as the IBM Quantum) available not
only for research but for individuals, in general, interested in this exciting new field of
computing.
Quantum computing is gaining traction and now is the time to learn to program
these machines. In years to come, the first commercial quantum computers should be
available, and they promise significant computational speedups compared to classical
computers. Nowhere is this more apparent than in the field of cryptography where the
quantum integer factorization algorithm can outperform the best classical solution by
orders of magnitude, so much so that a practical implementation of this algorithm will
render current asymmetric encryption useless.
All in all, this book is a journey of understanding. You may find some of the concepts
explained throughout the chapters difficult to grasp; however, you are not alone. The
great physicist Richard Feynman once said: “If somebody tells you he understands
quantum mechanics, it means he doesn’t understand quantum mechanics.” Even the
titans of this bizarre theory have struggled to comprehend what it all means.
I have tried to explore quantum computation to the best of my abilities by using real-
world algorithms, circuits, code, and graphical results. Some of the algorithms included
in this manuscript defy logic and seem more like voodoo magic than a computational
description of a physical system. This is the main reason I decided to tackle this subject.
Even though I find the mind-bending principles of quantum mechanics bizarre, I’ve
always been fascinated by them. Thus, when IBM came up with its one-of-a-kind
quantum computing platform for the cloud and opened it up for the rest of us, I jumped
to the opportunity of learning and creating this manuscript.
Ultimately, this is my take on the subject, and I hope you find as much enjoyment
in reading it as I did writing it. My humble advice: Learn to program quantum
computers; soon they will be ever present in the data center, doing everything from
search and simulations to medicine and artificial intelligence. Here is an overview of the
manuscript’s contents.
xvii
Introduction

Chapter 1: Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks


of Reality
It all began in the 1930s with Max Planck’s reluctant genius. He came up with a new
interpretation for the energy distribution of the light spectrum. He started it all by
unwillingly postulating that the energy of the photon was not described by a continuous
function, as believed by classical physicists, but by tiny chunks, which he called quanta.
He was about to start the greatest revolution in science in this century: quantum
mechanics. This chapter is an appetizer to the main course and explores the clash
of two titans of physics: Albert Einstein and Niels Bohr. Quantum mechanics was a
revolutionary theory in the 1930s, and most of the scientific establishment was reluctant
to accept it, including the colossus of the century: Albert Einstein. Fresh from winning
the Nobel Prize, Einstein never accepted the probabilistic nature of quantum mechanics.
This caused a rift with its biggest champion: Niels Bohr. The two greats debated it out
for decades and never resolved their differences. Ultimately, quantum mechanics
has withstood 70 years of theoretical and experimental challenges, to emerge always
triumphant. Read this chapter and explore the theory, experiments, and results, all
under the cover of the incredible story of these two extraordinary individuals.

Chapter 2: Richard Feynman, Demigod of Physics,


Father of the Quantum Computer
In the 1980s, the great physicist Richard Feynman proposed a quantum computer. That
is a computer that can take advantage of the principles of quantum mechanics to solve
problems faster. The race is on to construct such a machine. This chapter explores, in
general terms, the basic architecture of a quantum computer: qubits – the basic blocks
of quantum computation. They may not seem like much but they have almost magical
properties: Superposition, believe it or not, a qubit can be in two states at the same time:
0 and 1. This is a concept hard to grasp at the macroscale where we live. Nevertheless,
at the atomic scale, all bets are off. This fact has been proven experimentally for over
70 years. Thus, superposition allows a quantum computer to outmuscle a classical
computer by performing large amounts of computation with relatively small numbers
of qubits. Another mind-bender is qubit entanglement: entangled qubits transfer states,
when observed, faster than the speed of light across time or space! Wrap your head

xviii
Introduction

around that. All in all, this chapter explores all the physical components of a quantum
computer: quantum gates, types of qubits such as superconducting loops, ion traps,
topological braids, and more. Furthermore, the current efforts of all major technology
players in the subject are described, as well as other types of quantum computation such
as quantum annealing.

Chapter 3: Behold, the Qubit Revolution


In this chapter, we look at the basic architecture of the qubit as designed by the
pioneering IT companies in the field. You will also learn that although qubits are mostly
experimental and difficult to build, it doesn’t mean that one can’t be constructed with
some optical tools and some ingenuity. Even if a little crude and primitive, a quantum
gate can be built using refraction crystals, photon emitters, and a simple budget. This
chapter also explores superconducting loops as the de facto method for building qubits
along with other popular designs and their relationship to each other.

Chapter 4: Enter IBM Quantum: A One-of-a-Kind


Platform for Quantum Computing in the Cloud
In this chapter, you will get your feet wet with the IBM Q Experience. This is the first
quantum computing platform in the cloud that provides real or simulated quantum
devices for the rest of us. Traditionally, a real quantum device will be available only for
research purposes. Not anymore, thanks to the folks at IBM who have been building this
stuff for decades and graciously decided to open it up for public use.
Learn how to create a quantum circuit using the visual composer or write it down
using the excellent Python SDK for the programmer within you. Then execute your
circuit in the real thing, explore the results, and take the first step in your new career as a
quantum programmer. IBM may have created the first quantum computing platform in
the cloud, but its competitors are close behind. Expect to see new cloud platforms soon
from other IT giants. Now is the time to learn.

xix
Introduction

Chapter 5: Mathematical Foundation: Time to Dust


Up That Linear Algebra
Matrices, complex numbers, and tensor products are the holy trinity of quantum
computing. The bizarre properties of quantum mechanics are entirely described by
matrices. It is the rich interpretation of matrices and complex numbers that allows for a
bigger landscape resulting in an advantage over traditional scaler-based mathematics.
Quantum mechanics sounds and looks weird but at the end is just fancy linear algebra.

Chapter 6: Qiskit, Awesome SDK for Quantum


Programming in Python
Qiskit stands for Quantum Information Software Kit. It is a Python SDK to write quantum
programs in the cloud or a local simulator. In this chapter, you will learn how to set up
the Python SDK on your PC. Next, you will learn how quantum gates are described using
linear algebra to gain a deeper understanding of what goes on behind the scenes. This
is the appetizer to your first quantum program, a very simple thing to familiarize you
with the syntax of the Python SDK. Finally, you will run it in a real quantum device. Of
course, quantum programs can also be created visually in the composer. Gain a deeper
understanding of quantum gates, the basic building blocks of a quantum program. All
this and more is covered in this chapter.

Chapter 7: Start Your Engines: From Quantum


Random Numbers to Teleportation and Super
Dense Coding
This chapter is a journey through three remarkable information-processing capabilities
of quantum systems. Quantum random number generation explores the nature of
quantum mechanics as a source of true randomness. You will learn how this can be
achieved using very simple logic gates and the Python SDK. Next, this chapter explores
two related information processing protocols: super dense coding and quantum
teleportation. They have exuberant names and almost magical properties. Discover
their secrets, write circuits for the composer, execute remotely using Python, and finally
interpret and verify their results.

xx
Introduction

Chapter 8: Game Theory: With Quantum Mechanics,


Odds Are Always in Your Favor
Here is a weird one: this chapter explores two game puzzles that show the remarkable
power of quantum algorithms over their classical counterparts – the counterfeit coin
puzzle and the Mermin-Peres Magic Square. In the counterfeit coin puzzle, a quantum
algorithm is used to reach a quartic speed up over the classical solution for finding a fake
coin using a balance scale a limited number of times. The Mermin-Peres Magic Square
is an example of quantum pseudo-telepathy or the ability of players to almost read each
other’s minds, achieving outcomes only possible if they communicate during the game.

Chapter 9: Quantum Advantage with Deutsch-Jozsa,


Bernstein-Vazirani, and Simon’s Algorithms
This chapter looks at three algorithms of little practical use but important, because they
were the first to show that quantum computers can solve problems significantly faster
than classical ones: Deutsch-Jozsa, Bernstein-Vazirani, and Simon’s algorithms. They
achieve significant performance boost via massive parallelism by using the Hadamard
gate to put the input in superposition. They also illustrate critical concepts such as
oracles or black boxes that perform some transformation on the input, and phase
kickback, a powerful technique used to alter the phase of inputs so they can cancel
each other.

Chapter 10: Advanced Algorithms: Unstructured


Search and Integer Factorization with Grover
and Shor
This chapter showcases two algorithms that have generated excitement about the
possibilities of practical quantum computation: Grover’s Search, an unstructured
quantum search algorithm capable of finding inputs at an average of the square root of
N steps. This is much faster than the best classical solution at N/2 steps. It may not seem
that much, but when talking about very large databases, this algorithm can crush it in
the data center. Expect all web searches to be performed by Grover’s in the future. Shor’s

xxi
Introduction

Integer Factorization: the notorious quantum factorization that experts say could bring
current asymmetric cryptography to its knees. This is the best example of the power
of quantum computation by providing exponential speedups over the best classical
solution.

