Computec

Professional Group
CSS Tutorial
About theTutorial
CSS is used to control the style of a web document in a simple and easy way.
CSS stands for Cascading Style Sheets. This tutorial covers both the versions
CSS1 and CSS2 and gives a complete understanding of CSS, starting from its
basics to advanced concepts.

Audience
This tutorial will help both students as well as professionals who want to make
their websites or personal blogs more attractive.

Prerequisites
You should be familiar with:

• Basic word processing using any text editor.

• How to create directories and files.

• How to navigate through different directories.

• Internet browsing using popular browsers like Internet Explorer or Firefox.

• Developing simple Web Pages using HTML or XHTML.

If you are new to HTML and XHTML, then we would suggest you to go through
our HTML Tutorial or XHTML Tutorial first.

i
Table of Contents
About the Tutorial ..................................................................................................................................... i
Audience .................................................................................................................................................... i

Prerequisites .............................................................................................................................................. i

Copyright & Disclaimer .............................................................................................................................. i

Table of Contents ....................................................................................................................................... i

1. OVERVIEW ..................................................................................... 1

What is CSS? ............................................................................................................................................. 1

Advantages of CSS..................................................................................................................................... 1

Who Creates and Maintains CSS? .............................................................................................................. 2

CSS Versions.............................................................................................................................................. 2

2. SYNTAX ........................................................................................ 3

The Type Selectors .................................................................................................................................... 3

The Universal Selectors ............................................................................................................................. 4

The Descendant Selectors ......................................................................................................................... 4

The Class Selectors .................................................................................................................................... 4

The ID Selectors ........................................................................................................................................ 5

The Child Selectors .................................................................................................................................... 5

The Attribute Selectors ............................................................................................................................. 6

Multiple Style Rules .................................................................................................................................. 6

Grouping Selectors .................................................................................................................................... 7

3. INCLUSION .................................................................................. 8

Embedded CSS - The <style> Element ....................................................................................................... 8

Attributes ................................................................................................................................................. 8

Inline CSS - The style Attribute .................................................................................................................. 9

ii
 Attributes ................................................................................................................................................. 9

External CSS - The <link> Element ........................................................................................................... 10

Attributes ............................................................................................................................................... 10

Imported CSS - @import Rule ................................................................................................................. 11

CSS Rules Overriding ............................................................................................................................... 12

Handling Old Browsers............................................................................................................................ 12

CSS Comments ........................................................................................................................................ 12

4. MEASUREMENT UNITS ....................................................................... 14

5. COLORS ....................................................................................... 16

CSS Colors - Hex Codes ............................................................................................................................ 16

CSS Colors - Short Hex Codes................................................................................................................... 17

CSS Colors - RGB Values .......................................................................................................................... 18

Building Color Codes ............................................................................................................................... 19

Browser Safe Colors ................................................................................................................................ 19

6. BACKGROUND ................................................................................ 22

Set the Background Color........................................................................................................................ 22

Set the Background Image ...................................................................................................................... 23

Repeat the Background Image ................................................................................................................ 23

Set the Background Image Position......................................................................................................... 24

Set the Background Attachment ............................................................................................................. 25

Shorthand Property ................................................................................................................................ 25

7. FONTS ......................................................................................... 26

Set the Font Family ................................................................................................................................. 26

Set the Font Style .................................................................................................................................... 26

Set the Font Variant ................................................................................................................................ 27

iii
 Set the Font Weight ................................................................................................................................ 27

Set the Font Size ..................................................................................................................................... 28

Set the Font Size Adjust .......................................................................................................................... 29

Set the Font Stretch ................................................................................................................................ 29

Shorthand Property ................................................................................................................................ 30

8. TEXT ....................................................................................... 31

Set the Text Color ................................................................................................................................... 31

Set the Text Direction ............................................................................................................................. 32

Set the Space between Characters .......................................................................................................... 32

Set the Space between Words ................................................................................................................ 32

Set the Text Indent ................................................................................................................................. 33

Set the Text Alignment ........................................................................................................................... 33

Decorating the Text ................................................................................................................................ 34

Set the Text Cases ................................................................................................................................... 35

Set the White Space between Text ......................................................................................................... 35

Set the Text Shadow ............................................................................................................................... 36

9. IMAGES ........................................................................................ 37

The Image Border Property ..................................................................................................................... 37

The Image Height Property ..................................................................................................................... 38

The Image Width Property ...................................................................................................................... 38

The -moz-opacity Property ...................................................................................................................... 39

10. LINKS....................................................................................... 41

Set the Color of Links .............................................................................................................................. 41

Set the Color of Visited Links ................................................................................................................... 42

Change the Color of Links when Mouse is Over ....................................................................................... 42

iv
 Change the Color of Active Links ............................................................................................................. 43

11. TABLES ........................................................................................ 44

The order-collapse Property ................................................................................................................... 44

The border-spacing Property................................................................................................................... 46

The caption-side Property ....................................................................................................................... 47

The empty-cells Property ........................................................................................................................ 49

The table-layout Property ....................................................................................................................... 51

12. BORDERS ...................................................................................... 53

The border-color Property ...................................................................................................................... 53

The border-style Property ....................................................................................................................... 54

The border-width Property ..................................................................................................................... 56

Border Properties Using Shorthand......................................................................................................... 58

13. MARGINS ...................................................................................... 59

The Margin Property ............................................................................................................................... 59

The margin-bottom Property .................................................................................................................. 61

The margin-top Property......................................................................................................................... 61

The margin-left Property......................................................................................................................... 62

The margin-right Property ...................................................................................................................... 63

14. LISTS ....................................................................................... 64

The list-style-type Property ..................................................................................................................... 64

The list-style-position Property ............................................................................................................... 67

The list-style-image Property .................................................................................................................. 69

The list-style Property ............................................................................................................................. 70

The marker-offset Property .................................................................................................................... 71

15. PADDINGS..................................................................................... 72

v
 The padding-bottom Property ................................................................................................................ 72

The padding-top Property ....................................................................................................................... 73

The padding-left Property ....................................................................................................................... 73

The padding-right Property ..................................................................................................................... 74

The Padding Property ............................................................................................................................. 74

16. CURSORS ...................................................................................... 76

17. OUTLINES ..................................................................................... 79

The outline-width Property ..................................................................................................................... 79

The outline-style Property ...................................................................................................................... 80

The outline-color Property ...................................................................................................................... 81

The Outline Property .............................................................................................................................. 82

18. DIMENSION.................................................................................... 84

The Height and Width Properties ............................................................................................................ 84

The line-height Property ......................................................................................................................... 85

The max-height Property ........................................................................................................................ 86

The min-height Property ......................................................................................................................... 86

The max-width Property ......................................................................................................................... 87

The min-width Property .......................................................................................................................... 88

19. SCROLLBARS.................................................................................. 90

20. VISIBILITY ................................................................................. 93

21. POSITIONING ................................................................................. 95

Relative Positioning ................................................................................................................................ 95

Absolute Positioning ............................................................................................................................... 96

Fixed Positioning ..................................................................................................................................... 96

vi
22. LAYERS ........................................................................................ 98

23. PSEUDO CLASSES........................................................................... 100

The :link pseudo-class ........................................................................................................................... 101

The :visited pseudo-class ...................................................................................................................... 101

The :hover pseudo-class ........................................................................................................................ 102

The :active pseudo-class ....................................................................................................................... 102

The :focus pseudo-class ........................................................................................................................ 102

The :first-child pseudo-class .................................................................................................................. 103

The :lang pseudo-class .......................................................................................................................... 104

24. PSEUDO ELEMENTS ........................................................................ 106

The :first-line pseudo-element .............................................................................................................. 106

The :first-letter pseudo-element ........................................................................................................... 107

The :before pseudo-element ................................................................................................................. 108

The :after pseudo-element ................................................................................................................... 108

25. @ RULES..................................................................................... 110

The @import Rule ................................................................................................................................. 110

The @charset Rule ................................................................................................................................ 111

The @font-face Rule ............................................................................................................................. 111

The !important Rule .............................................................................................................................. 112

26. FILTERS ................................................................................... 114

Alpha Channel ....................................................................................................................................... 114

Motion Blur .......................................................................................................................................... 115

Chroma Filter ........................................................................................................................................ 117

Drop Shadow Effect .............................................................................................................................. 118

Flip Effect .............................................................................................................................................. 120

vii
 Glow Effect ........................................................................................................................................... 121

Grayscale Effect .................................................................................................................................... 122

Invert Effect .......................................................................................................................................... 123

Mask Effect ........................................................................................................................................... 124

Shadow Filter ........................................................................................................................................ 125

Wave Effect........................................................................................................................................... 127

X-Ray Effect........................................................................................................................................... 128

27. MEDIA TYPES ............................................................................. 130

The @media rule .................................................................................................................................. 130

The Document Language ....................................................................................................................... 131

Recognized Media Types ....................................................................................................................... 131

28. PAGED MEDIA .............................................................................. 133

Defining Pages: The @page Rule ........................................................................................................... 133

Setting Page Size ................................................................................................................................... 134

Left, Right, and First Pages .................................................................................................................... 135

Controlling Pagination .......................................................................................................................... 136

Controlling Widows and Orphans ......................................................................................................... 137

29. AURAL MEDIA ............................................................................... 139

The azimuth Property ........................................................................................................................... 141

The elevation Property ......................................................................................................................... 142

The cue-after Property .......................................................................................................................... 142

The cue-before Property ....................................................................................................................... 143

The cue Property................................................................................................................................... 143

The pause-after Property ...................................................................................................................... 144

The pause-before Property ................................................................................................................... 144

viii
 The pause Property ............................................................................................................................... 144

The pitch Property ................................................................................................................................ 145

The pitch-range Property ...................................................................................................................... 145

The play-during Property ...................................................................................................................... 145

The richness Property ........................................................................................................................... 146

The speak Property ............................................................................................................................... 146

The speak-numeral Property ................................................................................................................. 147

The speak-punctuation Property........................................................................................................... 147

The speech-rate Property...................................................................................................................... 147

The stress Property ............................................................................................................................... 147

The voice-family Property ..................................................................................................................... 148

The volume Property ............................................................................................................................ 148

30. PRINTING ................................................................................... 150

31. LAYOUTS .................................................................................... 152

Sample Column Layout ......................................................................................................................... 153

32. VALIDATIONS ............................................................................... 157

Why Validate Your HTML Code? ........................................................................................................... 157

33. CSS2 REFERENCE GUIDE ................................................................. 159

Pseudo-classes & Pseudo-elements ...................................................................................................... 167

34. COLOR REFERENCES ....................................................................... 168

ix
 1. OVERVIEW
CSS

What isCSS?
Cascading Style Sheets, fondly referred to as CSS, is a simple design language
intended to simplify the process of making web pages presentable.

CSS handles the look and feel part of a web page. Using CSS, you can control
the color of the text, the style of fonts, the spacing between paragraphs, how
columns are sized and laid out, what background images or colors are used, as
well as a variety of other effects.

CSS is easy to learn and understand but it provides a powerful control over the
presentation of an HTML document. Most commonly, CSS is combined with the
markup languages HTML or XHTML.

Advantages of CSS
• CSS saves time - You can write CSS once and then reuse the same sheet
in multiple HTML pages. You can define a style for each HTML element and
apply it to as many web pages as you want.

• Pages load faster - If you are using CSS, you do not need to write HTML
tag attributes every time. Just write one CSS rule of a tag and apply it to
all the occurrences of that tag. So, less code means faster download
times.

• Easy maintenance - To make a global change, simply change the style,

and all the elements in all the web pages will be updated automatically.

• Superior styles to HTML - CSS has a much wider array of attributes

than HTML, so you can give a far better look to your HTML page in
comparison to HTML attributes.

• Multiple Device Compatibility - Style sheets allow content to be

optimized for more than one type of device. By using the same HTML
document, different versions of a website can be presented for handheld
devices such as PDAs and cellphones or for printing.

• Global web standards – Now HTML attributes are being deprecated and
it is being recommended to use CSS. So it’s a good idea to start using
CSS in all the HTML pages to make them compatible with future browsers.

1
 CSS

Who Creates and Maintains CSS?

CSS is created and maintained through a group of people within the W3C called
the CSS Working Group. The CSS Working Group creates documents called
specifications. When a specification has been discussed and officially ratified by
the W3C members, it becomes a recommendation.

These ratified specifications are called recommendations because the W3C has
no control over the actual implementation of the language. Independent
companies and organizations create that software.

NOTE: The World Wide Web Consortium or W3C is a group that makes
recommendations about how the Internet works and how it should evolve.

CSS Versions
Cascading Style Sheets level 1 (CSS1) came out of W3C as a recommendation in
December 1996. This version describes the CSS language as well as a simple
visual formatting model for all the HTML tags.

CSS2 became a W3C recommendation in May 1998 and builds on CSS1. This
version adds support for media-specific style sheets e.g. printers and aural
devices, downloadable fonts, element positioning and tables.

2
 2. SYNTAX
CSS

A CSS comprises of style rules that are interpreted by the browser and then
applied to the corresponding elements in your document. A style rule is made of
three parts:

• Selector: A selector is an HTML tag at which a style will be applied. This

could be any tag like <h1> or <table> etc.

• Property: A property is a type of attribute of HTML tag. Put simply, all the
HTML attributes are converted into CSS properties. They could
be color, border, etc.

• Value: Values are assigned to properties. For example, color property can
have the value either red or #F1F1F1 etc.

You can put CSS Style Rule Syntax as follows:

selector { property: value }

Example: You can define a table border as follows:

table{ border :1px solid #C00; }

Here table is a selector and border is a property and the given value 1px solid
#C00 is the value of that property.

You can define selectors in various simple ways based on your comfort. Let me
put these selectors one by one.

The TypeSelectors
This is the same selector we have seen above. Again, one more example to give
a color to all level 1 headings:

h1 {
color: #36CFFF;
}

3
 CSS

The UniversalSelectors
Rather than selecting elements of a specific type, the universal selector quite
simply matches the name of any element type:

* {
color: #000000;
}

This rule renders the content of every element in our document in black.

The DescendantSelectors
Suppose you want to apply a style rule to a particular element only when it lies
inside a particular element. As given in the following example, the style rule will
apply to <em> element only when it lies inside the <ul> tag.

ul em {
color: #000000;
}

The ClassSelectors
You can define style rules based on the class attribute of the elements. All the
elements having that class will be formatted according to the defined rule.

.black {
color: #000000;
}

This rule renders the content in black for every element with class attribute set
to black in our document. You can make it a bit more particular. For example:

h1.black {
color: #000000;
}

This rule renders the content in black for only <h1> elements with class
attribute set to black.

4
 CSS

You can apply more than one class selectors to a given element. Consider the
following example:

<p class="center bold">

This para will be styled by the classes center and bold.
</p>

The IDSelectors
You can define style rules based on the id attribute of the elements. All the
elements having that id will be formatted according to the defined rule.

#black {
color: #000000;
}

This rule renders the content in black for every element with id attribute set
to black in our document. You can make it a bit more particular. For example:

h1#black {
color: #000000;
}

This rule renders the content in black for only <h1> elements with id attribute
set to black.

The true power of id selectors is when they are used as the foundation for
descendant selectors. For example:

#black h2 {
color: #000000;
}

In this example, all level 2 headings will be displayed in black color when those
headings will lie within tags having id attribute set to black.

The ChildSelectors
You have seen the descendant selectors. There is one more type of selector,
which is very similar to descendants but have different functionality. Consider
the following example:

5
 CSS

body > p { color:

#000000;
}

This rule will render all the paragraphs in black if they are a direct child of the
<body> element. Other paragraphs put inside other elements like <div> or
<td> would not have any effect of this rule.

TheAttribute Selectors
You can also apply styles to HTML elements with particular attributes. The style
rule below will match all the input elements having a type attribute with a value
of text:

input[type="text"]{
color: #000000;
}

The advantage to this method is that the <input type="submit" /> element is
unaffected, and the color applied only to the desired text fields.

There are following rules applied to attribute selector.

• p[lang] - Selects all paragraph elements with a lang attribute.

• p[lang="fr"] - Selects all paragraph elements whose lang attribute has a

value of exactly "fr".

• p[lang~="fr"] - Selects all paragraph elements whose lang attribute

contains the word "fr".

• p[lang|="en"] - Selects all paragraph elements whose lang attribute

contains values that are exactly "en", or begin with "en-".

Multiple Style Rules

You may need to define multiple style rules for a single element. You can define
these rules to combine multiple properties and corresponding values into a
single block as defined in the following example:

h1 {
color: #36C;
font-weight: normal;

6
 CSS

letter-spacing: .4em;
margin-bottom: 1em;
text-transform: lowercase;
}

Here all the property and value pairs are separated by a semicolon (;). You can
keep them in a single line or multiple lines. For better readability, we keep them
in separate lines.

For a while, don't bother about the properties mentioned in the above block.
These properties will be explained in the coming chapters and you can find the
complete detail about properties in CSS References.

Grouping Selectors
You can apply a style to many selectors if you like. Just separate the selectors
with a comma, as given in the following example:

h1, h2, h3 {
color: #36C;
font-weight: normal;
letter-spacing: .4em;
margin-bottom: 1em;
text-transform: lowercase;
}

This define style rule will be applicable to h1, h2 and h3 element as well. The
order of the list is irrelevant. All the elements in the selector will have the
corresponding declarations applied to them.

You can combine the various class selectors together as shown below:

#content, #footer, #supplement {

position: absolute;
left: 510px;
width: 200px;
}

7
 3. INCLUSION
CSS

There are four ways to associate styles with your HTML document. Most
commonly used methods are inline CSS and External CSS.

Embedded CSS - The <style> Element

You can put your CSS rules into an HTML document using the <style> element.
This tag is placed inside the <head>...</head> tags. Rules defined using this
syntax will be applied to all the elements available in the document. Here is the
generic syntax:

<head>
<style type="text/css" media="...">
Style Rules
............
</style>
</head>

Attributes
Attributes associated with <style> elements are:

Attribute Value Description

type text/css Specifies the style sheet language as a

content-type (MIME type). This is a required
attribute.

media screen Specifies the device, the document will be

tty displayed on. Default value is all. This is an
tv optional attribute.
projection
handheld
print
braille

8
 CSS

aural
all

Example
Following is an example of embed CSS based on the above syntax:

<head>
<style type="text/css" media="all">
h1{
color: #36C;
}
</style>
</head>

Inline CSS - The style Attribute

You can use style attribute of any HTML element to define style rules. These
rules will be applied to that element only. Here is the generic syntax:

<element style="...style rules ..... ">

Attributes
Attribute Value Description

style style The value of style attribute is a combination of style

rules declarations separated by semicolon (;).

Example
Following is the example of inline CSS based on the above syntax:

<h1 style ="color:#36C;"> This is inline CSS </h1>

It will produce the following result:

9
 CSS

This is inline CSS

External CSS - The <link> Element

The <link> element can be used to include an external stylesheet file in your
HTML document.

An external style sheet is a separate text file with .css extension. You define all
the Style rules within this text file and then you can include this file in any HTML
document using <link> element.

Here is the generic syntax of including external CSS file:

<head>
<link type="text/css" href="..." media="..." />
</head>

Attributes
Attributes associated with <style> elements are:

Attribute Value Description

type text/css Specifies the style sheet language as a content-type

(MIME type). This attribute is required.

href URL Specifies the style sheet file having Style rules. This
attribute is a required.

media screen Specifies the device the document will be displayed

tty on. Default value is all. This is an optional attribute.
tv
projection
handheld
print
braille
aural
all

10
 CSS

Example
Consider a simple style sheet file with a name mystyle.css having the following
rules:

h1, h2, h3 {
color: #36C;
font-weight: normal;
letter-spacing: .4em;
margin-bottom: 1em;
text-transform: lowercase;
}

Now you can include this file mystyle.css in any HTML document as follows:

<head>
<link type="text/css" href="mystyle.css" media="all" />
</head>

Imported CSS - @import Rule

@import is used to import an external stylesheet in a manner similar to the
<link> element. Here is the generic syntax of @import rule.

<head>
<@import "URL";
</head>

Here URL is the URL of the style sheet file having style rules. You can use
another syntax as well:

<head>
<@import url("URL");
</head>

Example
Following is the example showing you how to import a style sheet file into an
HTML document:

11
 CSS

<head>
@import "mystyle.css";
</head>

CSS RulesOverriding
We have discussed four ways to include style sheet rules in an HTML document.
Here is the rule to override any Style Sheet Rule.

• Any inline style sheet takes the highest priority. So, it will override any
rule defined in <style>...</style> tags or the rules defined in any
external style sheet file.

• Any rule defined in <style>...</style> tags will override the rules defined
in any external style sheet file.

• Any rule defined in the external style sheet file takes the lowest priority,
and the rules defined in this file will be applied only when the above two
rules are not applicable.

Handling Old Browsers

There are still many old browsers who do not support CSS. So, we should take
care while writing our Embedded CSS in an HTML document. The following
snippet shows how to use comment tags to hide CSS from older browsers:

<style type="text/css">
<!--
body, td {
color: blue;
}
-->
</style>

CSS Comments
Many times, you may need to put additional comments in your style sheet
blocks. So, it is very easy to comment any part in the style sheet. You can
simply put your comments inside /*.....this is a comment in style sheet. */.

12
 CSS

You can use /* ....*/ to comment multi-line blocks in similar way you do in C
and C++ programming languages.

Example

/* This is an external style sheet file */

h1, h2, h3 {
color: #36C;
font-weight: normal;
letter-spacing: .4em;
margin-bottom: 1em;
text-transform: lowercase;
}
/* end of style rules. */

13
 4. MEASUREMENT UNITS
CSS

Before we start the actual exercise, we would like to give a brief idea about the
CSS Measurement Units.

CSS supports a number of measurements including absolute units such as

inches, centimeters, points, and so on, as well as relative measures such as
percentages and em units. You need these values while specifying various
measurements in your Style rules e.g. border="1px solid red".

We have listed out all the CSS Measurement Units along with proper Examples:

Unit Description Example

% Defines a measurement as a p {font-size: 16pt; line-height:

percentage relative to another value, 125%;}
typically an enclosing element.

cm Defines a measurement in div {margin-bottom: 2cm;}

centimeters.

em A relative measurement for the p {letter-spacing: 7em;}

height of a font in em spaces.
Because an em unit is equivalent to
the size of a given font, if you assign
a font to 12pt, each "em" unit would
be 12pt; thus, 2em would be 24pt.

ex This value defines a measurement p {font-size: 24pt; line-height:

relative to a font's x-height. The x- 3ex;}
height is determined by the height of
the font's lowercase letter x.

in Defines a measurement in inches. p {word-spacing: .15in;}

mm Defines a measurement in p {word-spacing: 15mm;}

millimeters.

14
 CSS

pc Defines a measurement in picas. A p {font-size: 20pc;}

pica is equivalent to 12 points; thus,
there are 6 picas per inch.

pt Defines a measurement in points. A body {font-size: 18pt;}

point is defined as 1/72nd of an
inch.

px Defines a measurement in screen p {padding: 25px;}

pixels.

15
 5. COLORS
CSS

CSS uses color values to specify a color. Typically, these are used to set a color
either for the foreground of an element (i.e., its text) or for the background of
the element. They can also be used to affect the color of borders and other
decorative effects.

You can specify your color values in various formats. Following table lists all the
possible formats:

Format Syntax Example

Hex Code #RRGGBB p{color:#FF0000;}

Short Hex #RGB p{color:#6A7;}

Code

RGB % rgb(rrr%,ggg%,bbb%) p{color:rgb(50%,50%,50%);}

RGB Absolute rgb(rrr,ggg,bbb) p{color:rgb(0,0,255);}

keyword aqua, black, etc. p{color:teal;}

These formats are explained in more detail in the following sections:

CSS Colors - Hex Codes

A hexadecimal is a 6 digit representation of a color. The first two digits (RR)
represent a red value, the next two are a green value (GG), and the last are the
blue value (BB).

A hexadecimal value can be taken from any graphics software like Adobe
Photoshop, Jasc Paintshop Pro, or even using Advanced Paint Brush.

Each hexadecimal code will be preceded by a pound or hash sign ‘#’. Following
are the examples to use Hexadecimal notation.

16
 CSS

Color Color HEX

#000000

#FF0000

#00FF00

#0000FF

#FFFF00

#00FFFF

#FF00FF

#C0C0C0

#FFFFFF

CSS Colors - Short Hex Codes

This is a shorter form of the six-digit notation. In this format, each digit is
replicated to arrive at an equivalent six-digit value. For example: #6A7 becomes
#66AA77.

A hexadecimal value can be taken from any graphics software like Adobe
Photoshop, Jasc Paintshop Pro or even using Advanced Paint Brush.

Each hexadecimal code will be preceded by a pound or hash sign #. Following

are the examples to use the Hexadecimal notation.

17
 CSS

CSS Colors - RGB Values

This color value is specified using the rgb( ) property. This property takes three
values, one each for red, green, and blue. The value can be an integer between
0 and 255 or a percentage.

NOTE: All the browsers does not support rgb() property of color, so it is
recommended not to use it.

Following is the example to show few colors using RGB values.

Color Color RGB

rgb(0,0,0)

rgb(255,0,0)

rgb(0,255,0)

rgb(0,0,255)

rgb(255,255,0)

rgb(0,255,255)

18
 CSS

rgb(255,0,255)

rgb(192,192,192)

rgb(255,255,255)

Building Color Codes

You can build millions of color codes using our Color Code Builder. Check
our HTML Color Code Builder. To use this tool, you would need a Java Enabled
Browser.