Chapter 11: Quantum in the Real World: Advanced


Chemistry and Protein Folding
Quantum is already working hard to make a difference in the fields of Chemistry and
Medicine. This chapter showcases two amazing real-life experiments that illustrate
its power: ground states are important in molecular chemistry, with most elements
modeled using lattices where vertices represent interacting atoms. In this chapter, you
will learn how to minimize the energy Hamiltonian of a molecule to reach its ground
state using lattices. Next, proteins are the fundamental building blocks that power all
life. Reliably predicting protein structures is extremely complicated and can change
our understanding of nature. In this experiment, you will learn about protein amino
acids, peptides, chains, nomenclature, and more; and best of all, you will learn how its
structure can be predicted using a quantum computer.

xxii
CHAPTER 1

Quantum Fields:
The Building Blocks
of Reality
The beginning of the 20th century, more specifically 1930s Europe, witnessed the
dawn of arguably one of the greatest theories in human history: quantum mechanics.
After almost a century of change, this wonder of imagination has morphed and taken
many directions. One of these is quantum field theory (QFT) which is the subject of this
chapter. If you enjoy physics and wish to understand why things are the way they are,
then you must get your feet wet with QFT. It has been called the most successful theory
in history, riding high since the 1950s and giving rise to the standard model of particle
physics. This is the modern view of how nature works at the smallest scale, being proven
right time and again by countless experiments and instruments like the Large Hadron
Collider (LHC). All in all, the story of how QFT came to be, and the Masters of Physics
behind it, is a tale of wonder, furious rivalry but ultimate collaboration.
Our story begins in 1900 when Lord Kelvin stood in front of the British Science Royal
Society and enunciated: “There is nothing else to be discovered in physics” – a powerful
statement at the time but clearly wrong in hindsight. Perhaps, we should thank the lord
for such a bold proclamation because it is statements like that that drive others to prove
them wrong. This was put to the test 30 years later in Germany.
Around the 1930s, the great German physicist Max Plank (1858–1947) was working
on the black-body radiation problem, more specifically in the ultraviolet catastrophe.
To understand this problem, let’s backtrack to the physics of how materials glow in
multiple colors at different temperatures. In 1900 British physicist Lord Rayleigh derived
an approximation to predict that process. To accomplish his task, Rayleigh used the
so-called black body, a simple object that would absorb and emit light but not reflect it.

1
© Vladimir Silva 2024
V. Silva, Quantum Computing by Practice, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-9991-3_1
Chapter 1 Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks of Reality

Note that the term black doesn’t mean its color is black but that it simply absorbs and
emits light but does not reflect it, so when observed, you’ll see its glow or radiation.
Rayleigh’s work is known as the Rayleigh-Jeans law for spectral radiation of a black body
as a function of its wavelength λ (lambda) and its temperature in Kelvin degrees (K) (see
Equation 1.1):

2cK BT
B T   (1.1)
4 

where

• c = speed of light (299792458 m/s)

• KB, the Boltzmann constant = 1.38064852 × 10-23 m2 kg s-2 K-1

• λ = wavelength

• T = temperature in Kelvin degrees

Enter Max Planck, the Father of Quantum Mechanics


The Rayleigh-Jeans law works great for higher wavelengths (in the infrared spectrum
outside of visible light) but gives infinite values in the visible spectrum. Figure 1-1 shows
a graph of the Rayleigh-Jeans spectral radiance for wavelengths of visible and infrared for
a black body at 5000 degrees Kelvin. This is what is known as the ultraviolet catastrophe:
the infinite values of radiation of light in the visible spectrum as predicted by classical
physics. This is simply not possible; if this was true, then we’ll all get cooked up by simply
getting close to a candle light! Max Planck realized this and found a solution in the 1930s
earning him a Nobel Prize and a place in history.

2
Chapter 1 Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks of Reality

Figure 1-1. Graph of the Rayleigh-Jeans law vs. Planck’s solution for the
ultraviolet catastrophe

Planck altered Rayleigh’s original derivation by changing the formula to match


experimental results as shown in Equation 1.2.

2cK BT
B T   (1.1)
4 

2hc 2 1
B   ,T   hc
(1.2)
5
e  K BT
 1

where h is Planck’s constant = 6.62 × 10-34 m2kg/s.


He made an incredible assumption for the time: energy can be emitted or absorbed
c
in discrete chunks which he called quanta: E  hv  h where v is the frequency. Note

c
that frequency equals the speed of light divided by the wavelength v  . This may

seem trivial nowadays, but in the 1930s was ground-breaking; not even Planck fully
understood what he had unleashed. He gave birth to a brand new theory: quantum
mechanics.

3
Chapter 1 Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks of Reality

 lanck Hits the Jackpot, Einstein Collects


P
a Nobel Prize
So at the time, Planck didn’t realize how huge his postulate of energy quanta was, as he
admitted that his solution for the ultraviolet catastrophe was simply a workaround for
the maths of the Rayleigh-Jeans law to make it fit well-known experimental results. To
grasp the power of this postulate, one must look at the view of the nature of light pre-post
Planck’s era.

The Nature of Light Before Planck


Since the 19th century, it was well accepted that light behaved like a wave. Scottish
physicist James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1979) provided a description of the fundamental
properties of such waves (see Figure 1-2).

Figure 1-2. The nature of light in the 19th century

• A fundamental property of a light wave is its wavelength or


lambda (λ).

• Look at the right side of Figure 1-2: At very short wavelengths, we


have lots of waves; the reverse is also true at higher wavelengths. This
is the frequency (v), a second fundamental property of light waves.

It seems logical to assume that at high frequencies (short wavelengths), the energy of
the wave is higher (as there is more stuff flowing in) and that at lower frequencies (higher
wavelengths) the energy decreases. Therefore the energy (E) is directly proportional to

4
Chapter 1 Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks of Reality

its frequency (v) and inversely proportional to its wavelength (λ). This knowledge gave
rise to the standard spectrum of light in the 19th century:

• On the left side of the spectrum (at the shortest wavelengths between
1 picometer and 0.01 nanometers [nm]), sit the gamma rays: very
dangerous, the usual result of a supernova explosion, they are the
most energetic. A gamma-ray burst from a supernova can destroy
everything in its path: all life on Earth, for example, even the solar
system. You don’t want to be in the crosshairs of a gamma-ray burst!

• Next, at a wavelength of 0.01–10nm, sit the well-known x-rays: very


helpful for looking inside of things: organic or inorganic, but still
dangerous enough to cause cancer over persistent exposure.

• At a wavelength of 10–400 nm, we have ultraviolet light (UV): this


is the radiation from the sun that gives life to our Earth but can be
harmful in high doses. Lucky for us, the ozone layer on Earth keeps
the levels in balance to make life possible.

• At a tiny sort after the UV range sits the visible light spectrum that
allows us to enjoy everything we see in this beautiful universe.

• Next, infrared at wavelengths up to 1050 nanometers. It is used


in industrial, scientific, military, law enforcement, and medical
applications. In such devices as night vision goggles, heat sensors,
and others.

• Finally, radio waves above the infrared range. These are used by most
human technology to send all kinds of information such as audio,
video, TV, radio, cell phones, you name it.

After Planck, Physics Will Never Be the Same


In the 1930s Planck turned the classical understanding of the nature of light upside
down. Even though his postulate of energy quanta was dubbed lunacy by most physicists
and remained unnoticed for years, it will take another giant of the century, Albert
Einstein, to seize on this discovery and come up with a brand new interpretation of light.
Thus, the photon was born.

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Chapter 1 Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks of Reality

This is not well known to most people, but Einstein didn’t win a Nobel Prize for
his masterpiece on The Theory of Relativity, but for his work on the quantum nature
of light and the photoelectric effect. Using Planck’s idea, Einstein imagined light as
discrete waves (particles) which he called photons. He used this to solve a paradox in the
photoelectric effect unknown at the time (see Figure 1-3).

Figure 1-3. A fresh idea on the photoelectric effect earned Einstein the Nobel Prize
in Physics in 1921

As its name indicates, the photoelectric effect seeks to describe the behavior
of electrons over a metal surface when light is thrown in the mix. To this end, the
experiment in Figure 1-3 was devised:

• Start with two metal plates. Let’s call them the emitter and the
collector. Both are attached via a cable to a battery. The negative
end of the battery is connected to the emitter, and the positive to the
collector.

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Chapter 1 Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks of Reality

• As we all know, electrons have a negative charge; thus, they flow


to the emitter while the positive charge gathers in the collector.
Remember also that opposite charges attract.

• The idea is to measure the kinetic energy of the electrons when they
flow from the emitter to the collector when a light source is thrown
into the emitter. To achieve this accurately, a vacuum is set among
the two.

• If light flows as a wave as classical physics demands, then when


the light hits the electrons, they will become energized and escape
the surface of the emitter toward the collector. Furthermore, as the
intensity (the amount) of light is increased, more electrons will get
energized and escape in larger quantities. This increase in charge can
be measured by the gauge as shown.

However, this is not what happens. Two things were observed in reality:

1. The increase in charge (the kinetic energy of the electrons) does


not depend on the intensity of the light but on its frequency.

2. Even stranger, not all frequencies energize the electrons to


escape the emitter. If we were to draw the kinetic energy (KE)
as a function of the frequency (f ) (see the lower right side
of Figure 1-3), then there is a point in the curve (threshold
frequency) after which the electrons escape. Values below
this threshold and the electrons remain unchanged. This is a
puzzle indeed!

Einstein proposed a solution to this puzzle: by postulating that energy behaves as


a particle, he solved the paradox of item 2 of the list. Imagine that you are at the county
fair looking to win a prize by knocking down pins with a ball. If you throw marbles at the
pins, they won’t budge; however, throw a baseball, and the pins will be knocked down
earning you that desired prize. This is what Einstein thought occurred in this situation.
Low frequency photons don’t have enough energy to power up the electrons to escape
the emitter. Increase the frequency of the light; it increases the energy of the electrons
so they escape generating a current that can be measured. From this, a mathematical
model can be derived (see Figure 1-4).

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Chapter 1 Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks of Reality

Figure 1-4. Equation for the photoelectric effect

Figure 1-4 shows a graph of the kinetic energy of the electron (EK) as a function
of the light frequency (f ). At low frequencies, no electrons escape until the threshold
frequency is reached. Now, extend the line as shown by the dotted track in the figure,
and we have a straight line graph (note that the point at which the dotted track intersects
the Y axis is named by the Greek letter φ (Phi)). This is the energy needed to liberate the
electron. Thus, this line graph can be described by the algebraic equation Y = mx + c
where m is the gradient and c is the Y-intercept.
Now instead of Y, substitute the kinetic energy, with the gradient m being Planck’s
constant (h), the frequency (f) instead of x, and c being the energy needed to liberate or –φ.
Therefore, our line graph equality becomes Ek = hf − φ.
This is the equation for the photoelectric effect: the energy leftover after the electron
is liberated equals the energy given by the photon minus the energy needed to liberate it.