Browser SafeColors
Here is the list of 216 colors, which are supposed to be most safe and computer
independent colors. These colors vary from hexa code 000000 to FFFFFF. These
colors are safe to use because they ensure that all computers would display the
colors correctly when running a 256 color palette:

000000 000033 000066 000099 0000CC 0000FF

003300 003333 003366 003399 0033CC 0033FF

006600 006633 006666 006699 0066CC 0066FF

009900 009933 009966 009999 0099CC 0099FF

00CC00 00CC33 00CC66 00CC99 00CCCC 00CCFF

00FF00 00FF33 00FF66 00FF99 00FFCC 00FFFF

330000 330033 330066 330099 3300CC 3300FF

19
 CSS

333300 333333 333366 333399 3333CC 3333FF

336600 336633 336666 336699 3366CC 3366FF

339900 339933 339966 339999 3399CC 3399FF

33CC00 33CC33 33CC66 33CC99 33CCCC 33CCFF

33FF00 33FF33 33FF66 33FF99 33FFCC 33FFFF

660000 660033 660066 660099 6600CC 6600FF

663300 663333 663366 663399 6633CC 6633FF

666600 666633 666666 666699 6666CC 6666FF

669900 669933 669966 669999 6699CC 6699FF

66CC00 66CC33 66CC66 66CC99 66CCCC 66CCFF

66FF00 66FF33 66FF66 66FF99 66FFCC 66FFFF

990000 990033 990066 990099 9900CC 9900FF

993300 993333 993366 993399 9933CC 9933FF

996600 996633 996666 996699 9966CC 9966FF

999900 999933 999966 999999 9999CC 9999FF

20
 CSS

99CC00 99CC33 99CC66 99CC99 99CCCC 99CCFF

99FF00 99FF33 99FF66 99FF99 99FFCC 99FFFF

CC0000 CC0033 CC0066 CC0099 CC00CC CC00FF

CC3300 CC3333 CC3366 CC3399 CC33CC CC33FF

CC6600 CC6633 CC6666 CC6699 CC66CC CC66FF

CC9900 CC9933 CC9966 CC9999 CC99CC CC99FF

CCCC00 CCCC33 CCCC66 CCCC99 CCCCCC CCCCFF

CCFF00 CCFF33 CCFF66 CCFF99 CCFFCC CCFFFF

FF0000 FF0033 FF0066 FF0099 FF00CC FF00FF

FF3300 FF3333 FF3366 FF3399 FF33CC FF33FF

FF6600 FF6633 FF6666 FF6699 FF66CC FF66FF

FF9900 FF9933 FF9966 FF9999 FF99CC FF99FF

FFCC00 FFCC33 FFCC66 FFCC99 FFCCCC FFCCFF

FFFF00 FFFF33 FFFF66 FFFF99 FFFFCC FFFFFF

21
 6. BACKGROUND
CSS

This chapter teaches you how to set backgrounds of various HTML elements. You
can set the following background properties of an element:

• The background-color property is used to set the background color of an

element.

• The background-image property is used to set the background image of

an element.

• The background-repeat property is used to control the repetition of an

image in the background.

• The background-position property is used to control the position of an

image in the background.

• The background-attachment property is used to control the scrolling of

an image in the background.

• The background property is used as a shorthand to specify a number of

other background properties.

Set the Background Color

Following is the example, which demonstrates how to set the background color
for an element.

<p style="background-color:yellow;">
This text has a yellow background color.
</p>

It will produce the following result:

This text has a yellow background color.

22
 CSS

Set the Background Image

<table style="background-image:url(/images/pattern1.gif);">
<tr><td>
This table has background image set.
</td></tr>
</table>

Repeat the Background Image

The following example demonstrates how to repeat the background image if an
image is small. You can use no-repeat value for the background-repeat property
if you don't want to repeat an image. In this case, the image will display only
once.

By default, the background-repeat property will have a repeat value.

<table style="background-image:url(/images/pattern1.gif);
background-repeat: repeat;">
<tr><td>
This table has background image which repeats multiple times.
</td></tr>
</table>

The following example which demonstrates how to repeat the background image
vertically.

<table style="background-image:url(/images/pattern1.gif);
background-repeat: repeat-y;">
<tr><td>
This table has background image set which will repeat vertically.
</td></tr>
</table>

23
 CSS

The following example demonstrates how to repeat the background image

horizontally.

<table style="background-image:url(/images/pattern1.gif);
background-repeat: repeat-x;">
<tr><td>
This table has background image set which will repeat horizontally.
</td></tr>
</table>

Set the Background Image Position

The following example demonstrates how to set the background image position
100 pixels away from the left side.

<table style="background-image:url(/images/pattern1.gif);
background-position:100px;">
<tr><td>
Background image positioned 100 pixels away from the left.
</td></tr>
</table>

The following example demonstrates how to set the background image position
100 pixels away from the left side and 200 pixels down from the top.

<table style="background-image:url(/images/pattern1.gif);
background-position:100px 200px;">
<tr><td>
This table has background image positioned 100
pixels away from the left and 200 pixels from the top.
</td></tr>
</table>

24
 CSS

Set the Background Attachment

Background attachment determines whether a background image is fixed or
scrolls with the rest of the page.

The following example demonstrates how to set the fixed background image.

<p style="background-image:url(/images/pattern1.gif);
background-attachment:fixed;">
This parapgraph has fixed background image.
</p>

The following example demonstrates how to set the scrolling background image.

<p style="background-image:url(/images/pattern1.gif);
background-attachment:scroll;">
This parapgraph has scrolling background image.
</p>

Shorthand Property
You can use the background property to set all the background properties at
once. For example:

<p style="background:url(/images/pattern1.gif) repeat fixed;">

This parapgraph has fixed repeated background image.
</p>

25
 7. FONTS
CSS

This chapter teaches you how to set fonts of a content, available in an HTML
element. You can set the following font properties of an element:

• The font-family property is used to change the face of a font.

• The font-style property is used to make a font italic or oblique.

• The font-variant property is used to create a small-caps effect.

• The font-weight property is used to increase or decrease how bold or

light a font appears.

• The font-size property is used to increase or decrease the size of a font.

• The font property is used as shorthand to specify a number of other font

properties.

Set the Font Family

Following is the example, which demonstrates how to set the font family of an
element. Possible value could be any font family name.

<p style="font-family:georgia,garamond,serif;">
This text is rendered in either georgia, garamond, or the default
serif font depending on which font you have at your system.
</p>

It will produce the following result:

This text is rendered in either georgia, garamond, or the default

serif font depending on which font you have at your system.

Set the Font Style

The following example demonstrates how to set the font style of an element.
Possible values are normal, italic and oblique.

<p style="font-style:italic;">

26
 CSS

This text will be rendered in italic style

</p>

It will produce the following result:

This text will be rendered in italic style

Set the Font Variant

The following example demonstrates how to set the font variant of an element.
Possible values are normal and small-caps.

<p style="font-variant:small-caps;">
This text will be rendered as small caps
</p>

It will produce the following result:

THIS TEXT WILL BE RENEDERED AS SMALL CAPS

Set the Font Weight

The following example demonstrates how to set the font weight of an element.
The font-weight property provides the functionality to specify how bold a font is.
Possible values could be normal, bold, bolder, lighter, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500,
600, 700, 800, 900.

<p style="font-weight:bold;">
This font is bold.
</p>
<p style="font-weight:bolder;">
This font is bolder.
</p>
<p style="font-weight:900;">
This font is 900 weight.
</p>

27
 CSS

It will produce the following result:

This font is bold.

This font is bolder.
This font is 900 weight.

Set the Font Size

The following example demonstrates how to set the font size of an element. The
font-size property is used to control the size of fonts. Possible values could
be xx-small, x-small, small, medium, large, x-large, xx-large, smaller, larger,
size in pixels or in %.

<p style="font-size:20px;">
This font size is 20 pixels
</p>
<p style="font-size:small;">
This font size is small
</p>
<p style="font-size:large;">
This font size is large
</p>

It will produce the following result:

This font size is 20 pixels

This font size is small

This font size is large

28
 CSS

Set the Font Size Adjust

The following example demonstrates how to set the font size adjust of an
element. This property enables you to adjust the x-height to make fonts more
legible. Possible value could be any number.

<p style="font-size-adjust:0.61;">
This text is using a font-size-adjust value.
</p>

It will produce the following result:

This text is using a font-size-adjust value.

Set the Font Stretch

The following example demonstrates how to set the font stretch of an element.
This property relies on the user's computer to have an expanded or condensed
version of the font being used.

Possible values could be normal, wider, narrower, ultra-condensed, extra-

condensed, condensed, semi-condensed, semi-expanded, expanded, extra-
expanded, ultra-expanded.

<p style="font-stretch:ultra-expanded;">
If this doesn't appear to work, it is likely that
your computer doesn't have a condensed or expanded
version of the font being used.
</p>

It will produce the following result:

If this doesn't appear to work, it is likely that your computer doesn't have a condensed or
expanded version of the font being used.

29
 CSS

Shorthand Property
You can use the font property to set all the font properties at once. For example:

<p style="font:italic small-caps bold 15px georgia;">

Applying all the properties on the text at once.
</p>

It will produce the following result:

APPLYING ALL THE PROPERTIES ON THE TEXT AT ONCE.

30
 8. TEXT
CSS

This chapter teaches you how to manipulate text using CSS properties. You can
set the following text properties of an element:

• The color property is used to set the color of a text.

• The direction property is used to set the text direction.

• The letter-spacing property is used to add or subtract space between the

letters that make up a word.

• The word-spacing property is used to add or subtract space between the

words of a sentence.

• The text-indent property is used to indent the text of a paragraph.

• The text-align property is used to align the text of a document.

• The text-decoration property is used to underline, overline, and

strikethrough text.

• The text-transform property is used to capitalize text or convert text to

uppercase or lowercase letters.

• The white-space property is used to control the flow and formatting of

text.

• The text-shadow property is used to set the text shadow around a text.

Set the Text Color

The following example demonstrates how to set the text color. Possible value
could be any color name in any valid format.

<p style="color:red;">
This text will be written in red.
</p>

It will produce the following result:

This text will be written in red.

31
 CSS

Set the Text Direction

The following example demonstrates how to set the direction of a text. Possible
values are ltr or rtl.

<p style="direction:rtl;">
This text will be renedered from right to left
</p>

It will produce the following result:

This text will be renedered from right to left

Set the Space between Characters

The following example demonstrates how to set the space between characters.
Possible values are normal or a number specifying space.

<p style="letter-spacing:5px;">
This text is having space between letters.
</p>

It will produce the following result:

T hi s t ex t is havi n g s pac e b e t w ee n letters .

Set the Space between Words

The following example demonstrates how to set the space between words.
Possible values are normal or a number specifying space.

<p style="word-spacing:5px;">
This text is having space between words.
</p>

It will produce the following result:

32
 CSS

This text is having space between words.

Set the Text Indent

The following example demonstrates how to indent the first line of a paragraph.
Possible values are % or a number specifying indent space.

<p style="text-indent:1cm;">
This text will have first line indented by 1cm
and this line will remain at its actual position
this is done by CSS text-indent property.
</p>

It will produce the following result:

This text will have first line indented by 1cm

and this line will remain at its actual position
this is done by CSS text-indent property.

Set the Text Alignment

The following example demonstrates how to align a text. Possible values are left,
right, center, justify.

<p style="text-align:right;">
This will be right aligned.
</p>
<p style="text-align:center;">
This will be center aligned.
</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">
This will be left aligned.
</p>

It will produce the following result:

33
 CSS

This will be right aligned.

This will be center aligned.

This will be left aligned.

Decorating theText
The following example demonstrates how to decorate a text. Possible values are
none, underline, overline, line-through, blink.

<p style="text-decoration:underline;">
This will be underlined
</p>
<p style="text-decoration:line-through;">
This will be striked through.
</p>
<p style="text-decoration:overline;">
This will have a over line.
</p>
<p style="text-decoration:blink;">
This text will have blinking effect
</p>

It will produce the following result:

This will be underlined

This will be striked through.

This will have a over line.

This text will have blinking effect

34
 CSS

Set the Text Cases

The following example demonstrates how to set the cases for a text. Possible
values are none, capitalize, uppercase, lowercase.

<p style="text-transform:capitalize;">
This will be capitalized
</p>
<p style="text-transform:uppercase;">
This will be in uppercase
</p>
<p style="text-transform:lowercase;">
This will be in lowercase
</p>

It will produce the following result:

This Will Be Capitalized

THIS WILL BE IN UPPERCASE

this will be in lowercase

Set the White Space between Text

The following example demonstrates how white space inside an element is
handled. Possible values are normal, pre, nowrap.

<p style="white-space:pre;">This text has a line break

and the white-space pre setting tells the browser to honor it
just like the HTML pre tag.</p>

It will produce the following result:

35
 CSS

This text has a line break

and the white-space pre setting tells the browser to honor it

just like the HTML pre tag.

Set the Text Shadow

The following example demonstrates how to set the shadow around a text. This
may not be supported by all the browsers.

<p style="text-shadow:4px 4px 8px blue;">

If your browser supports the CSS text-shadow property,
this text will have a blue shadow.</p>

It will produce the following result:

If your browser supports the CSS text-shadow property, this text will have a blue shadow.

36
 9. IMAGES
CSS

Images play an important role in any webpage. Though it is not recommended

to include a lot of images, but it is still important to use good images wherever
required.

CSS plays a good role to control image display. You can set the following image
properties using CSS.

• The border property is used to set the width of an image border.

• The height property is used to set the height of an image.

• The width property is used to set the width of an image.

• The -moz-opacity property is used to set the opacity of an image.

The Image Border Property

The border property of an image is used to set the width of an image border.
This property can have a value in length or in %.

A width of zero pixels means no border.

Here is an example:

<img style="border:0px;" src="/images/css.gif" />

<br />
<img style="border:3px dashed red;" src="/images/css.gif" />

It will produce the following result:

37
 CSS

The Image Height Property

The height property of an image is used to set the height of an image. This
property can have a value in length or in %. While giving value in %, it applies it
in respect of the box in which an image is available.

Here is an example:

<img style="border:1px solid red; height:100px;"

src="/images/css.gif" />
<br />
<img style="border:1px solid red; height:50%;"
src="/images/css.gif" />

It will produce the following result:

The Image Width Property

The width property of an image is used to set the width of an image. This
property can have a value in length or in %. While giving value in %, it applies it
in respect of the box in which an image is available.

Here is an example:

<img style="border:1px solid red; width:100px;"

src="/images/css.gif" />
<br />
<img style="border:1px solid red; width:100%;"
src="/images/css.gif" />

38
 CSS

It will produce the following result:

The -moz-opacityProperty
The -moz-opacity property of an image is used to set the opacity of an image.
This property is used to create a transparent image in Mozilla. IE
uses filter:alpha(opacity=x) to create transparent images.

In Mozilla (-moz-opacity:x), x can be a value from 0.0 - 1.0. A lower value

makes the element more transparent (The same things goes for the CSS3-valid
syntax opacity:x).

In IE (filter:alpha(opacity=x)), x can be a value from 0 - 100. A lower value

makes the element more transparent.

39
 CSS

Here is an example:

<img style="border:1px solid red;-moz-

opacity:0.4;filter:alpha(opacity=40);"
src="/images/css.gif" />

It will produce the following result:

40
 10. LINKS
CSS

This chapter teaches you how to set different properties of a hyper link using
CSS. You can set the following properties of a hyperlink:

We will revisit the same properties when we will discuss Pseudo-Classes of CSS.

• The :link signifies unvisited hyperlinks.

• The :visited signifies visited hyperlinks.

• The :hover signifies an element that currently has the user's mouse
pointer hovering over it.

• The :active signifies an element on which the user is currently clicking.

Usually, all these properties are kept in the header part of the HTML document.

Remember a:hover MUST come after a:link and a:visited in the CSS definition in
order to be effective. Also, a:active MUST come after a:hover in the CSS
definition as follows:

<style type="text/css">
a:link {color: #000000}
a:visited {color: #006600}
a:hover {color: #FFCC00}
a:active {color: #FF00CC}
</style>

Now, we will see how to use these properties to give different effects to
hyperlinks.

Set the Color of Links

The following example demonstrates how to set the link color. Possible values
could be any color name in any valid format.

<style type="text/css">
a:link {color:#000000}
</style>

41
 CSS

<a href="/html/index.htm">Black Link</a>

It will produce the following black link:

Black Link

Set the Color of Visited Links

The following example demonstrates how to set the color of the visited links.
Possible values could be any color name in any valid format.

<style type="text/css">
a:visited {color: #006600}
</style>
<a href="/html/index.htm">Click this link</a>

It will produce the following link. Once you click this link, it will change its color
to green.

Click this link

Change the Color of Links when Mouse is Over

The following example demonstrates how to change the color of links when we
bring a mouse pointer over that link. Possible values could be any color name in
any valid format.

<style type="text/css">
a:hover {color: #FFCC00}
</style>
<a href="/html/index.htm">Bring Mouse Here</a>

It will produce the following link. Now, you bring your mouse over this link and
you will see that it changes its color to yellow.

Bring Mouse Here

42
 CSS

Change the Color of Active Links

The following example demonstrates how to change the color of active links.
Possible values could be any color name in any valid format.

<style type="text/css">
a:active {color: #FF00CC}
</style>
<a href="/html/index.htm">Click This Link</a>

It will produce the following link. It will change its color to pink when the user
clicks it.

Click This Link

43
 11. TABLES
CSS

This chapter teaches you how to set different properties of an HTML table using
CSS. You can set the following properties of a table:

• The border-collapse specifies whether the browser should control the

appearance of the adjacent borders that touch each other or whether each
cell should maintain its style.

• The border-spacing specifies the width that should appear between table
cells.

• The caption-side captions are presented in the <caption> element. By

default, these are rendered above the table in the document. You use
the caption-side property to control the placement of the table caption.

• The empty-cells specifies whether the border should be shown if a cell is

empty.

• The table-layout allows browsers to speed up the layout of a table by

using the first width properties it comes across for the rest of a column
rather than having to load the whole table before rendering it.

Now, we will see how to use these properties with examples.

The order-collapseProperty
This property can have two values collapse and separate. The following example
uses both the values:

<style type="text/css">
table.one {border-collapse:collapse;}
table.two {border-collapse:separate;}
td.a {
border-style:dotted;
border-width:3px;
border-color:#000000;
padding: 10px;
}

44
 CSS

td.b {border-style:solid;
border-width:3px;
border-color:#333333;
padding:10px;
}
</style>
<table class="one">
<caption>Collapse Border Example</caption>
<tr><td class="a"> Cell A Collapse Example</td></tr>
<tr><td class="b"> Cell B Collapse Example</td></tr>
</table>
<br />
<table class="two">
<caption>Separate Border Example</caption>
<tr><td class="a"> Cell A Separate Example</td></tr>
<tr><td class="b"> Cell B Separate Example</td></tr>
</table>

It will produce the following result:

Collapse Border Example

Cell A Collapse Example

Cell B Collapse Example

Separate Border Example

Cell A Separate Example

Cell B Separate Example

45
 CSS

The border-spacingProperty
The border-spacing property specifies the distance that separates the adjacent
cells’ borders. It can take either one or two values; these should be units of
length.

If you provide one value, it applies to both vertical and horizontal borders. Or
you can specify two values, in which case, the first refers to the horizontal
spacing and the second to the vertical spacing:

NOTE: Unfortunately, this property does not work in Netscape 7 or IE 6.

<style type="text/css">
/* If you provide one value */
table.example {border-spacing:10px;}
/* This is how you can provide two values */
table.example {border-spacing:10px; 15px;}
</style>

Now let's modify the previous example and see the effect:

<style type="text/css">
table.one {
border-collapse:separate;
width:400px;
border-spacing:10px;
}
table.two {
border-collapse:separate;
width:400px;
border-spacing:10px 50px;
}
</style>
<table class="one" border="1">
<caption>Separate Border Example with border-spacing</caption>
<tr><td> Cell A Collapse Example</td></tr>
<tr><td> Cell B Collapse Example</td></tr>

46
 CSS

</table>
<br />
<table class="two" border="1">
<caption>Separate Border Example with border-spacing</caption>
<tr><td> Cell A Separate Example</td></tr>
<tr><td> Cell B Separate Example</td></tr>
</table>

It will produce the following result:

Separate Border Example with border-spacing

Cell A Collapse Example

Cell B Collapse Example

Separate Border Example with border-spacing

Cell A Separate Example

Cell B Separate Example

The caption-sideProperty
The caption-side property allows you to specify where the content of a
<caption> element should be placed in relationship to the table. The table that
follows lists the possible values.

This property can have one of the four values top, bottom, left, or right. The
following example uses each value.

NOTE: These properties may not work with your IE Browser.

<style type="text/css">
caption.top {caption-side:top}
caption.bottom {caption-side:bottom}
caption.left {caption-side:left}

47
 CSS

caption.right {caption-side:right}
</style>

<table style="width:400px; border:1px solid black;">

<caption class="top">
This caption will appear at the top
</caption>
<tr><td > Cell A</td></tr>
<tr><td > Cell B</td></tr>
</table>
<br />

<table style="width:400px; border:1px solid black;">

<caption class="bottom">
This caption will appear at the bottom
</caption>
<tr><td > Cell A</td></tr>
<tr><td > Cell B</td></tr>
</table>
<br />

<table style="width:400px; border:1px solid black;">

<caption class="left">
This caption will appear at the left
</caption>
<tr><td > Cell A</td></tr>
<tr><td > Cell B</td></tr>
</table>
<br />

<table style="width:400px; border:1px solid black;">

48
 CSS

<caption class="right">
This caption will appear at the right
</caption>
<tr><td > Cell A</td></tr>
<tr><td > Cell B</td></tr>
</table>

It will produce the following result:

The empty-cellsProperty
The empty-cells property indicates whether a cell without any content should
have a border displayed.

This property can have one of the three values - show, hide, or inherit.

Here is the empty-cells property used to hide borders of empty cells in the
<table> element.

<style type="text/css">
table.empty{
width:350px;
border-collapse:separate;

49
 CSS

empty-cells:hide;
}
td.empty{
padding:5px;
border-style:solid;
border-width:1px;
border-color:#999999;
}
</style>
<table class="empty">
<tr>
<th></th>
<th>Title one</th>
<th>Title two</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Row Title</th>
<td class="empty">value</td>
<td class="empty">value</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Row Title</th>
<td class="empty">value</td>
<td class="empty"></td>
</tr>
</table>

It will produce the following result:

50
 CSS

Title one Title two

Row Title value value

Row Title value

The table-layoutProperty
The table-layout property is supposed to help you control how a browser should
render or lay out a table.

This property can have one of the three values: fixed, auto, or inherit.

The following example shows the difference between these properties.

NOTE: This property is not supported by many browsers, so do not rely on this
property.

<style type="text/css">
table.auto
{
table-layout: auto
}
table.fixed
{
table-layout: fixed
}
</style>
<table class="auto" border="1" width="100%">
<tr>
<td width="20%">1000000000000000000000000000</td>
<td width="40%">10000000</td>
<td width="40%">100</td>
</tr>
</table>
<br />

51
 CSS

<table class="fixed" border="1" width="100%">

<tr>
<td width="20%">1000000000000000000000000000</td>
<td width="40%">10000000</td>
<td width="40%">100</td>
</tr>
</table>

It will produce the following result:

52
 CSS

12. BORDERS

The border properties allow you to specify how the border of the box
representing an element should look. There are three properties of a border you
can change:

• The border-color specifies the color of a border.

• The border-style specifies whether a border should be solid, dashed line,

double line, or one of the other possible values.

• The border-width specifies the width of a border.

Now, we will see how to use these properties with examples.

The border-colorProperty
The border-color property allows you to change the color of the border
surrounding an element. You can individually change the color of the bottom,
left, top and right sides of an element's border using the properties:

• border-bottom-color changes the color of bottom border.

• border-top-color changes the color of top border.

• border-left-color changes the color of left border.

• border-right-color changes the color of right border.

The following example shows the effect of all these properties:

<style type="text/css">
p.example1{
border:1px solid;
border-bottom-color:#009900; /* Green */
border-top-color:#FF0000; /* Red */
border-left-color:#330000; /* Black */
border-right-color:#0000CC; /* Blue */
}
p.example2{
border:1px solid;

53
 CSS

border-color:#009900; /* Green */
}
</style>
<p class="example1">
This example is showing all borders in different colors.
</p>
<p class="example2">
This example is showing all borders in green color only.
</p>

It will produce the following result:

The border-styleProperty
The border-style property allows you to select one of the following styles of
border:

• none: No border. (Equivalent of border-width:0;)

• solid: Border is a single solid line.

• dotted: Border is a series of dots.

• dashed: Border is a series of short lines.

• double: Border is two solid lines.

• groove: Border looks as though it is carved into the page.

• ridge: Border looks the opposite of groove.

• inset: Border makes the box look like it is embedded in the page.

• outset: Border makes the box look like it is coming out of the canvas.

• hidden: Same as none, except in terms of border-conflict resolution for

table elements.

You can individually change the style of the bottom, left, top, and right borders
of an element using the following properties:

54
 CSS

• border-bottom-style changes the style of bottom border.

• border-top-style changes the style of top border.

• border-left-style changes the style of left border.

• border-right-style changes the style of right border.