Tip Incidentally, the first scientist to think of light as a particle was Isaac Newton.
He thought light traveled in small packets which he called co-puzzles. He also
thought these packets had mass; something that is incorrect. Unfortunately, this
idea never took off and lay dormant until it was revived by the Planck-Einstein
revolution of the 1930s.

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Quantum Mechanics Comes in Many Flavors


There is little doubt that the 1930s were the golden age of physics in the 20th century.
Nobel prizes were awarded like candy, and it seemed that nothing could stop humanity
in its quest to unravel the secrets of nature. Since then, quantum mechanics has stood
tall for almost a century of endless theoretical and experimental challenges. All in all, it
has seen a good deal of change over the years. These are the so-called interpretations of
quantum mechanics, and they come in really bizarre flavors.

Copenhagen Interpretation
This is the earliest consensus about the meaning of quantum mechanics, and was born
out of the golden age of physics with contributions from Max Planck, Niels Bohr, Werner
Heisenberg, and others in Copenhagen during the 1920s.

The Revolution Begins with Planck, Bohr, and Schrödinger


Max Planck’s postulate of energy quanta started the revolution with contributions
by Einstein on the duality and/or quantum nature of light. That is, the idea that light
behaves as both a wave and a particle.
Danish physicist Niels Bohr (1885–1962) funded the Institute of Theoretical Physics
in Copenhagen in the 1920s to work on the brand-new field of atomic research. At the
time, the atom was thought to look like a tiny solar system with a nucleus at the center
made of protons, neutrons, and electrons orbiting around. This was known as the
Rutherford model, but it had a terrible problem: electric charge! If the negatively charged
electrons orbit around the positively charged nucleus, then as opposite charges attract,
the electrons will eventually collapse into the nucleus destroying all matter in existence.
Bohr foresaw this situation and used Planck’s idea of energy quanta to theorize that
electrons jump from one orbit to another by gaining or losing energy; something that
he called a quantum jump. This idea later became known as the Bohr atom, but it had
a weird characteristic: electrons didn’t simply travel from one orbit to another. They
instantaneously disappear from one orbit and reappear in another. This did not sit well
with another colossus of physics: Erwin Schrödinger.
Austrian physicist Erwin Schrödinger (1887–1961) is the father of the famous wave
function ѱ (Cyrillic - Psi). Schrödinger was looking to describe the energy of a physical
system; he came up with what is now considered the most powerful tool in physics in the
last century (see Figure 1-5).
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Chapter 1 Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks of Reality

Figure 1-5. Schrödinger wave function ѱ is the cornerstone of quantum mechanics

Schrödinger detested Bohr’s interpretation of the atom famously stating that “If I am
to accept the quantum jump, then I am sorry I ever got into the field of atomic research.”
As a matter of fact, his wave function was an attempt to defeat Planck-Bohr-Einstein. He
wanted to throw away the nascent theory of energy quanta and return to the continuous
classical model of wave physics, even pushing the idea that all reality can be described
entirely by waves. So why is ѱ used nowadays everywhere in quantum mechanics?
Thank this to our next physicist: Max Born.
German-Jewish physicist Max Born (1882–1970) took Schrödinger’s wave function
in an entirely new direction. Born proposed a probabilistic interpretation of ѱ, that
is, the state of a particle exists in constant flux, and the only thing we can know is the
probability of the particle at a given state. Born postulated that this probability is
P = ѱ2. Needless to say, Schrödinger didn’t like this at all as he thought his wave function
was being misused. He took a swing at Born with his now famous thought experiment:
the quantum cat. But before we check if the cat in the box is dead or alive and why,
consider this witty story: In the quintessential American cartoon Futurama (by Matt
Groening – creator of The Simpsons), our hero Fry enrolls in the police academy in
New-NewYork on Earth in the year 3000. One day while on patrol, Fry chases a bandit
carrying a mysterious box in the trunk of his car. Once in custody, the bandit is revealed
to be Werner Heisenberg. Fry looks at the box with a face full of trepidation and asks:
“What’s in the box?” To which Heisenberg replies, “a cat.” “Is the cat dead or alive?” asks
Fry. Heisenberg replies: “the cat is neither dead nor alive but in a superposition of states
with a probability assigned to each.” Long story short, Heisenberg the bandit is arrested
as a major violator of the laws of physics. This was a funny tale for the physics buff.
Nevertheless, it shows the quantum cat has become folklore, and the prime example
used to explain the probabilistic nature of quantum mechanics.

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The powerful Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle (HUP) is the work of German


physicist Werner Heisenberg (1901–1976), and it is one of the foundations of quantum
theory. It describes a degree of uncertainty in the relationship between the position (x)
and the momentum (ρ) of a particle. More clearly, we can measure the exact position
or momentum of a particle but not both. The uncertainty principle arises from the
fundamental wave-matter duality of quantum objects (see Figure 1-6).

Figure 1-6. Uncertainty is a fundamental property of the wave-particle duality of


a quantum object’s complementary variables such as position and momentum

Tip A remarkable point is that at the beginning, this degree of uncertainty was
confused with the observer effect, which states that the act of measurement alters
the state of a quantum system. As a matter of fact, Heisenberg himself used the
observer effect as a physical explanation of this postulate. Since then this has
been proven untrue with a rigorous mathematical derivation of HUP provided by
physicist Earle Hesse Kennard in 1928.

The uncertainty principle has a profound effect in the world of thermodynamics:


for example, it gave rise to the notion of zero-point energy. In the Kelvin scale of
temperature, zero kelvin is called the absolute zero or the temperature at which
all molecular activity stops. This fact is forbidden by quantum mechanics and the
uncertainty principle because, if all molecular activity ceases, then the position and
momentum of a particle will be known. This is not possible; you either know the position
or the momentum of a particle but not both. Thus even at absolute zero, particles are
vibrating with a tiny amount of energy, hence the term zero-point energy.

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Chapter 1 Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks of Reality

Austrian physicist Wolfgang Pauli (1900–1958) was a dear colleague of Einstein and a
Nobel laureate for the remarkable Exclusion Principle which states that no two electrons
can have the same set of quantum numbers. These numbers describe the state of the
electron; therefore, no two electrons can be in the same quantum state at a time. In
Pauli’s time, the chemical effect of the electron was described by a set of three quantum
numbers:

• n: The principal quantum number

• l: The orbital angular momentum

• ml: The magnetic quantum number

Pauli studied experimental results from chemical tests on the stability of atoms
with even vs. odd numbers of electrons. At the time it was thought that an atom with
even numbers of electrons was chemically more stable than one with odd numbers.
Furthermore, these numbers were thought to be arranged in symmetric clusters or
closed shells around the nucleus. Pauli realized that these complex shells can be reduced
to a single electron by adding a new quantum number to the trio above. Pauli introduced
a new two-valued quantum number that will later be known as the quantum spin. Pauli’s
discovery was later generalized for all particles in the standard model:

• Fermions: Named after one of the architects of the nuclear age


(Enrico Fermi), these obey Fermi-Dirac statistics and Pauli’s
exclusion principle. Fermions have a half-integer spin and include
electrons, quarks, and leptons (electrons, neutrinos).

• Bosons: These obey Bose-Einstein statistics and do not follow Pauli’s


exclusion principle. Furthermore, they have integer value spin and
include photons, gluons, W-Z bosons, and the almighty Higgs boson
(the so-called god particle).

Pauli’s exclusion principle is important in that it helps explain the complex shell
structure of atoms and its effect on their chemical stability. It also explains the way
atoms share electrons explaining the chemical variety of elements in nature and their
combinations. For this, Pauli received a Nobel Prize in 1945 for “a contribution through
his discovery of a new law of Nature, the exclusion principle or Pauli principle,” with the
incredible honor of being nominated by Albert Einstein.

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The Genius of Paul Dirac


English physicist Paul Dirac (1902–1984) is considered one of the most significant
contributors to the development of quantum mechanics and quantum electrodynamics.
You probably heard of the term antimatter, that is, matter with the same mass as regular
matter but opposite charge. Dirac was the first to derive an equation to predict its
existence. Among many of Dirac’s contributions are

• Dirac equation: This equation is considered an incredible achievement


for quantum mechanics for two important reasons: First, it was an
attempt to account for special relativity (space-time coordinates)
within Schrödinger’s wave function (see Figure 1-7). Such a feat is
considered to be the holy grail of physics: merging relativity and
quantum mechanics into a single theory of everything. Unfortunately,
Dirac’s equation fell a little short of the feat of the millennium.
We’ll explain that later on. Second, it predicts the existence of
antimatter, unsuspected and unobserved at the time, yet confirmed
experimentally years later via experiments of particle colliders.

Figure 1-7. The Dirac equation was the first attempt to inject relativistic space-
time in the context of quantum mechanics
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Chapter 1 Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks of Reality

• Dirac’s intentions of treating the atom in a manner consistent


with relativity had a profound effect in the structure of matter. His
equation introduced two new mathematical objects which now are
fundamental in physics and quantum field theory:

• ak and β: These are 4x4 matrices closely related to Pauli’s


matrices. Remembering Pauli’s exclusion principle, it introduced
a new quantum number to explain electron shell clusters using
a 2x2 matrix that was later known as electron spin (or spinor). In
the same line, Dirac’s matrices are called bispinors.

• A four-component wave function ѱ: It has four components


because its evaluation at any given point is a bispinor. Physically,
it is interpreted as the superposition of a spin-up electron, spin-
down electron, spin-up positron, and spin-down positron. Note
that Dirac’s four-component wave function differs from Pauli’s
two-component wave function and Schrödinger’s wave function
for a single complex value.

• Hole theory: Dirac’s equation has solutions with negative energies.