The following example shows all these border styles:

<p style="border-width:4px; border-style:none;">

This is a border with none width.
</p>
<p style="border-width:4px; border-style:solid;">
This is a solid border.
</p>
<p style="border-width:4px; border-style:dashed;">
This is a dahsed border.
</p>
<p style="border-width:4px; border-style:double;">
This is a double border.
</p>
<p style="border-width:4px; border-style:groove;">
This is a groove border.
</p>
<p style="border-width:4px; border-style:ridge">
This is aridge border.
</p>
<p style="border-width:4px; border-style:inset;">
This is a inset border.
</p>
<p style="border-width:4px; border-style:outset;">
This is a outset border.
</p>
<p style="border-width:4px; border-style:hidden;">

55
 CSS

This is a hidden border.

</p>
<p style="border-width:4px;
border-top-style:solid;
border-bottom-style:dashed;
border-left-style:groove;
border-right-style:double;">
This is a a border with four different styles.
</p>

It will produce the following result:

The border-widthProperty
The border-width property allows you to set the width of an element borders.
The value of this property could be either a length in px, pt, or cm, or it should
be set to thin, medium, or thick.

You can individually change the width of the bottom, top, left, and right borders
of an element using the following properties:

• border-bottom-width changes the width of bottom border.

• border-top-width changes the width of top border.

56
 CSS

• border-left-width changes the width of left border.

• border-right-width changes the width of right border.

The following example shows all these border width:

<p style="border-width:4px; border-style:solid;">

This is a solid border whose width is 4px.
</p>
<p style="border-width:4pt; border-style:solid;">
This is a solid border whose width is 4pt.
</p>
<p style="border-width:thin; border-style:solid;">
This is a solid border whose width is thin.
</p>
<p style="border-width:medium; border-style:solid;">
This is a solid border whose width is medium;
</p>
<p style="border-width:thick; border-style:solid;">
This is a solid border whose width is thick.
</p>
<p style="border-bottom-width:4px;
border-top-width:10px;
border-left-width: 2px;
border-right-width:15px;
border-style:solid;">
This is a a border with four different width.
</p>

57
 CSS

It will produce the following result:

Border Properties Using Shorthand

The border property allows you to specify color, style, and width of lines in one
property:

The following example shows how to use all the three properties into a single
property. This is the most frequently used property to set border around any
element.

<p style="border:4px solid red;">

This example is showing shorthand property for border.
</p>

It will produce the following result:

58
 13. MARGINS
CSS

The margin property defines the space around an HTML element. It is possible to
use negative values to overlap content.

The values of the margin property are not inherited by the child elements.
Remember that the adjacent vertical margins (top and bottom margins) will
collapse into each other so that the distance between the blocks is not the sum
of the margins, but only the greater of the two margins or the same size as one
margin if both are equal.

We have the following properties to set an element margin.

• The margin specifies a shorthand property for setting the margin

properties in one declaration.

• The margin-bottom specifies the bottom margin of an element.

• The margin-top specifies the top margin of an element.

• The margin-left specifies the left margin of an element.

• The margin-right specifies the right margin of an element.

Now, we will see how to use these properties with examples.

The MarginProperty
The margin property allows you to set all of the properties for the four margins
in one declaration. Here is the syntax to set margin around a paragraph:

<style type="text/css">
p {margin: 15px}
all four margins will be 15px

p {margin: 10px 2%}

top and bottom margin will be 10px, left and right margin will be 2% of
the total width of the document.

59
 CSS

p {margin: 10px 2% -10px}

top margin will be 10px, left and right margin will be 2% of the total
width of the document, bottom margin will be -10px

p {margin: 10px 2% -10px auto}

top margin will be 10px, right margin will be 2% of the total width of
the document, bottom margin will be -10px, left margin will be set by
the browser
</style>

Here is an example:

<p style="margin: 15px; border:1px solid black;">

all four margins will be 15px
</p>

<p style="margin:10px 2%; border:1px solid black;">

top and bottom margin will be 10px, left and right margin will be 2% of
the total width of the document.
</p>

<p style="margin: 10px 2% -10px; border:1px solid black;">

top margin will be 10px, left and right margin will be 2% of the total
width of the document, bottom margin will be -10px
</p>

<p style="margin: 10px 2% -10px auto; border:1px solid black;">

top margin will be 10px, right margin will be 2% of the total width of
the document, bottom margin will be -10px, left margin will be set by
the browser
</p>

60
 CSS

It will produce the following result:

The margin-bottomProperty
The margin-bottom property allows you to set the bottom margin of an element.
It can have a value in length, %, or auto.

Here is an example:

<p style="margin-bottom: 15px; border:1px solid black;">

This is a paragraph with a specified bottom margin
</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 5%; border:1px solid black;">
This is another paragraph with a specified bottom margin in percent
</p>

It will produce the following result:

The margin-topProperty
The margin-top property allows you to set the top margin of an element. It can
have a value in length, %, or auto.

61
 CSS

Here is an example:

<p style="margin-top: 15px; border:1px solid black;">

This is a paragraph with a specified top margin
</p>
<p style="margin-top: 5%; border:1px solid black;">
This is another paragraph with a specified top margin in percent
</p>

It will produce the following result:

The margin-leftProperty
The margin-left property allows you to set the left margin of an element. It can
have a value in length, %, or auto.

Here is an example:

<p style="margin-left: 15px; border:1px solid black;">

This is a paragraph with a specified left margin
</p>
<p style="margin-left: 5%; border:1px solid black;">
This is another paragraph with a specified top margin in percent
</p>

It will produce the following result:

62
 CSS

The margin-rightProperty
The margin-right property allows you to set the right margin of an element. It
can have a value in length, %, or auto.

Here is an example:

<p style="margin-right: 15px; border:1px solid black;">

This is a paragraph with a specified right margin
</p>
<p style="margin-right: 5%; border:1px solid black;">
This is another paragraph with a specified right margin in percent
</p>

It will produce the following result:

63
 14. LISTS
CSS

Lists are very helpful in conveying a set of either numbered or bulleted points.
This chapter teaches you how to control list type, position, style, etc., using
CSS.

We have the following five CSS properties, which can be used to control lists:

• The list-style-type allows you to control the shape or appearance of the

marker.

• The list-style-position specifies whether a long point that wraps to a

second line should align with the first line or start underneath the start of
the marker.

• The list-style-image specifies an image for the marker rather than a

bullet point or number.

• The list-style serves as shorthand for the preceding properties.

• The marker-offset specifies the distance between a marker and the text
in the list.

Now we will see how to use these properties with examples.

The list-style-typeProperty
The list-style-type property allows you to control the shape or style of a bullet
point (also known as a marker) in case of unordered lists and the style of
numbering characters in ordered lists.

Here are the values, which can be used for an unordered list:

Value Description

None NA

disc (default) A filled-in circle

Circle An empty circle

64
 CSS

Square A filled-in square

Here are the values, which can be used for an ordered list:

Value Description Example

Decimal Number 1,2,3,4,5

decimal-leading- 0 before the number 01, 02, 03,

zero 04, 05

lower-alpha Lowercase alphanumeric characters a, b, c, d, e

upper-alpha Uppercase alphanumeric characters A, B, C, D, E

lower-roman Lowercase Roman numerals i, ii, iii, iv, v

upper-roman Uppercase Roman numerals I, II, III, IV,

V

lower-greek The marker is lower-greek alpha, beta,

gamma

lower-latin The marker is lower-latin a, b, c, d, e

upper-latin The marker is upper-latin A, B, C, D, E

hebrew The marker is traditional Hebrew

numbering

armenian The marker is traditional Armenian

numbering

georgian The marker is traditional Georgian

numbering

65
 CSS

cjk-ideographic The marker is plain ideographic numbers

hiragana The marker is hiragana a, i, u, e, o,

ka, ki

katakana The marker is katakana A, I, U, E, O,

KA, KI

hiragana-iroha The marker is hiragana-iroha i, ro, ha, ni,

ho, he, to

katakana-iroha The marker is katakana-iroha I, RO, HA,

NI, HO, HE,
TO

Here is an example:

<ul style="list-style-type:circle;">
<li>Maths</li>
<li>Social Science</li>
<li>Physics</li>
</ul>

<ul style="list-style-type:square;">
<li>Maths</li>
<li>Social Science</li>
<li>Physics</li>
</ul>

<ol style="list-style-type:decimal;">
<li>Maths</li>
<li>Social Science</li>
<li>Physics</li>

66
 CSS

</ol>

<ol style="list-style-type:lower-alpha;">
<li>Maths</li>
<li>Social Science</li>
<li>Physics</li>
</ol>

<ol style="list-style-type:lower-roman;">
<li>Maths</li>
<li>Social Science</li>
<li>Physics</li>
</ol>

It will produce the following result:

The list-style-position Property

The list-style-position property indicates whether the marker should appear
inside or outside of the box containing the bullet points. It can have one of the
two values:

67
 CSS

Value Description

none NA

inside If the text goes onto a second line, the text will wrap underneath the
marker. It will also appear indented to where the text would have
started if the list had a value of outside.

outside If the text goes onto a second line, the text will be aligned with the
start of the first line (to the right of the bullet).

Here is an example:

<ul style="list-style-type:circle; list-stlye-position:outside;">

<li>Maths</li>
<li>Social Science</li>
<li>Physics</li>
</ul>

<ul style="list-style-type:square;list-style-position:inside;">
<li>Maths</li>
<li>Social Science</li>
<li>Physics</li>
</ul>

<ol style="list-style-type:decimal;list-stlye-position:outside;">
<li>Maths</li>
<li>Social Science</li>
<li>Physics</li>
</ol>

<ol style="list-style-type:lower-alpha;list-style-position:inside;">

68
 CSS

<li>Maths</li>
<li>Social Science</li>
<li>Physics</li>
</ol>

It will produce the following result:

The list-style-imageProperty
The list-style-image allows you to specify an image so that you can use your own
bullet style. The syntax is similar to the background-image property with the
letters url starting the value of the property followed by the URL in brackets. If it
does not find the given image then default bullets are used.

Here is an example:

<ul>
<li style="list-style-image: url(/images/bullet.gif);">Maths</li>
<li>Social Science</li>
<li>Physics</li>
</ul>

<ol>
<li style="list-style-image: url(/images/bullet.gif);">Maths</li>
<li>Social Science</li>
<li>Physics</li>

69
 CSS

</ol>

It will produce the following result:

The list-styleProperty
The list-style allows you to specify all the list properties into a single expression.
These properties can appear in any order.

Here is an example:

<ul style="list-style: inside square;">

<li>Maths</li>
<li>Social Science</li>
<li>Physics</li>
</ul>

<ol style="list-style: outside upper-alpha;">

<li>Maths</li>
<li>Social Science</li>
<li>Physics</li>
</ol>

It will produce the following result:

70
 CSS

The marker-offsetProperty
The marker-offset property allows you to specify the distance between the
marker and the text relating to that marker. Its value should be a length as
shown in the following example:

Unfortunately, this property is not supported in IE 6 or Netscape 7.

Here is an example:

<ul style="list-style: inside square; marker-offset:2em;">

<li>Maths</li>
<li>Social Science</li>
<li>Physics</li>
</ul>

<ol style="list-style: outside upper-alpha; marker-offset:2cm;">

<li>Maths</li>
<li>Social Science</li>
<li>Physics</li>
</ol>

It will produce the following result:

71
 15. PADDINGS
CSS

The padding property allows you to specify how much space should appear
between the content of an element and its border:

The value of this attribute should be either a length, a percentage, or the word
inherit. If the value is inherit, it will have the same padding as its parent
element. If a percentage is used, the percentage is of the containing box.

The following CSS properties can be used to control lists. You can also set
different values for the padding on each side of the box using the following
properties:

• The padding-bottom specifies the bottom padding of an element.

• The padding-top specifies the top padding of an element.

• The padding-left specifies the left padding of an element.

• The padding-right specifies the right padding of an element.

• The padding serves as shorthand for the preceding properties.

Now, we will see how to use these properties with examples.

The padding-bottomProperty
The padding-bottom property sets the bottom padding (space) of an element.
This can take a value in terms of length of %.

Here is an example:

<p style="padding-bottom: 15px; border:1px solid black;">

This is a paragraph with a specified bottom padding
</p>

<p style="padding-bottom: 5%; border:1px solid black;">

This is another paragraph with a specified bottom padding in percent
</p>

72
 CSS

It will produce the following result:

The padding-top Property

The padding-top property sets the top padding (space) of an element. This can
take a value in terms of length of %.

Here is an example:

<p style="padding-top: 15px; border:1px solid black;">

This is a paragraph with a specified top padding
</p>

<p style="padding-top: 5%; border:1px solid black;">

This is another paragraph with a specified top padding in percent
</p>

It will produce the following result:

The padding-leftProperty
The padding-left property sets the left padding (space) of an element. This can
take a value in terms of length of %.