To cope with this fact, Dirac introduced the hypothesis of Hole theory.
This theory postulates that the vacuum is a many body quantum state
where all the negative energy electron eigenstates are occupied. This
description came to be known as the Dirac sea. Furthermore, since
Pauli’s exclusion principle forbids two electrons from occupying the
same quantum state, additional electrons will be forced to occupy
a positive eigenstate with positive-energy electrons forbidden from
decaying into negative-energy eigenstates. Dirac reasoned that there
may be unoccupied negative-energy eigenstates in this sea which
he called holes reasoning that they behave like positively charged
particles because positive energy is required to create a particle-hole
pair from the vacuum. He initially thought that the hole may be the
proton; however, it was pointed out later that the hole should have
the same mass as the electron; thus, it could not be the proton as it
is around 1800 times as massive as the electron. This hole was later
identified as the positron which was discovered experimentally by
American physicist Carl Anderson in 1932!

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E instein vs. Bohr, Nonlocality and Spooky Action at a Distance


(EPR Paradox)
In the early part of the 19th century, an unknown battle was being fought by two titans
of physics: Niels Bohr and Albert Einstein. Einstein did not like Max Born’s probabilistic
interpretation of the wave function. He wanted to extend his relativity to the atomic
scale for a single unified theory of physics. Thus in 1935, he along with colleagues Boris
Podolsky and Nathan Rosen published the notorious EPR paradox. The goal of this paper
was to drive a coup de grâce at the heart of quantum mechanics by showing the absurdity
of one of its fundamental principles: entanglement. Entanglement is a fundamental
property of quantum systems that originates when two particles interact with each other.
For example, if one has spin-up, the other particle will instantaneously show spin-down
when measured, and thus they are said to be entangled. The bizarre part is that this
event occurs instantaneously across space, even time (nonlocality). So, for example, take
two entangled particles, leave one on Earth, and move the other to the edge of the solar
system, then perform a measurement on the spin of the first. The second particle at the
edge of the solar system will instantaneously take the opposite spin value. This seemed
absurd to Einstein who believed that the speed of light was the ultimate speed limit in
the universe. If nothing can travel faster than light, how can the first particle notify the
other about its spin instantaneously? Einstein called this spooky action at a distance.

Tip Einstein abhorred the probabilistic interpretation of quantum mechanics


because he could not bear the idea that the act of observation (measurement) is
what defines the state of a particle. He believed that states (properties) of a particle
were defined at the moment of its creation, famously writing to Bohr, “God does
not throw dice.” To which Bohr replied: “You should stop telling God what to do.”
Einstein sought to defeat this idea, and he spent the last decades of his life looking
for the holy grail of physics: a unified theory of relativity and quantum mechanics.
He was unsuccessful, and so the holy grail still eludes us: the mother of all
equations to unite the Heavens, the Earth, and the atom.

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Bell’s Theorem Settles Einstein vs. Bohr and the EPR Paradox
Einstein vs. Bohr raged over the years with no clear winner in sight. Both physicists
passed away without settling their differences. However, in 1964, Irish physicist John
Stewart Bell (1928–1990) published a theorem to settle things once and for all. Bell’s
theorem did not seek to prove who’s right: quantum mechanics or relativity. It simply
provides the means to test the principle of nonlocality in entangled particles. In simple
terms, Bell’s theorem states that the sum of probabilities for a correlated three variable
quantum system is less than or equal to 1. That is, P (A = B) − P(A = C) − P (B = C) ≤ 1.

Figure 1-8. Explanation of Bell’s theorem using photon polarization at


three angles

To illustrate Bell’s theorem, consider photon polarization at three different angles


(A, B, and C) in Figure 1-8. We seek to calculate the minimum probability that the
polarization (indicated by +/−) for two neighbors is the same. For that purpose, we use a
table with the eight possible permutations of A, B, and C plus the neighbor polarization
(+/− columns 5,6,7). We also calculate the sum and average. Note that equal neighbor
polarization is indicated by ++ or −− in which case we count a 1. The average is the sum
divided by 3. The results above show that the minimum probability must be greater than

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Chapter 1 Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks of Reality

or equal to 1/3; what Bell’s theorem is saying here is that if reality is defined by the act of
observation as quantum mechanics predicts, then the minimum probability must be less
than 1/3.
On the other hand, if relativity is correct (the state of a particle is defined at creation),
then the probability must be greater than or equal to 1/3. Now the trick is to find out
if quantum mechanics violates Bell’s inequality. If it does, then our universe is bizarre
(Bohr and Planck were correct and quantum mechanics is saved). On the other hand,
if the inequality is not violated, then Einstein’s relativity wins and quantum mechanics
is wrong.
Amazingly, in 1982, French physicist Alain Aspect (1947–present) came up with
an experiment to test if quantum mechanics violates Bell’s theorem (see top right
side of Figure 1-8). The experiment used a laser and a calcium source to create pairs
of entangled photons. These photons travel in opposite directions passing through a
polarization filter with the results accounted for at the end. The goal was to calculate the
probability that both photons either pass thru or not at different angles, count the totals,
and see if the sum of probabilities is greater than or equal to 1/3. Remember that each
photon pair is entangled thus spooky action at a distance may occur when they pass the
filter. The results were astounding. The probability sum was around 1/4; Bell’s inequality
was violated as quantum mechanics predicted. It looks like God does throw dice after all!

Tip The late physicist Steven Hawking (1942–2018) once said “Not only god
throws dice but he is a compulsive gambler.” Some predictions of quantum
mechanics are so bizarre that they escape understanding. Our brains are wired to
make sense of the world around us; however, at the quantum scale, some things
cannot be understood, only accepted.

Aspect’s experiment also took a shot at spooky action at a distance. Testing if a


photon is capable of telling its entangled partner about its polarization instantaneously
is not an easy task. To achieve this, the experiment was slightly modified to use an optical
switch that selectively shifts optical signals on or off at a rate of around 2 nanoseconds
(ns). Now it takes light traveling at 186 thousand miles/sec around 20 ns to travel
from one side of the experiment to the other (close to 14m). The goal was to run the
experiment again and see if the new results match the old ones. If they do then, the
photon was able to tell its partner about the polarization faster than light can travel from
one end of the experiment to the other, something that is forbidden by relativity which

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says that nothing in the universe can travel faster than the speed of light. The results
matched exactly in both instances: astounding and scary at the same time; imagine if
both photons were placed at the edges of the galaxy.
In an interview for the British BBC, John Bell spoke about these results: In physics,
some things escape our understanding, and we are left with no choice but to accept
them, as if reality is playing a trick on all of us. Amazing things occur at the quantum
scale, but the ultimate irony is that we cannot use them. Even though entangled particles
can send signals faster than light across huge distances, information cannot be sent in
the signal. A fact that is also predicted by quantum mechanics; what a bummer, forget
about texting your alien buddies on Alpha Centauri.

Tip It is hard to believe that Bell’s masterful theorem remained unnoticed for
years. Of course, that changed to the point that prominent physicists have called it
“The most profound discovery in science.”

 onsciousness, Mysticism, and the Collapse


C
of the Wave Function
Quantum mechanics tells us that the states of particles exist in superposition within a
probabilistic curve or wave function. Furthermore, when a measurement is performed
on the particle via a detector or measuring device, the wave function is said to collapse
to a single state. Why the collapse remains a mystery, all we know is that the collapse
signifies the transition from the quantum to the classical realm. Nevertheless, this
seems to occur whenever a quantum system interacts with the outside world. When
such bizarre physical phenomena were discovered, physicists turned to philosophy and
mysticism to make sense of what is going on. As a matter of fact, sacred Hindu texts like
The Vedas, Bhagavad Gita, Ramayana, and Mahabharata have entities popping in and
out of existence. In the sacred text of the Rigveda, the speed of light is calculated at 2202
Yojanas in a half Nimesa which in ancient units translates to around 185K miles/second.
Quantum principles have been used through the ages to validate metaphysical
concepts such as divinity, consciousness, and positive thinking among others. But
setting all this aside, why has quantum mechanics convinced leading physicists of the
intrinsic role mind-consciousness could play in reality? There is a fundamental principle

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Chapter 1 Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks of Reality

in science called causality. It is so embedded in our everyday existence that we take


it for granted: cause-and-effect, for every action there is an equal opposite reaction,
actions have consequences, etc. But what if there was scientific proof that causality can
be violated? Such proof will be incomprehensible as it would challenge the very fabric
of reality; after all, a scientist’s brain is wired to make sense of physical phenomena via
observation. Such an experiment does exist, and it is called the double-slit experiment
first performed by Thomas Young in 1801 (see Figure 1-9).

Figure 1-9. The double-slit experiment showing wave-particle duality appears to


violate causality

In the double-slit experiment in Figure 1-9, photons originating from a laser beam
travel through a metal plate with two close slits with the resulting projection recorded
on a detector screen. In the first step, an observer or measuring device is placed on the
screen resulting in the interference pattern shown on top of the figure. In this case, the
pattern indicates that light behaves like a wave. Now, if the observer is moved close to
the two slits to look at which slit the photon goes through, then the resulting pattern

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Chapter 1 Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks of Reality

changes to a cluster of two lines (bottom of the figure); here the photons behave like
particles. Why this happens is one of the great mysteries in physics. A few concrete
conclusions were drawn by experts at this point:

• The experiment illustrates the wave-particle duality of photons


intrinsic to all quantum phenomena. Note that since the days
Thomas Young first performed the experiment, the same results have
been replicated for electrons, atoms, and molecules; thus, the effect
applies to objects at the atomic-quantum scale only.

• Quantum systems are fundamentally probabilistic: There are no


exact answers in quantum mechanics, only the probability of an
object at a given state and its almighty wave function.

Then there are the really strange implications. The great American physicist Richard
Feynman once said of the double-slit experiment, “the secrets of quantum mechanics
can be gleaned from careful study of this single experiment.” There seems to be one or
two bizarre things at work here depending on how you look at them:

• Reality appears to be created or described by the act of observation. It


is our choice which defines the state in which the light is: particle or
wave. This is so strange; will things exist if the observer was removed?
Why do we need an observer in the first place? Who or what created
the observer?