Here is an example:

<p style="padding-left: 15px; border:1px solid black;">

This is a paragraph with a specified left padding

73
 CSS

</p>

<p style="padding-left: 15%; border:1px solid black;">

This is another paragraph with a specified left padding in percent
</p>

It will produce the following result:

The padding-rightProperty
The padding-right property sets the right padding (space) of an element. This
can take a value in terms of length of %.

Here is an example:

<p style="padding-right: 15px; border:1px solid black;">

This is a paragraph with a specified right padding
</p>

<p style="padding-right: 5%; border:1px solid black;">

This is another paragraph with a specified right padding in percent
</p>

It will produce the following result:

The PaddingProperty
The padding property sets the left, right, top and bottom padding (space) of an
element. This can take a value in terms of length of %.

74
 CSS

Here is an example:

<p style="padding: 15px; border:1px solid black;">

all four padding will be 15px

</p>

<p style="padding:10px 2%; border:1px solid black;">

top and bottom padding will be 10px, left and right padding will be 2%
of the total width of the document.
</p>

<p style="padding: 10px 2% 10px; border:1px solid black;">

top padding will be 10px, left and right padding will be 2% of the total
width of the document, bottom padding will be 10px
</p>

<p style="padding: 10px 2% 10px 10px; border:1px solid black;">

top padding will be 10px, right padding will be 2% of the total width of
the document, bottom padding and top padding will be 10px
</p>

It will produce the following result:

75
 16. CURSORS
CSS

The cursor property of CSS allows you to specify the type of cursor that should
be displayed to the user.

One good usage of this property is in using images for submit buttons on forms.
By default, when a cursor hovers over a link, the cursor changes from a pointer
to a hand. However, it does not change form for a submit button on a form.
Therefore, whenever someone hovers over an image that is a submit button, it
provides a visual clue that the image is clickable.

The following table shows the possible values for the cursor property:

Value Description

auto Shape of the cursor depends on the context area it is over. For
example, an ‘I’ over text, a ‘hand’ over a link, and so on.

crosshair A crosshair or plus sign.

default An arrow.

pointer A pointing hand (in IE 4 this value is hand).

move The ‘I’ bar.

e-resize The cursor indicates that an edge of a box is to be moved right

(east).

ne-resize The cursor indicates that an edge of a box is to be moved up and

right (north/east).

nw- The cursor indicates that an edge of a box is to be moved up and

resize left (north/west).

n-resize The cursor indicates that an edge of a box is to be moved up

(north).

76
 CSS

se-resize The cursor indicates that an edge of a box is to be moved down

and right (south/east).

sw- The cursor indicates that an edge of a box is to be moved down

resize and left (south/west).

s-resize The cursor indicates that an edge of a box is to be moved down

(south).

w-resize The cursor indicates that an edge of a box is to be moved left

(west).

text The I bar.

wait An hour glass.

help A question mark or balloon, ideal for use over help buttons.

<url> The source of a cursor image file.

NOTE: You should try to use only these values to add helpful information for
users, and in places, they would expect to see that cursor. For example, using
the crosshair when someone hovers over a link can confuse the visitors.

Here is an example:

<p>Move the mouse over the words to see the cursor change:</p>
<div style="cursor:auto">Auto</div>
<div style="cursor:crosshair">Crosshair</div>
<div style="cursor:default">Default</div>
<div style="cursor:pointer">Pointer</div>
<div style="cursor:move">Move</div>
<div style="cursor:e-resize">e-resize</div>
<div style="cursor:ne-resize">ne-resize</div>
<div style="cursor:nw-resize">nw-resize</div>

77
 CSS

<div style="cursor:n-resize">n-resize</div>
<div style="cursor:se-resize">se-resize</div>
<div style="cursor:sw-resize">sw-resize</div>
<div style="cursor:s-resize">s-resize</div>
<div style="cursor:w-resize">w-resize</div>
<div style="cursor:text">text</div>
<div style="cursor:wait">wait</div>
<div style="cursor:help">help</div>

It will produce the following result:

78
 17. OUTLINES
CSS

Outlines are very similar to borders, but there are few major differences as well:

• An outline does not take up space.

• Outlines do not have to be rectangular.

• Outline is always the same on all sides; you cannot specify different
values for different sides of an element.

NOTE: The outline properties are not supported by IE 6 or Netscape 7.

You can set the following outline properties using CSS.

• The outline-width property is used to set the width of the outline.

• The outline-style property is used to set the line style for the outline.

• The outline-color property is used to set the color of the outline.

• The outline property is used to set all the above three properties in a
single statement.

The outline-widthProperty
The outline-width property specifies the width of the outline to be added to the
box. Its value should be a length or one of the values thin, medium, or thick,
just like the border-width attribute.

A width of zero pixels means no outline.

Here is an example:

<p style="outline-width:thin; outline-style:solid;">

This text is having thin outline.
</p>
<br />
<p style="outline-width:thick; outline-style:solid;">
This text is having thick outline.
</p>
<br />

79
 CSS

<p style="outline-width:5px; outline-style:solid;">

This text is having 5x outline.
</p>

It will produce the following result:

The outline-styleProperty
The outline-style property specifies the style for the line (solid, dotted, or
dashed) that goes around an element. It can take one of the following values:

• none: No border. (Equivalent of outline-width:0;)

• solid: Outline is a single solid line.

• dotted: Outline is a series of dots.

• dashed: Outline is a series of short lines.

• double: Outline is two solid lines.

• groove: Outline looks as though it is carved into the page.

• ridge: Outline looks the opposite of groove.

• inset: Outline makes the box look like it is embedded in the page.

• outset: Outline makes the box look like it is coming out of the canvas.

• hidden: Same as none.

Here is an example:

<p style="outline-width:thin; outline-style:solid;">

This text is having thin solid outline.
</p>
<br />

80
 CSS

<p style="outline-width:thick; outline-style:dashed;">

This text is having thick dashed outline.
</p>
<br />
<p style="outline-width:5px;outline-style:dotted;">
This text is having 5x dotted outline.
</p>

It will produce the following result:

The outline-colorProperty
The outline-color property allows you to specify the color of the outline. Its value
should either be a color name, a hex color, or an RGB value, as with the color
and border-color properties.

Here is an example:

<p style="outline-width:thin; outline-style:solid;

outline-color:red">
This text is having thin solid red outline.
</p>
<br />
<p style="outline-width:thick; outline-style:dashed;
outline-color:#009900">
This text is having thick dashed green outline.
</p>
<br />

81
 CSS

<p style="outline-width:5px;outline-style:dotted;
outline-color:rgb(13,33,232)">
This text is having 5x dotted blue outline.
</p>

It will produce the following result:

The OutlineProperty
The outline property is a shorthand property that allows you to specify values for
any of the three properties discussed previously in any order but in a single
statement.

Here is an example:

<p style="outline:thin solid red;">

This text is having thin solid red outline.
</p>
<br />
<p style="outline:thick dashed #009900;">
This text is having thick dashed green outline.
</p>
<br />
<p style="outline:5px dotted rgb(13,33,232);">
This text is having 5x dotted blue outline.
</p>

82
 CSS

It will produce the following result:

83
 18. DIMENSION
CSS

You have seen the border that surrounds every box i.e. element, the padding
that can appear inside each box, and the margin that can go around them. In
this chapter, we will learn how to change the dimensions of boxes.

We have the following properties that allow you to control the dimensions of a
box.

• The height property is used to set the height of a box.

• The width property is used to set the width of a box.

• The line-height property is used to set the height of a line of text.

• The max-height property is used to set a maximum height that a box can be.

• The min-height property is used to set the minimum height that a box can be.

• The max-width property is used to set the maximum width that a box can be.

• The min-width property is used to set the minimum width that a box can be.

The Height and Width Properties

The height and width properties allow you to set the height and width for boxes.
They can take values of a length, a percentage, or the keyword auto.

Here is an example:

<p style="width:400px; height:100px;border:1px solid red;

padding:5px; margin:10px;">
This paragraph is 400pixels wide and 100 pixels high
</p>

84
 CSS

It will produce the following result:

The line-heightProperty
The line-height property allows you to increase the space between lines of text.
The value of the line-height property can be a number, a length, or a
percentage.

Here is an example:

<p style="width:400px; height:100px;border:1px solid red;

padding:5px; margin:10px;line-height:30px;">
This paragraph is 400pixels wide and 100 pixels high
and here line height is 30pixels.This paragraph is 400 pixels
wide and 100 pixels high and here line height is 30pixels.
</p>

It will produce the following result:

85
 CSS

The max-heightProperty
The max-height property allows you to specify the maximum height of a box.
The value of the max-height property can be a number, a length, or a
percentage.

NOTE: This property does not work in either Netscape 7 or IE 6.

Here is an example:

<p style="width:400px; max-height:10px;border:1px solid red;

padding:5px; margin:10px;">
This paragraph is 400px wide and max height is 10px
This paragraph is 400px wide and max height is 10px
This paragraph is 400px wide and max height is 10px
This paragraph is 400px wide and max height is 10px
</p>
<img alt="logo" src="/images/css.gif" width="95" height="84" />

It will produce the following result:

The min-heightProperty
The min-height property allows you to specify the minimum height of a box. The
value of the min-height property can be a number, a length, or a percentage.

NOTE: This property does not work in either Netscape 7 or IE 6.

Here is an example:

<p style="width:400px; min-height:200px;border:1px solid red;

padding:5px; margin:10px;">
This paragraph is 400px wide and min height is 200px

86
 CSS

This paragraph is 400px wide and min height is 200px

This paragraph is 400px wide and min height is 200px
This paragraph is 400px wide and min height is 200px
</p>
<img alt="logo" src="/images/css.gif" width="95" height="84" />

It will produce the following result:

The max-widthProperty
The max-width property allows you to specify the maximum width of a box. The
value of the max-width property can be a number, a length, or a percentage.

NOTE: This property does not work in either Netscape 7 or IE 6.

Here is an example:

<p style="max-width:100px; height:200px;border:1px solid red;

padding:5px; margin:10px;">
This paragraph is 200px high and max width is 100px
This paragraph is 200px high and max width is 100px
This paragraph is 200px high and max width is 100px

87
 CSS

This paragraph is 200px high and max width is 100px

This paragraph is 200px high and max width is 100px
</p>
<img alt="logo" src="/images/css.gif" width="95" height="84" />

It will produce the following result:

The min-widthProperty
The min-width property allows you to specify the minimum width of a box. The
value of the min-width property can be a number, a length, or a percentage.

NOTE: This property does not work in either Netscape 7 or IE 6.

Here is an example:

<p style="min-width:400px; height:100px;border:1px solid red;

padding:5px; margin:10px;">
This paragraph is 100px high and min width is 400px
This paragraph is 100px high and min width is 400px
This paragraph is 100px high and min width is 400px
This paragraph is 100px high and min width is 400px

88
 CSS

This paragraph is 100px high and min width is 400px

</p>
<img alt="logo" src="/images/css.gif" width="95" height="84" />

It will produce the following result:

89
 19. SCROLLBARS
CSS

There may be a case when an element's content might be larger than the
amount of space allocated to it. For example, the given width and height
properties do not allow enough room to accommodate the content of the
element.

CSS provides a property called overflow, which tells the browser what to do if the
box's contents is larger than the box itself. This property can take one of the
following values:

Value Description

visible Allows the content to overflow the borders of its containing element.

hidden The content of the nested element is simply cut off at the border of
the containing element and no scrollbars is visible.

scroll The size of the containing element does not change, but the scrollbars
are added to allow the user to scroll to see the content.

auto The purpose is the same as scroll, but the scrollbar will be shown only
if the content does overflow.

Here is an example:

<style type="text/css">
.scroll{
display:block;
border: 1px solid red;
padding:5px;
margin-top:5px;
width:300px;
height:50px;

90
 CSS

overflow:scroll;
}
.auto{
display:block;
border: 1px solid red;
padding:5px;
margin-top:5px;
width:300px;
height:50px;
overflow:auto;
}
</style>
<p>Example of scroll value:</p>
<div class="scroll">
I am going to keep lot of content here just to show
you how scrollbars works if there is an overflow in
an element box. This provides your horizontal as well
as vertical scrollbars.
</div>
<br />
<p>Example of auto value:</p>
<div class="auto">
I am going to keep lot of content here just to show
you how scrollbars works if there is an overflow in
an element box. This provides your horizontal as well
as vertical scrollbars.
</div>

91
 CSS

It will produce the following result:

92
 20. VISIBILITY
CSS

A property called visibility allows you to hide an element from view. You can use
this property along with JavaScript to create very complex menu and very
complex webpage layouts.

You may choose to use the visibility property to hide error messages that are
only displayed if the user needs to see them, or to hide answers to a quiz until
the user selects an option.

NOTE: Remember that the source code will still contain whatever is in the
invisible paragraph, so you should not use this to hide sensitive information such
as credit card details or passwords.

The visibility property can take the values listed in the table that follows:

Value Description

visible The box and its contents are shown to the user.

hidden The box and its content are made invisible, although they still affect
the layout of the page.

collapse This is for use only with dynamic table columns and row effects.

Here is an example:

<p>
This paragraph should be visible in normal way.
</p>
<p style="visibility:hidden;">
This paragraph should not be visible.
</p>

93
 CSS

It will produce the following result:

94
 21. POSITIONING
CSS

CSS helps you to position your HTML element. You can put any HTML element at
whatever location you like. You can specify whether you want the element
positioned relative to its natural position in the page or absolute based on its
parent element.

Now, we will see all the CSS positioning related properties with examples.

Relative Positioning
Relative positioning changes the position of the HTML element relative to where
it normally appears. So "left:20" adds 20 pixels to the element's LEFT position.

You can use two values top and left along with the position property to move an
HTML element anywhere in an HTML document.

• Move Left - Use a negative value for left.

• Move Right - Use a positive value for left.

• Move Up - Use a negative value for top.

• Move Down - Use a positive value for top.

NOTE: You can use the bottom or right values as well in the same way as top
and left.

Here is an example:

<div style="position:relative;left:80px;top:2px;
background-color:yellow;">
This div has relative positioning.
</div>

It will produce the following result:

95
 CSS

Absolute Positioning
An element with position: absolute is positioned at the specified coordinates
relative to your screen top-left corner.

You can use two values top and left along with the position property to move an
HTML element anywhere in HTML document.

• Move Left - Use a negative value for left.

• Move Right - Use a positive value for left.

• Move Up - Use a negative value for top.

• Move Down - Use a positive value for top.

NOTE: You can use bottom or right values as well in the same way as top and
left.

Here is an example:

<div style="position:absolute;left:80px;top:20px;
background-color:yellow;">
This div has absolute positioning.
</div>

Fixed Positioning
Fixed positioning allows you to fix the position of an element to a particular spot
on the page, regardless of scrolling. Specified coordinates will be relative to the
browser window.

You can use two values top and left along with the position property to move an
HTML element anywhere in the HTML document.

• Move Left - Use a negative value for left.

• Move Right - Use a positive value for left.

• Move Up - Use a negative value for top.

• Move Down - Use a positive value for top.

NOTE: You can use bottom or right values as well in the same way as top and
left.

96
 CSS

Here is an example:

<div style="position:fixed;left:80px;top:20px;
background-color:yellow;">
This div has fixed positioning.
</div>

97
 22. LAYERS
CSS

CSS gives you an opportunity to create layers of various divisions. The CSS
layers refer to applying the z-index property to elements that overlap with each
other.

The z-index property is used along with the position property to create an effect
of layers. You can specify which element should come on top and which element
should come at bottom.

A z-index property can help you to create more complex webpage layouts. The
following example shows how to create layers in CSS.

<div style="background-color:red;
width:300px;
height:100px;
position:relative;
top:10px;
left:80px;
z-index:2">
</div>
<div style="background-color:yellow;
width:300px;
height:100px;
position:relative;
top:-60px;
left:35px;
z-index:1;">
</div>
<div style="background-color:green;
width:300px;
height:100px;
position:relative;
top:-220px;

98
 CSS

left:120px;
z-index:3;">
</div>

It will produce the following result:

99
 23. PSEUDO CLASSES
CSS

CSS pseudo-classes are used to add special effects to some selectors. You do
not need to use JavaScript or any other script to use those effects. A simple
syntax of pseudo-classes is as follows:

selector:pseudo-class {property: value}

CSS classes can also be used with pseudo-classes:

selector.class:pseudo-class {property: value}

The most commonly used pseudo-classes are as follows:

Value Description

:link Use this class to add special style to an unvisited link.

:visited Use this class to add special style to a visited link.

:hover Use this class to add special style to an element when you mouse
over it.

:active Use this class to add special style to an active element.

:focus Use this class to add special style to an element while the element
has focus.

:first- Use this class to add special style to an element that is the first
child child of some other element.

:lang Use this class to specify a language to use in a specified element.

100
 CSS

While defining pseudo-classes in a <style>...</style> block, the following points

should be noted:

• a:hover MUST come after a:link and a:visited in the CSS definition in
order to be effective.

• a:active MUST come after a:hover in the CSS definition in order to be

effective.

• Pseudo-class names are not case-sensitive.

• Pseudo-classes are different from CSS classes, but they can be combined.

The :linkpseudo-class
The following example demonstrates how to use :link class to set the link color.
Possible values could be any color name in any valid format.

<style type="text/css">
a:link {color:#000000}
</style>
<a href="/html/index.htm">Black Link</a>

It will produce the following black link:

The :visitedpseudo-class
The following example demonstrates how to use :visited class to set the color of
the visited links. Possible values could be any color name in any valid format.

<style type="text/css">
a:visited {color: #006600}
</style>
<a href="/html/index.htm">Click this link</a>

It will produce the following link. Once you click this link, it will change its color
to green.

101
 CSS

The :hoverpseudo-class
The following example demonstrates how to use the :hover class to change the
color of links when we bring a mouse pointer over that link. Possible values
could be any color name in any valid format.

<style type="text/css">
a:hover {color: #FFCC00}
</style>
<a href="/html/index.htm">Bring Mouse Here</a>

It will produce the following link. Now you bring your mouse over this link and
you will see that it changes its color to yellow.

The :activepseudo-class
The following example demonstrates how to use the :active class to change the
color of active links. Possible values could be any color name in any valid format.

<style type="text/css">
a:active {color: #FF00CC}
</style>
<a href="/html/index.htm">Click This Link</a>

It will produce the following link. When a user clicks it, the color changes to
pink.

The :focuspseudo-class
The following example demonstrates how to use the :focus class to change the
color of the focused links. Possible values could be any color name in any valid
format.

<style type="text/css">
a:focus {color: #0000FF}

102
 CSS

</style>
<a href="/html/index.htm">Click this Link</a>

It will produce the following link. When this link gets focused, its color changes
to orange. The color changes back when it loses focus.

The :first-childpseudo-class
The :first-child pseudo-class matches a specified element that is the first child of
another element and adds special style to that element that is the first child of
some other element.

To make :first-child work in IE <!DOCTYPE> must be declared at the top of

document.

For example, to indent the first paragraph of all <div> elements, you could use
this definition:

<style type="text/css">
div > p:first-child
{
text-indent: 25px;
}
</style>
<div>
<p>
First paragraph in div. This paragraph will be indented
</p>
<p>
Second paragraph in div. This paragraph will not be indented
</p>
</div>
<p>But it will not match the paragraph in this HTML:</p>
<div>
<h3>Heading</h3>

103
 CSS

<p>
The first paragraph inside the div.
This paragraph will not be effected.
</p>
</div>

It will produce the following result:

The :langpseudo-class
The language pseudo-class :lang, allows constructing selectors based on the
language setting for specific tags.

This class is useful in documents that must appeal to multiple languages that
have different conventions for certain language constructs. For example, the
French language typically uses angle brackets (< and >) for quoting purposes,
while the English language uses quote marks (' and ').

In a document that needs to address this difference, you can use the :lang
pseudo-class to change the quote marks appropriately. The following code
changes the <blockquote> tag appropriately for the language being used:

<style type="text/css">
/* Two levels of quotes for two languages*/
:lang(en) { quotes: '"' '"' "'" "'"; }
:lang(fr) { quotes: "<<" ">>" "<" ">"; }
</style>
<p>...<q lang="fr">A quote in a paragraph</q>...</p>

104
 CSS

The :lang selectors will apply to all the elements in a document. However, not all
elements make use of the quotes property, so the effect will be transparent for
most elements.

105
 24. PSEUDO ELEMENTS
CSS

CSS pseudo-elements are used to add special effects to some selectors. You do
not need to use JavaScript or any other script to use those effects. A simple
syntax of pseudo-element is as follows:

selector:pseudo-element {property: value}

CSS classes can also be used with the pseudo-elements:

selector.class:pseudo-element {property: value}

The most commonly used pseudo-elements are as follows:

Value Description

:first-line Use this element to add special styles to the first line of the text
in a selector.

:first-letter Use this element to add special style to the first letter of the text
in a selector.

:before Use this element to insert some content before an element.

:after Use this element to insert some content after an element.

The :first-linepseudo-element
The following example demonstrates how to use the :first-line element to add
special effects to the first line of elements in a document.

<style type="text/css">
p:first-line { text-decoration: underline; }
p.noline:first-line { text-decoration: none; }
</style>
<p class="noline"> This line would not have any underline

106
 CSS

because this belongs to nline class.</p>

<p>The first line of this paragraph will be underlined

as defined in the CSS rule above. Rest of the lines in this
paragraph will remain normal. This example shows how to use
:first-line pseduo element to give effect to the first line
of any HTML element.</p>

It will produce the following link:

The :first-letterpseudo-element
The following example demonstrates how to use the :first-letter element to add
special effect to the first letter of elements in the document.

<style type="text/css">
p:first-letter { font-size: 5em; text-color:red; }
p.normal:first-letter { font-size: 10px; }
</style>
<p class="normal"> First character of this paragraph will
be normal and will have font size 10 px;</p>

<p>The first character of this paragraph will be 5em big

and in red color as defined in the CSS rule above. Rest of the
characters in this paragraph will remain normal. This example
shows how to use :first-letter pseduo element to give effect to
the first characters of any HTML element.</p>

107
 CSS

It will produce the following black link:

The :beforepseudo-element
The following example demonstrates how to use :before element to add some
content before any element.

<style type="text/css">
p:before
{
content: url(/images/bullet.gif)
}
</style>
<p> This line will be preceded by a bullet.</p>
<p> This line will be preceded by a bullet.</p>
<p> This line will be preceded by a bullet.</p>

It will produce the following black link:

The :afterpseudo-element
The following example demonstrates how to use :after element to add some
content after any element.

<style type="text/css">

108
 CSS

p:after
{
content: url(/images/bullet.gif)
}
</style>
<p> This line will be succeeded by a bullet.</p>
<p> This line will be succeeded by a bullet.</p>
<p> This line will be succeeded by a bullet.</p>

It will produce the following black link:

109
 25. @ RULES
CSS

This chapter will cover the following important @ rules:

• The @import: rule imports another style sheet into the current style
sheet.

• The @charset rule indicates the character set the style sheet uses.

• The @font-face rule is used to exhaustively describe a font face for use in
a document.

• The !important rule indicates that a user-defined rule should take

precedence over the author's style sheets.

NOTE: There are other @ rules which we will cover in subsequent chapters.

The @importRule
The @import rule allows you to import styles from another style sheet. It should
appear right at the start of the style sheet before any of the rules, and its value
is a URL.

It can be written in one of the two following ways:

<style tyle="text/css">
<!--
@import "mystyle.css";

or

@import url("mystyle.css");
.......other CSS rules .....
-->
</style>

The significance of the @import rule is that it allows you to develop your style
sheets with a modular approach. You can create various style sheets and then
include them wherever you need them.

110
 CSS

The @charsetRule
If you are writing your document using a character set other than ASCII or ISO-
8859-1 you might want to set the @charset rule at the top of your style sheet to
indicate what character set the style sheet is written in.

The @charset rule must be written right at the beginning of the style sheet
without even a space before it. The value is held in quotes and should be one of
the standard character-sets. For example:

<style tyle="text/css">
<!--
@charset "iso-8859-1"
.......other CSS rules .....
-->
</style>

The @font-faceRule
The @font-face rule is used to exhaustively describe a font face for use in a
document. @font-face may also be used to define the location of a font for
download, although this may run into implementation-specific limits.

In general, @font-face is extremely complicated, and its use is not

recommended for any except those who are expert in font metrics.

Here is an example:

<style tyle="text/css">
<!--
@font-face {
font-family: "Scarborough Light";
src: url("http://www.font.site/s/scarbo-lt");
}
@font-face {
font-family: Santiago;
src: local ("Santiago"),
url("http://www.font.site/s/santiago.tt")

111
 CSS

format("truetype");
unicode-range: U+??,U+100-220;
font-size: all;
font-family: sans-serif;
}
-->
</style>

The !importantRule
Cascading Style Sheets cascade. It means that the styles are applied in the
same order as they are read by the browser. The first style is applied and then
the second and so on.

The !important rule provides a way to make your CSS cascade. It also includes
the rules that are to be applied always. A rule having a !important property will
always be applied, no matter where that rule appears in the CSS document.

For example, in the following style sheet, the paragraph text will be black, even
though the first style property applied is red:

<style tyle="text/css">
<!--
p { color: #ff0000; }
p { color: #000000; }
-->
</style>

So, if you wanted to make sure that a property always applied, you would add
the !important property to the tag. So, to make the paragraph text always red,
you should write it as follows:

<style tyle="text/css">
<!--
p { color: #ff0000 !important; }
p { color: #000000; }
-->

112
 CSS

</style>

Here you have made p { color: #ff0000 !important; } mandatory, now this rule
will always apply even you have defined another rule p { color: #000000; }.