• The arbitrary choice of moving the observer between the screen


and slits appears to travel back in time to decide in which state
the light should be (wave or particle). This goes beyond strange; a
more palatable explanation for this would be to think in terms of
superposition of states: the light exists in probabilistic superposition
of wave-particle states when not observed.

So the role consciousness plays in this saga remains. Is consciousness-observation


fundamental to our reality? If so, wouldn’t that challenge scientific dogma which says
that consciousness is an isolated illusion of the brain? Science allows us to gather
independent and verifiable evidence untainted by expectations and flourishes by
removing all traces of the mind from physical phenomena.

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Science seeks to build objective and reliable models of the world thriving on the
standard and verifiable experimental method. Quantum mechanics now seems to reveal
that, at the deepest level of nature, objective science is no longer possible. Could the
mind play an intrinsic role in the unfolding of the world? Max Planck once said: “It seems
like the mysteries of nature cannot be solved by ourselves as we are part of nature and thus
the mystery we are trying to solve in the first place.”

Tip Some quantum mechanics principles appear to defy understanding, and


when faced with the unbelievable, master physicists like Planck, Schrödinger, and
others have turned to philosophy to make sense of their scientific discoveries.

Many Worlds Interpretation


In the many worlds interpretation (MWI) of quantum mechanics, the wave function
is universal. It exists in all realities, and it does not collapse in our universe when we
observe phenomena. The multiverse is much weirder than we ever imagined.
In the Copenhagen interpretation, the collapse of the wave function signals the
transition between the quantum and classical realms. However, there is another way to
interpret this, which is in a set of infinite realities where all outcomes are possible.
When Erwin Schrödinger came up with his quantum cat thought experiment to
challenge the principle of superposition that he called absurd, he thought that if we open
the box and find out the cat is alive is because we are part of an entire quantum timeline
in which the poisoning of the cat never occurred. Nonetheless, there is an equally valid
timeline in which the cat died with another version of us experiencing it. Not only that,
but the number of timelines is infinite and occurs simultaneously. Sounds outrageous,
but it is a very serious interpretation of the mathematics.

Tip The many worlds interpretation was proposed by American physicist Hugh


Everett (1930–1982) in his 1957 PhD thesis “Theory of the Universal Wave
Function.”

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In the context of the double-slit experiment, the Copenhagen interpretation says


that, at the moment of observation, all superimposed photon trajectories (histories)
merge (collapse) into a single timeline of the observer’s reality. The many worlds
interpretation on the other hand says that this merge never happens, all possible
histories continue, and we find ourselves in one of those timelines (see Figure 1-10).
Note that all histories are equally likely. However, some are similar to each other, and we
tend to land in the most common history.

Figure 1-10. In MWI all possible photon trajectories continue in their own
timelines

Tip Everett’s idea was not taken seriously when first proposed, probably because
he was a graduate student at the time.

All in all, MWI may be the purest interpretation of quantum mechanics as its maths
does not require the collapse of the wave function. Nevertheless, the idea of realities
branching out of each other at every instance induces an existential crisis that could
justify its unpopularity. Imagine infinite versions of yourself out there going through
every possible life path. It just sounds too bizarre. All in all, the most important specifics
about MWI are

• Many worlds is a deterministic interpretation: It eliminates the


probabilities intrinsic to the wave function by postulating that
any given timeline is a predictable chain of cause and effect. No
superposition of states.

22
Chapter 1 Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks of Reality

• Even though it has gained popularity in recent years, there is no


evidence of its existence. It is supported by the mathematics of
quantum mechanics but still remains an interpretation.

• It has not provided predictions to distinguish itself from other


interpretations, nor is it complete in its explanation. It fails to explain
what happens when neighboring histories interact or why the wave
function translates to probabilities.

• Aside from the existential crisis it incites, it presents another deep


philosophical unease: What happens to free will? If we live in a
deterministic universe, then we are making all possible decisions at
any given time; therefore, we have no free will. A valid thesis yet a
dreadful view of existence.

Supplementary Interpretations
When it comes to interpretations of quantum mechanics, Copenhagen and many worlds
are the most popular. Yet there are many more, which fall in two big categories: collapse
vs. no-collapse of the wave function, further classified by determinism, nonlocality
(spooky action at a distance), and observer presence. The following list describes some
of them according to the collapse of the wave function.

Conscious Observer
Also known as the von Neumann-Wigner interpretation, proposed by Hungarian
mathematician John von Neumann (1903–1957) with contributions by Hungarian
physicist Eugene Wigner (1902–1995). It dwells in the realm of philosophy by
hypothesizing that the wave function is universal and that it is the consciousness of the
experimenter which collapses it. There is not much meat in the bones of this theory;
nevertheless, over the years it has branched into ideas such as

• Subjective reduction: As consciousness collapses the wave function,


there is a point of intersection between quantum mechanics and
mind-body. Researchers in this field are hard at work on finding a
correlation between conscious and physical events.

23
Chapter 1 Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks of Reality

• Participatory anthropic principle: Championed by legendary


American physicist John Archibald Wheeler (1911–2008). It says that
consciousness plays a role in bringing the universe into existence. A
bizarre idea, if things can get any weirder; all in all, consider this: if
consciousness may bring reality into existence, then what happened
before humans evolved to try to uncover it? Could a dinosaur’s
consciousness do the trick? Furthermore, if consciousness is an
intrinsic property of life, what happened before life evolved on Earth?
Did reality exist at the dawn of the solar system or after the big bang?

Quantum Information
A truly fascinating theory, this is an attempt to eliminate the indeterminism (chance)
in the collapse of the wave function by taking cues from standard quantum physics
which says that information is recorded irreversibly. In this context, information means
a quantity that can be understood mathematically and physically, and irreversible
means that quantum states cannot roll back to previous ones due to the second law of
thermodynamics: entropy. Entropy states that the disorder (entropy) of the universe
can only increase. Perhaps, this could be better understood from the perspective of
the so-called arrow of time. That is, because time can only increase, and because of
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle where quantum states are intrinsically random,
recorded information is irreversible due to the fundamental uncertainty of quantum
mechanics. All in all, the quantum information interpretation is based on three
principles:
• The wave function evolves deterministically, going through
all possibilities. A particle will randomly choose one of those
possibilities to become real.

• The conscious observer is allowed; however, it cannot gain


knowledge until information has been recorded irreversibly in the
universe. Once recorded, the information becomes knowledge in the
observer’s mind.
• The measuring apparatus is quantum not classical, but it can
be statistically determined and capable of recording irreversible
information. So is the human mind that gains knowledge.

24
Chapter 1 Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks of Reality

Tip In this interpretation, there is only one world: the quantum world, and the
quantum to classical transition. Furthermore, the determinism of classical laws of
motion and causality are fundamentally statistical. Everything is probabilistic, but
near certainty.

The following theories eradicate the notion of the wave function collapse.

Pilot Wave Theory


Also known as de Broglie-Bohm theory named after pioneer physicists Louis de Broglie
(1892–1987) and David Bohm (1917–1992). It accommodates the wave function with
the notion of configurations (the position of all particles in a quantum system). This
theory is deterministic (no randomness is allowed); this implies that configurations exist
even when systems are not observed (no superposition of states). It is also nonlocal and
accepts spooky (instantaneous) action at a distance. Most notable is the presence of a
guiding equation that governs the evolution of the configurations over time. In particular,
this theory consists of two components:

• A configuration for the entire universe. These are the positions of all
particles in our universe q(t) ∈ Q where Q is the configuration space.

• A pilot wave ѱ (q, t) ∈ C. This is a two-component wave function that


governs the evolution of the configuration over time (t).

So, at every moment there exists not only a wave function (pilot wave), but also
a well-defined configuration of the whole universe. This effectively gets rid of the
indeterminism of the Copenhagen interpretation and the superposition of states (no
quantum cat is allowed). Thus, what we perceive as reality is made by the identification
of the configuration of our brain with some part of the configuration of the whole
universe.

• Double-slit: In the context of the double-slit experiment, pilot wave


says that each photon has a well-defined trajectory that passes
exactly through one of the slits. This is in contrast to Copenhagen
which states that the photons are not localized in space until detected
(observed). Furthermore, the final position of the particle on the
detector screen and the slit through which it passes is determined

25
Chapter 1 Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks of Reality

by the initial position of the particle; with the crucial assumption


that the initial position is not knowable or controllable by the
experimenter, so there is an appearance of randomness in the pattern
of detection. According to Bohm, the wave function interferes with
itself and guides the particles through the quantum potential in such
a way that the particles avoid the regions in which the interference is
destructive and are attracted to the regions in which the interference
is constructive resulting in the pattern obtained experimentally.

• Relativity: Pilot wave conflicts with special relativity in the sense that
it is nonlocal (accepts instantaneous action at a distance). Over the
years, several extensions have been added in an attempt to overcome
this conflict. Bohm himself in 1953 presented an extension to the
theory using absolute time (where time is the same everywhere –
something that is a big no in special relativity; where time is highly
malleable and may be different relative to the position of the
observer).

• Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle: Copenhagen tells us that we


cannot measure two correlated variables (position and momentum)
in a quantum system at the same time due to the intrinsic uncertainty
of quantum mechanics. In pilot wave theory, however, we can
measure the position and momentum of a particle at the same time.
Each particle has a well-defined trajectory, as well as a wave function.
Observers have limited knowledge as to what this trajectory is (and
thus the position and momentum). It is the lack of knowledge of the
particle’s trajectory that accounts for the uncertainty.

• Entanglement and Bell’s theorem: Pilot wave theory makes the


same empirically correct predictions for the Bell test experiments as
ordinary quantum mechanics. This is because of the fundamental
nonlocality of this theory. As stated in the previous section (see Bell’s
theorem), in 1982 Alain Aspect showed experimentally that Bell’s
inequality is violated; furthermore, he showed the instantaneous
(faster than light) action between the two entangled photons as
predicted. Pilot wave theory describes the physics of Aspect’s
experiment by setting up a wave equation for both particles with

26
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
“What shall I do?” thought the boy. “I know, I’ll turn into a great
bundle of straw, and crowd him out of the place.” You see, he was
such a selfish boy he never even thought about the lady who had
allowed him to fly into the room.
The lady was horrified to see the door filled up with straw; but, lo!
the little old man at once turned himself into a donkey, and began to
eat the straw. At every mouthful he of course ate what was really a
piece of the boy, and the boy knew he must soon die at that rate.
Hurriedly the boy changed himself into a mouse, but, alas! there was
no mouse-hole for him to run and hide in, and before he could reach
the door, the cat that belonged to the lady saw him, pounced upon
him, and ate him up.
So that was the end of the boy who tried to get rich by stealing
and lying. You might think that the £1,100 the old man had given
the father made him a rich man for life. Not so, the neighbours and
he soon spent it in gambling and drink, and in a short time he was
as poor as he had been before his son began practising his magic
tricks.

FINIS
THE MAGIC GUN
“BARAK TELLING THE STORY OF THE MAGIC GUN.”
The Magic Gun.

t was September, the wattle blossom month, and many


people were in and around beautiful Healesville, where
the wattle is to be seen at its best. Old King Barak, the
last King of the Yarra tribe, sat outside his hut at
Coranderrk, surrounded by white people.
“You all too greedy,” he grumbled, “you come to see black man,
black man make native fire, black man throw boomerang, black man
throw spear; white man give him black brother pennies, pah, white
man greedy, no give black man baccy, only pennies.” A few of the
white people gave the dirty old chief a silver coin, then they went off
to another hut to buy native baskets, and to see the funny black
babies. One small boy stayed behind.
“I am not greedy, Barak; see, I have brought you a shilling.”
Barak greedily snatched the shilling.
“Last time,” said the boy, “you told me the story of the Yarra Yarra,
and you promised to tell me the story of the Magic Gun to-day if I
brought you another shilling. Do be quick and tell me, because the
others will want to go back to the township as soon as they have
bought some baskets and things.”
Charmed by the gift of the shilling, the old man told the small
white boy the story of the Magic Gun in quavering voice, sometimes
scarcely to be heard, for he was very frail; indeed, though little Tom
Jones did not know it, this was the last time he, or any one else, was
to hear the story of the Magic Gun from poor old King Barak of
Coranderrk Station.
Tom drew a deep breath as the old man finished his story.
“Let me look at the gun, Barak,” he pleaded.
The old black took him into his hut, and proudly showed him an
old-fashioned gun.
“And that is the gun that Buckly, the white man who was lost and
lived among the blacks, really used?”
“Course it is, didn’t I tell you,” said King Barak.
“And he really used nails instead of bullets?”
“Course he did with this gun, it’s a Magic Gun,” answered the old
man.
“And he put his knife into its——”
“Tom, Tom, we are going, come along,” called the voice of
authority, so Tom could not finish his questioning, but had to drive
away with the others.
That night, when the others were fast asleep in bed, Tom dressed
himself very quietly—there was no need to get a candle, for there
was a bright moon by whose light he could see quite well. He
hurried, for he meant to go to Coranderrk Station, two miles away,
sneak Barak’s Magic Gun, and just see for himself what its powers
were like.
Fortune favoured Tom. Barak had somehow or other got some
beer, although no one was allowed to sell beer to black men. Barak
was in a drunken sleep and had not locked his door. Tom tiptoed in,
took the Magic Gun from its place on the wall, and went out on his
search for game. Tom walked steadily on until he was some miles
from home. By this time the sun was rising, the whole country was
bathed in a golden and purple light, but Tom had no thoughts for
beauty or scenery. The Magic Gun filled his thoughts. He walked
until, from very weariness, he sat down to rest against a log; not a
thing had he seen upon which to try the Magic Gun, which had to be
primed with nails instead of powder.
He enjoyed the bread and butter he had brought with him, and
after he had finished it he felt rather sleepy—indeed, he closed his
eyes for a moment—only for a moment, however, for just as he was
pinching himself to keep awake, he saw a big old man kangaroo
standing erect, looking at him, not many feet away. Stealthily Tom
took his Magic Gun from the ground, raised himself and prepared to
fire. With a bound the kangaroo was off, Tom following at a hot
pace.
“Sure luck with the Magic Gun,” said Tom to himself, for though
the kangaroo went like the wind, Tom kept up with it. On and on
they went, for miles and miles it seemed to Tom, until at last the
kangaroo seemed to be winded, for he suddenly stopped and backed
up against a tree facing Tom. With a shaky hand Tom put in six
nails, raised the gun to his shoulder and fired.
Bang went the gun; the air was so full of smoke that for some
minutes nothing could be seen for it, but as it cleared away Tom
shouted for joy, for the old man kangaroo was nailed to the tree as
securely as if he had been held by several pairs of hands, while the
nails were driven in.
“Gour-gour-gah-gah-ah-ah-ah-ah-ah-ah-ah-ah!”
A shout of laughter came from the tree-top. Tom, looking up, saw
an old kookooburra (or laughing jackass) with head bent back,
laughing and chuckling; soon he was joined by two young birds. The
old one flew down, looked first at the dead kangaroo, then at Tom,
after which he flew back to the branch on which he had been sitting
and indulged in another burst of laughter; in this he was joined by
the two young birds.
It seemed to Tom to be a personal insult. They must be laughing
at him, because he knew no better than to shoot a kangaroo. He
remembered now, the kangaroo was always hunted with dogs, never
shot.
“Cheeky things,” said Tom, “I’ll teach them a lesson. They know I
dare not shoot a kookooburra, so they think they can laugh at me as
much as they like. I know what I’ll do, with this Magic Gun I can
split the branch on which they are standing, then they won’t laugh
so loud and long. One nail will be enough to do it.”
No sooner thought of than it was done. Bang went the gun once
more, and before those rude kookooburras could fly away, the
branch had opened, in slipped their little toes, and there they were
caught nicely in a trap.
“Gour-gour-gah-gah-ah-ah-ah-ah-ah-ah!” laughed the three
trapped birds, but this time they were laughing at their own silliness
in being caught so easily.
“They shall just stay there until I have been down the river and
back again; but to go down the river I must have something to sail
or row in. King Barak said that a knife was the thing to use instead
of powder for that work. Now for making a canoe with the Magic
Gun,” said Tom, at the same time placing an open penknife in the
gun. Once more he raised it to his shoulder, but this time he fired at
a great gum tree. The knife shot forth, struck the tree, and, as if
guided by an invisible hand, cut the bark to the exact size and shape
of a canoe. Tom gave a strong tug and pulled the bark clean away
from the tree. There it lay, a very strong canoe, and in a short time
Tom had dragged it across to the river, launched it, sprang in, and
using the gun as a paddle, sailed gaily down the river.
It was so jolly! Of course it would have been better fun if some
one had been with him, but then, none of the others really believed
in the power of the Magic Gun, and King Barak said that if an
unbeliever were present when he tried to use it, nothing could come
of it.
Down the river went the canoe, nearing the dreadful place where
the undercurrents met, the undercurrents which no one would face,
not even the blacks, except in a magic canoe. Tom could now see
the bridge which was just the other side of the dreaded part, where
anything that was thrown in got sucked down. As he looked his
blood froze in his veins, and his heart seemed to stop beating with
fear of what he saw. From under the bridge came an awful
shapeless mass, the only distinct part about it being a head with
glaring eyes and big horns.
“The Bunyip,” wailed Tom, trying now to paddle to the shore and
so escape the horrid thing coming towards him. Suddenly, a happy
thought struck him. Why, of course, the Magic Gun could kill even a
“Bunyip.”
With trembling hands he placed his knife in the muzzle of the gun,
fired, and saw the knife describe a circle over the Bunyip’s head and
fall into the water. Hurriedly he took some nails from his pocket and
charged the gun with them, fired, and was horrified to see that
when the nails struck the Bunyip, fire and smoke came from every
hole made by them. Nearer and nearer came the horrid flame-
belching creature until it touched the boat, and at the same instant
Tom sprang overboard, swam to the shore, and fled, followed by the
awful Bunyip.
Faster and faster went Tom, until at last he dropped to the ground
because his legs refused to carry him any further. Then he felt the
creature catch hold of him, and he sprang up wildly to fight it. But
instead of the awful Bunyip, he saw his father, who gazed at his
small son in surprise, and wanted to know why he had gone off
alone so early in the morning, why he had borrowed Barak’s silly old
gun, and what he meant by sleeping in the sun at that time of day.
Tom denied that he had been asleep. He looked at the Magic Gun.
It was certainly rusty, as if it had been in the water, and he
determined to get his father to go with him up the banks of the
Yarra until they should come to the tree where he knew they would
find the kangaroo skin nailed with the nails from the Magic Gun, and
the three kookooburras caught in the split branch of the same tree;
then he would be compelled to believe in its power.
THE UNDERGROUND LAKE
“EATING THE BERRIES.”
The Underground Lake.

om Jones went to stay with his uncle at Mount Gambier


during the Christmas holidays, and, as he said when he
wrote to his father, “he was enjoying every minute of his
visit to the land of lakes.”
The people who lived in and around the Mount were arguing
about the Blue Lake. Was it really part of a great underground river,
or was it just the crater of a worn-out volcano that had got filled up
with water? They had argued about this for years, and Tom liked to
listen to both sides, although he knew that all the arguing that
would ever be done could never make him believe anything but the
underground river belief.
There was the beautiful blue water, shut in by high banks which
made it look like a big basin, half full of blue water. The water was
always fresh and sweet, no bottom could be found in the middle of
the Lake, there was always a strong current too, oh, of course it was
one of the wonderful underground rivers!
One day Tom went down to see the man in charge of the pumping
station, with whom he was a great chum. They had been friends
ever since Tom, soon after he came to the Mount, had helped to
clean the boat that was wanted in a hurry to take a visitor across the
Lake. There was only one boat kept, and it had to be as clean as
man could make it before it could go on the Blue Lake, as the people
of the town used the water for drinking.
Tom went very often to the Blue Lake. He meant to be an explorer
when he grew up, and he was trying to fit himself for that work
because he believed that whatever you meant to be as a man you
should train yourself for while still a boy. On this special day (a day
Tom never forgot because of what happened later through
something he heard then at the pumping station) he had been
exploring the country as usual, and on his way home called in to see
his friend, the man-in-charge. There were several men talking to his
friend, and just as Tom drew near them he heard an old man say—
“Well, I tell you what I know, not what I’ve heard; the Blue Lake is
an underground river, and when you hear my reason for saying that,
you’ll agree with me. Let me see, it was about twenty years ago,
when, instead of being a grey-headed old fellow as I am now, I was
a black-headed young fellow, and I had the best pair of grey horses
in this district. I didn’t believe in the underground river theory then,
because I didn’t know then what I did a little while after. One day I
was driving my pair of greys along the edge of the Blue Lake, when
one of them slipped down the bank, fell into the water and sank. I
soon got some men to help me drag the Lake, but no horse could
we find; so I sadly set off for home with my one grey horse. I hadn’t
got very far along the road towards McDonald’s Bay when a friend of
mine met me, leading my lost grey horse. ‘This is yours, is it not?’
said my friend. It was mine, I knew it by the brand on him. Now,
where do you think my friend found him? Why, in the water, on the
other side of the hill that separates the Blue Lake from McDonald
Bay. So I knew that if my horse got underground in that way from
Blue Lake to McDonald Bay, there must be a river flowing under
there.”
When the old man finished telling his story, he went away
chuckling to himself, and every one laughed at his joke, every one,
that is, but Tom, who went towards his uncle’s house slowly,
thinking, thinking, thinking about the underground river.
When Tom reached home tea had long been over, and to explain
why he was so late he told them the story of the grey horse as it
had been told by the old grey-headed man. Tom’s uncle said he also
thought the Blue Lake was part of an underground river, and Tom
then determined to explore and find the hidden openings where the
river entered and went out of the big basin.
Next morning Tom set to work at once to explore the Blue Lake.
First he made a map of that part of the country. Then he drew a
straight line from McDonald Bay to the Lake, then marked it straight
across to the opposite end of the Lake. This done, he made a
sounding line of a long rope with heavy lead tied at the end, and
leaning over the edge of the bank he tried banging his line against
the place where he hoped the opening might be. Many times he
struck with his leaded line, but each time it hit against the bank.
Tom sighed sadly, thinking that if only he lived in England instead of
in Australia, there would come a little fairy, most likely the Queen of
the Fairies herself, and she would take him down into the water and
show him the hidden openings and other wonders. But Australia was
a new country, and very few people here believed there were fairies
anywhere.
Just as Tom had sadly given up all hope of fairy aid, he felt the
line pulled gently, oh so gently at first, then harder and harder, until
at last he could scarcely hold it in his hands.
“I won’t give up,” thought Tom, “the worst that can happen if I fall
in is a wetting. I can easily swim out.”
He held on and was gradually drawn down beneath the water;
deeper and deeper he went, until at last he was jerked on one side,
and found himself on the bank of a fiercely rushing torrent.
Tom’s first thought was one of triumph. “I knew it was an
underground river,” he cried aloud. He jumped around as if a pistol
shot had been fired, when a voice near by said, “The least you might
do is to thank me for bringing you here.” There stood a tiny gnome
dressed all in green. “I pulled the leaded line that you threw down
into the water, and I must say that for a boy who has the sense to
try and find the opening of the river, you know very little about your
country. Australia a new country indeed? It was thousands of years
old before Britain was in existence. Oh, I know what I’m talking
about, for I have lived underground for a good many hundred
years.”
Tom was so thoroughly surprised that he stood quite still, and
stared at the little gnome, who continued: “No fairies either? Oh
indeed, I could tell a different story. No one to help the poor little
Australians? The helpers are here right enough, but most little
Australians not only don’t want the help of the gnomes and fairies,
but don’t believe there are such beings anywhere. Why, even the
one I have just helped has not a word of thanks for what I have
done for him.”
“Oh, I do thank you, how much I can’t say; I wanted to prove that
the Blue Lake is a river, yes, I wanted to prove that more than
anything else in the world, and I am so glad you have let me come
to see it. Please may I explore some more of the river?”
Not only did the kind gnome allow Tom to see the wonders
underground, but he offered to act as guide. As soon as Tom had
eaten a bunch of wild cherries that the gnome gave him, he was not
only dry and comfortable, but had become as small as the gnome,
and could understand the talk of bird, beast and fish.
Tom was surprised at the great change, and told the gnome he
had often enough eaten wild cherries before, and nothing strange
had taken place; but the gnome explained that only cherries picked
by a gnome, and by him given to a human being, had the power to
so change the one who ate them.
“Now,” said the gnome, “you shall see the source of this
underground river. It would take rather long to get there by walking,
so we shall go on my airship.”
He gave a strange cry, and at once was answered by a bird which
was something like an albatross. It flew down by the gnome.
“Come,” said the little fellow, at the same time jumping on the
back of the big bird. Tom took his place next to his guide, and at the
gnome’s bidding the bird rose and flew upstream. It was a delightful
sensation of rushing, swooping, then rising again, making Tom just a
little frightened at first; but the bird had such a broad back, with
such a comfortable hollow place for Tom to nestle into, that he soon
enjoyed his sail through the air.
“Don’t bother to look at the places we pass, just get used to this
way of travel, and on our return journey I shall point out the things
of interest.”
Tom obeyed, for he did not care to look down from his lofty perch;
and by the time they reached the source of the river he had become
quite used to the rapid rush and could look about fearlessly. Now the
river came bubbling out of the hills far away in the north of a South
Australian spring which flowed along for a few miles and then
seemed to trickle back into the earth; but instead of doing that it
trickled down into a cave, a big wonderful cave, lighted up by
thousands of strange white glistening things, some hanging from the
roof, others standing upright on the floor.
“Oh,” cried Tom, clapping his hands joyously, “it’s the fairies’
palace, I know.” The gnome told him it was only one of many, for
Australia was just honeycombed with them. A few had been found
by the human beings, for instance, the Narracoorte Caves and the
Buchan Caves, both of which were really far too near the surface of
the earth for safety, that is, for the safety of the fairies.
“There are no human beings living near this cave for miles and
miles,” said Tom’s guide; “indeed, we feel sure some of our caves
will never be found, and this is one of them.”
“Why are no fairies here now?” began Tom; but his question
ended in a shriek, for first he felt some invisible hands pull his hair
on one side, then on the other, while some one else tickled his sides
and tweaked his ears and nose. All done so gently, that, after the
first shriek, Tom felt ashamed of his fear, especially as he saw the
gnome grinning at him in a friendly way. Tom entered into the joke
too. “I know who you are, you need not hide; please, oh please let
me see you.”
“Shut your eyes,” said a sweet voice.
Tom obeyed. He felt something pass swiftly near his face, but he
remained quite still with eyes closed. “Open,” cried the same voice.
He had not to be told twice, and the sight that met his eyes kept
him as still and silent as when he had been surprised at seeing the
gnome. The place seemed to be just full of fairies, all dressed in
green and gold, some sitting on the beautiful standing crystal, others
floating in the air, others peeping from behind the hanging crystals,
while in front of Tom stood the Queen surrounded by her fairies in
waiting. He knew she was the Queen by the crown on her head, and
the sceptre in her hand.
“Do homage,” whispered the gnome; so down on one knee went
Tom and kissed the tiny hand held out by Her Majesty.
“Oh, you are beautiful, beautiful,” said Tom. “You are as beautiful
as the golden wattle blossom on the green trees.” What a laugh rang
through the crystal cave! A laugh like the tinkling of hundreds of tiny
golden bells.
“Little boy, if you had the magic sight with which to look at the
wattle trees, you would see that often when people think they are
looking at wattle blossom they are really looking at the Fairies of the
Sunny South.”
“Why does the wattle blossom die so soon?” said the Queen.
“Indeed,” said Tom, “I have often wondered why it lasts so short a
time when once it is picked.”
“Because the fairies, who play amongst it, fly away from every
branch the humans break off from the trees.”
“I shan’t pick any more,” said Tom; “but, oh, I do hope I shall
have the magic sight and be able to see you among the blossom
next wattle time.”
“Unless we give you the power, you will not be able to see us. We
were here when you came into the cave, and we meant to let you
see us because we know about the Magic Gun. We know too that
you believe in and love fairies.”
“Now you shall join in a game with my subjects. After that we
must say good-bye, for I and my fairies have much work to do.”
Tom enjoyed the fairy game very much. The fairy by a wave of her
sceptre, gave him the power to float through the air, and the game
was one of hide and seek among the crystals. All too soon for Tom,
the fairies, in obedience to a word from Her Majesty, ceased their
play, and stood before her. She gave her commands, they said good-
bye to Tom, and, in a moment he and the gnome were alone once
more.
“Don’t look so sad,” said the gnome, “for I have good news for
you. Just listen to this. The fairy Queen was so pleased with you to-
day, that she has consented to a plan of mine for you to see just
where the water enters and leaves the place known as the Blue
Lake. When we get down to the place where I pulled you into the
water, I have permission to turn you into a fish. You may stay in the
Blue Lake for a whole day, and, as soon as you swim through the
place where the river flows into the sea, you will turn into a boy
again, and just swim to land.”
Tom thanked the gnome, you may be sure, and was eager to be
off at once. So getting on to the big bird’s back again, they flew
quickly away on the return journey. This time Tom had no fear. He
looked down at the water below, and at the banks of the river
without the least tremble; but he could not properly enjoy the
wonderful things he saw because he was thinking all the time of the
treat in store for him.
Arrived at the entrance to the lake, Tom was given to eat nothing
more than a blade of grass picked from the bank of the river. He felt
a shudder pass through him, and it seemed as if the water called
and beckoned to him—he could not keep back.
“Good-bye, kind little gnome, I must jump into the water. Thank
you! Thank you! Thank you!”
He found himself floating through the water murmuring “Thank
you, thank you,” but already he was some distance across the Lake.
What fun it was floating about without the least effort! He swam
across to the landing stage where the caretaker keeps the very boat
Tom helped, one day, to clean. He poked his nose out to look at
things.
“A fish! a fish! I’m positive I saw a fish,” exclaimed a man who was
standing on the steps talking to the caretaker.
“I’m positive you did not see a fish, sir,” answered the other. “I
have lived here long enough, and at first I fished often enough, but I
never saw a fish or felt a bite; nothing lives in this water.”
Tom poked up his nose again, this time to see who was talking to
the man-in-charge, for the voice of the man seemed familiar to him.
The man was his uncle. It was such a surprise to see his uncle there,
that Tom gave a jump in the water. Both men were looking at the
spot, and this time it was the man-in-charge who cried, “A fish! a
fish! I’m positive I saw a fish.” Then he darted away to a place from
which he drew forth a rod, baited it, jumped into his boat, and with
Tom’s uncle rowed to a spot where Tom had been just a few minutes
before.
“Now for some fun,” thought Tom. “I’ll nibble the line some
distance above the hook, and they will get wild after a time.” And
they did get wild when time after time the line was dragged down,
and yet the bait was never touched. Tom at last grew quite careless,
he nibbled nearer and nearer the hook, and at last was caught. How
it happened he did not know, but he was firmly hooked; it hurt his
lip when he tried to back away, so he at last allowed the man to pull
him up into the boat. “If there is one fish there must be more,” cried
his uncle; “unhook him and bait again.”
It hurt Tom worse still when the hook was dragged out of his lip,
but what his uncle said hurt the worst: it was, “I’ll put the poor thing
out of its misery, give me your pocket knife.” He held Tom, the fish,
in his left hand, took the knife, and was just going to stab when Tom
cried out in agony, “Uncle, uncle, don’t you know me.”
Both men stopped what they were doing to look at the fish! “It
spoke,” said Tom’s uncle. In his surprise he did not hold the poor fish
so tightly. Tom gave a flap, a jump, and as he reached the water, he
cried aloud, “Hurrah! hurrah!”
“No more fishing here for me,” said Tom’s uncle. “Nor for me,” said
the man-in-charge, and they rowed quickly to land.
Tom lost no time in getting away, right away, from the place
where he had so nearly met his death.
“I won’t be inquisitive again as long as I’m a fish,” he said, and
swam straight for the place he had marked as the part where the
river ran out from the Lake to join the sea. Ugh! as he floated
through the big opening into the underground river, he seemed to be
able to feel the darkness, because it was so black, but after a little
while his eyes got used to it, and presently he saw on either side of
the river many beautiful crystals which glowed softly. He knew he
was now passing through another cave, and he wondered if any
fairies were watching him. Then the river wound round again, and,
lo! there was still another cave shining brightly on all sides, for its
wall roof and floor were almost covered with fungi.
“THE FISH GAVE A FLAP, A JUMP, AND REACHED THE WATER.”

“Some of us are here,” cried a sweet voice, “and you shall have
just a glimpse of us at our work.” At the same instant he saw fairies
in all directions, all hard at work, making the fungi grow brighter and
brighter.
“Tell me what you are doing,” said Tom. “How do you make it all
glow like that?”
“The fairies’ secret, little man. Good-bye! Good-bye.”
“Good-bye,” answered Tom. “Thank you for the glimpse.”
He had scarcely finished speaking when he felt himself being
borne along at an awful pace; the water was rushing to meet the
sea. They met, and Tom felt himself hurled down ever so far below
the surface of the water, then tossed up again. He had gone down
as a fish, but he came up as a boy, and his wet clothes kept him
from swimming very easily. Just as he thought he would not have
strength to swim much further, he heard a voice say—“There is a
boy sinking, pull over and take him in the boat.”
In a few minutes he was safe among a boatload of picnickers who
had driven from the Mount to Dingley Dell, the beautiful place where
Adam Lindsay Gordon lived for many years.
“Why, it is young Tom Jones,” cried one of the rowers. “Did you
walk all the way here from your uncle’s place in the Mount? It is a
good nineteen miles.”
“No,” answered truthful Tom. “I swam from the Blue Lake.”
But no one would listen to his tale of adventures. They hurried
him to “Adam Lindsay Gordon’s” Cottage, wrapped him in shawls,
and soon drove away with him to a doctor, because, they said, he
was raving. In vain Tom pointed to a nasty jagged cut in his lip, and
told them he had been a fish for a time. They would not listen, and
even to this day, if he begins to tell his wondrous adventures, they
smile so broadly that Tom gives up the attempt to make them know
the truth about the river theory.
Tom knows what he knows, however, and he is certain he has not
seen the last of the fairies, but that in the wattle blossom season
they will allow him to see them among the golden blossoms on the
river banks.
THE ORIGIN OF THE YARRA YARRA
(Ever-flowing)
“BARAK SNATCHED THE HONEYCOMB AWAY, AND PUT IT IN HIS
MOUTH.”
The Origin of the Yarra Yarra
(Ever-flowing)

ong years ago, before the white men came to the Sunny
South, there lived a little black boy with his mother and
father near the happy hunting grounds among the Baw
Baw Mountains. Barak was the little boy’s name.
Barak was all very much of everything about him. He was very fat
and shiny, his eyes were very black, his hair very frizzy, his nose very
flat, and his lips very thick, his laugh very jolly, and his heart very
kind.
One day his mother said to him, “Barak, your mother is sad;
honey is the only medicine that will make her happy. Go, find the
wild honey and bring some in the honeycomb.”
Barak being very kind, went to look for honey for his mother. A
long, long way he went before he found a honey tree, and when he
found one he sat down under it and cried, for a big, big bear was
licking his paws after having eaten all the honey.
“Boo hoo! Boo hoo!” cried Barak. “Mother is sad because she has
no honey, and you have eaten it all up.”
“Good little fat boy,” said the bear, “there is another honey tree
behind this one. I am very thirsty, and the water is a long way from
here; bring me some water, and I will climb the tree and give you
honey.”
Barak dried his tears and smiled.
“Good, big bear, bring me the honey first, then I will get the water
for you.”
Now the bear was very thirsty indeed after having eaten so much
sweet honey, and the sun was shining so fiercely that he really felt
too hot and tired to walk to the water, while he could easily climb
the honey tree. Barak stood under the tree, watching the bear, who
quickly brought down a small piece of honeycomb.
“Give it to me to take to my mother,” said Barak.
“When I have drunk the water, you may have the honeycomb,”
said the bear, watching the golden honey drop slowly from the
comb. But even while he was speaking, Barak snatched the
honeycomb away, and when the bear tried to get it back again, the
little boy put it in his mouth, and the honey dropped down his
throat.
“Where is the water you promised me?” growled the bear.
“I promised to get you some water if you gave me some honey,
but you would not give me the honey.”
“You have eaten the honey,” cried the big bear.
“But you did not give it me, big bear; I took it.”
Then the big bear took up stones to kill the fat little black boy,
who ran quickly behind a tree, and there was such a chasing around
and around that tree that at last Barak got so tired he thought he
must fall to the ground, but he kept on running, and he cried aloud
to the Great Spirit to help him.
Now the Great Spirit knew that Barak had wanted the honey for
his mother, and that he had only eaten it so that the big bear should
not get it again. So when he heard the little boy cry to him for help
when the big bear’s breath was hot on him as he ran, the kind Great
Spirit was sorry for the little boy who had only been foolish.
“I will send a Shining One to help him,” he said.
How glad Barak was when a Shining One suddenly caught him up
in his arms and ran away with him. It was a hot, hot day; but Barak
could hear, first, the gurgle of a stream, then the sound of deep
running water, and as he peeped over the shoulder of the Shining
One to see if the bear were very near, he saw a strange sight, for as
the Shining One ran, he dragged his right foot along the ground, and
the earth opened and water flowed in the opening.
In and out among the trees, often doubling back, then on again,
ran the Shining One, with the bear following fast. All day long they
went, until the sun went down like a ball of fire and the moon rose
looking very much like the fiery sun, showing that the next day
would be another scorcher.
In the moonlight the big bear looked very terrible.
“He is coming nearer!” cried Barak. “Oh, don’t let him catch me!”
“Don’t be afraid,” said the Shining One, in a quiet voice that made
Barak feel happy even in his fear. “Tell me what you can see
following the bear?”
“Yarra Yarra it is,” said the boy joyfully; “a deep swift river flows in
the track you make with your foot as you pass along.”
“And look in front of you now, what do you see there?”
“The sea, the beautiful sea,” said Barak.
“We will go on the sea to the Great Spirit who sent me when you
called to Him for help; but the bear, who only thinks of revenge, will
be caught between the river and the deep blue sea.”
And so it happened.
Barak was taken in the Shining One’s arms right up to the Great
Spirit who had heard and answered his cry for help, and the bear,
who only wanted revenge, was drowned.
Barak’s mother waited long for the honey. When she found no
dear little black son coming back to her, she followed his tracks until
she came to the tree from which the chase had begun. There she
found marks of her dear boy’s feet, and knew he had been chased
by a big, big bear. There, too, she found, where all had been dry and
hard, a hole in the earth, as if some one had thrust in their foot with
great force, and from this hole flowed water.
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