113
 26. FILTERS
CSS

You can use CSS filters to add special effects to text, images and other aspects
of a webpage without using images or other graphics. Filters only work on
Internet Explorer 4.0. If you are developing your site for multiple browsers,
then it may not be a good idea to use CSS filters because there is a possibility
that it would not give any advantage.

In this chapter, we will see the details of each CSS filter. These filters may not
work in your browser.

Alpha Channel
The Alpha Channel filter alters the opacity of the object, which makes it blend
into the background. The following parameters can be used in this filter:

Parameter Description

opacity Level of the opacity. 0 is fully transparent, 100 is fully opaque.

finishopacity Level of the opacity at the other end of the object.

Style The shape of the opacity gradient.

0 = uniform
1 = linear

2 = radial

3 = rectangular

startX X coordinate for opacity gradient to begin.

startY Y coordinate for opacity gradient to begin.

finishX X coordinate for opacity gradient to end.

finishY Y coordinate for opacity gradient to end.

114
 CSS

Example

<p>Image Example:</p>

<img src="/images/css.gif" alt="CSS Logo" style="Filter:

Alpha(Opacity=100, FinishOpacity=0, Style=2, StartX=20, StartY=40,
FinishX=0, FinishY=0)">

<p>Text Example:</p>

<div style="width: 357; height: 50; font-size: 30pt; font-family: Arial

Black; color: blue; Filter: Alpha(Opacity=100, FinishOpacity=0, Style=1,
StartX=0, StartY=0, FinishX=580, FinishY=0)">CSS Tutorials</div>

It will produce the following result:

Motion Blur
Motion Blur is used to create blurred pictures or text with the direction and
strength. The following parameters can be used in this filter:

Parameter Description

add True or false. If true, the image is added to the blurred image;
and if false, the image is not added to the blurred image.

115
 CSS

direction The direction of the blur, going clockwise, rounded to 45-degree

increments. The default value is 270 (left).

0 = Top

45 = Top right

90 = Right

135 = Bottom right

180 = Bottom

225 = Bottom left

270 = Left

315 = Top left

strength The number of pixels the blur will extend. The default is 5 pixels.

Example

<p>Image Example:</p>

<img src="/images/css.gif" alt="CSS Logo" style="Filter: Blur(Add = 0,

Direction = 225, Strength = 10)">

<p>Text Example:</p>

<div style="width: 357; height: 50; font-size: 30pt; font-family: Arial

Black; color: blue; Filter: Blur(Add = 1, Direction = 225, Strength =
10)">CSS Tutorials</div>

116
 CSS

It will produce the following result:

Chroma Filter
Chroma Filter is used to make any particular color transparent and usually it is
used with images. You can use it with scrollbars also. The following parameter
can be used in this filter:

Parameter Description

Color The color that you'd like to be transparent.

Example

<p>Image Example:</p>

<img src="/images/css.gif" alt="CSS Logo" style="Filter: Chroma(Color =

#FFFFFF)">

<p>Text Example:</p>

117
 CSS

<div style="width: 580; height: 50; font-size: 30pt; font-family: Arial

Black; color: #3300FF; Filter: Chroma(Color = #3300FF)">CSS
Tutorials</div>

It will produce the following result:

Drop ShadowEffect
Drop Shadow is used to create a shadow of your object at the specified X
(horizontal) and Y (vertical) offset and color.

The following parameters can be used in this filter:

Parameter Description

Color The color, in #RRGGBB format, of the dropshadow.

offX Number of pixels the drop shadow is offset from the visual
object, along the x-axis. Positive integers move the drop shadow
to the right, negative integers move the drop shadow to the left.

offY Number of pixels the drop shadow is offset from the visual
object, along the y-axis. Positive integers move the drop shadow
down, negative integers move the drop shadow up.

118
 CSS

positive If true, all opaque pixels of the object have a dropshadow. If

false, all transparent pixels have a dropshadow. The default is
true.

Example

<p>Image Example:</p>

<img src="/images/css.gif" alt="CSS Logo" style="Filter: Chroma(Color =

#000000) DropShadow(Color=#FF0000, OffX=2, OffY=2, Positive=1)">

<p>Text Example:</p>

<div style="width: 357; height: 50; font-size: 30pt; font-family: Arial

Black; color: red; Filter: DropShadow(Color=#000000, OffX=2, OffY=2,
Positive=1)">CSS Tutorials</div>

It will produce the following result:

119
 CSS

Flip Effect
Flip effect is used to create a mirror image of the object. The following
parameters can be used in this filter:

Parameter Description

FlipH Creates a horizontal mirror image.

FlipV Creates a vertical mirror image.

Example

<p>Image Example:</p>

<img src="/images/css.gif" alt="CSS Logo" style="Filter: FlipH">

<img src="/images/css.gif" alt="CSS Logo" style="Filter: FlipV">

<p>Text Example:</p>

<div style="width: 300; height: 50; font-size: 30pt; font-family: Arial

Black; color: red; Filter: FlipV">CSS Tutorials</div>

120
 CSS

It will produce the following result:

Glow Effect
Glow effect is used to create a glow around the object. If it is a transparent
image, then glow is created around the opaque pixels of it. The following
parameters can be used in this filter:

Parameter Description

color The color you want the glow to be.

strength The intensity of the glow (from 1 to 255).

121
 CSS

Example

<p>Image Example:</p>

<img src="/images/css.gif" alt="CSS Logo" style="Filter: Chroma(Color =

#000000) Glow(Color=#00FF00, Strength=20)">

<p>Text Example:</p>

<div style="width: 357; height: 50; font-size: 30pt; font-family: Arial

Black; color: red; Filter: Glow(Color=#00FF00, Strength=20)">CSS
Tutorials</div>

It will produce the following result:

Grayscale Effect
Grayscale effect is used to convert the colors of the object to 256 shades of
gray. The following parameter is used in this filter:

Parameter Description

Gray Converts the colors of the object to 256 shades of gray.

122
 CSS

Example

<p>Image Example:</p>

<img src="/images/css.gif" alt="CSS Logo" style="Filter: Gray">

<p>Text Example:</p>

<div style="width: 357; height: 50; font-size: 30pt; font-family: Arial

Black; color: red; Filter: Gray">CSS Tutorials</div>

It will produce the following result:

Invert Effect
Invert effect is used to map the colors of the object to their opposite values in
the color spectrum, i.e., to create a negative image. The following parameter is
used in this filter:

Parameter Description

Invert Maps the colors of the object to their opposite value in the color
spectrum.

123
 CSS

Example

<p>Image Example:</p>

<img src="/images/css.gif" alt="CSS Logo" style="Filter: invert">

<p>Text Example:</p>

<div style="width: 357; height: 50; font-size: 30pt; font-family: Arial

Black; color: red; Filter: invert">CSS Tutorials</div>

It will produce the following result:

Mask Effect
Mask effect is used to turn transparent pixels to a specified color and makes
opaque pixels transparent. The following parameter is used in this filter:

Parameter Description

Color The color that the transparent areas will become.

124
 CSS

Example

<p>Image Example:</p>

<img src="/images/css.gif" alt="CSS Logo" style="FILTER: Chroma(Color =

#000000) Mask(Color=#00FF00)">

<p>Text Example:</p>

<div style="width: 357; height: 50; font-size: 30pt; font-family: Arial

Black; color: red; Filter: Mask(Color=#00FF00)">CSS Tutorials</div>

It will produce following result:

Shadow Filter
Shadow filter is used to create an attenuated shadow in the direction and color
specified. This is a filter that lies in between Dropshadow and Glow. The
following parameters can be used in this filter:

Parameter Description

color The color that you want the shadow to be.

125
 CSS

direction The direction of the blur, going clockwise, rounded to 45-degree

increments. The default value is 270 (left).

0 = Top

45 = Top right

90 = Right

135 = Bottom right

180 = Bottom

225 = Bottom left

270 = Left

315 = Top left

Example

<p>Image Example:</p>

<img src="/images/css.gif" alt="CSS Logo" style="FILTER: Chroma(Color =

#000000) Shadow(Color=#00FF00, Direction=225)">

<p>Text Example:</p>

<div style="width: 357; height: 50; font-size: 30pt; font-family: Arial

Black; color: red; Filter: Shadow(Color=#0000FF, Direction=225)">CSS
Tutorials</div>

126
 CSS

It will produce the following result:

Wave Effect
Wave effect is used to give the object a sine wave distortion to make it look
wavy. The following parameters can be used in this filter:

Parameter Description

Add A value of 1 adds the original image to the waved image, 0 does
not.

Freq The number of waves.

Light The strength of the light on the wave (from 0 to 100).

phase At what degree the sine wave should start (from 0 to 100).

strength The intensity of the wave effect.

127
 CSS

Example

<p>Image Example:</p>

<img src="/images/css.gif" alt="CSS Logo" style="FILTER: Chroma(Color =

#000000) Wave(Add=0, Freq=1, LightStrength=10, Phase=220, Strength=10)">

<p>Text Example:</p>

<div style="width: 357; height: 50; font-size: 30pt; font-family: Arial

Black; color: red; Filter: Wave(Add=0, Freq=1, LightStrength=10,
Phase=20, Strength=20)">CSS Tutorials</div>

It will produce the following result:

X-Ray Effect
X- Ray effect grayscales and flattens the color depth. The following parameter is
used in this filter:

Parameter Description

xray Grayscales and flattens the color depth.

128
 CSS

Example

<p>Image Example:</p>

<img src="/images/css.gif" alt="CSS Logo" style="Filter: Xray"">

<p>Text Example:</p>

<div style="width: 357; height: 50; font-size: 30pt; font-family: Arial

Black; color: red; style="Filter: Xray">CSS Tutorials</div>

It will produce the following result:

129
 27. MEDIA TYPES
CSS

One of the most important features of style sheets is that they specify how a
document is to be presented on different media: on the screen, on paper, with a
speech synthesizer, with a braille device, etc.

We have currently two ways to specify media dependencies for style sheets:

• Specify the target medium from a style sheet with the @media or
@import at-rules.

• Specify the target medium within the document language.

The @mediarule
The @media rule specifies the target media types (separated by commas) of a
set of rules.

Given below is an example:

<style tyle="text/css">
<!--
@media print {
body { font-size: 10pt }
}
@media screen {
body { font-size: 12pt }
}
@media screen, print {
body { line-height: 1.2 }
}
-->
</style>

130
 CSS

The DocumentLanguage
In HTML 4.0, the media attribute on the LINK element specifies the target media
of an external style sheet.

Following is an example:

<style tyle="text/css">
<!--
<!doctype html public "-//w3c//dtd html 4.0//en">
<html>
<head>
<title>link to a target medium</title>
<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css"
media="print, handheld" href="foo.css">
</head>
<body>
<p>the body...
</body>
</html>
-->
</style>

Recognized MediaTypes
The names chosen for CSS media types reflect target devices for which the
relevant properties make sense. They give a sense of what device the media
type is meant to refer to. Given below is a list of various media types:

Value Description

all Suitable for all devices.

aural Intended for speech synthesizers.

braille Intended for braille tactile feedback devices.

131
 CSS

embossed Intended for paged braille printers.

handheld Intended for handheld devices (typically small screen,

monochrome, limited bandwidth).

print Intended for paged, opaque material and for documents viewed on
screen in print preview mode. Please consult the section on paged
media.

projection Intended for projected presentations, for example projectors or

print to transparencies. Please consult the section on paged
media.

screen Intended primarily for color computer screens.

tty Intended for media using a fixed-pitch character grid, such as

teletypes, terminals, or portable devices with limited display
capabilities.

tv Intended for television-type devices.

NOTE: Media type names are case-insensitive.

132
 28. PAGED MEDIA
CSS

Paged media differ from continuous media in that the content of the document is
split into one or more discrete pages. Paged media includes paper,
transparencies, pages that are displayed on computer screens, etc.

The CSS2 standard introduces some basic pagination control features that let
authors help the browser figure out how to best print their documents.

The CSS2 page model specifies how a document is formatted within a

rectangular area -- the page box -- that has a finite width and height. These
features fall into two groups:

• CSS2 features that define a particular page layout.

• CSS2 features that control the pagination of a document.

Defining Pages: The @page Rule

The CSS2 defines a "page box", a box of finite dimensions, in which content is
rendered. The page box is a rectangular region that contains two areas:

• The page area: The page area includes the boxes laid out on that page.
The edges of the page area act as the initial containing block for layout
that occurs between page breaks.

• The margin area: It surrounds the page area.

You can specify the dimensions, orientation, margins, etc., of a page box within
an @page rule. The dimensions of the page box are set with the 'size' property.
The dimensions of the page area are the dimensions of the page box minus the
margin area.

For example, the following @page rule sets the page box size to 8.5 x 11 inches
and creates '2cm' margin on all sides between the page box edge and the page
area:

<style type="text/css">
<!--
@page { size:8.5in 11in; margin: 2cm }
-->
</style>

133
 CSS

You can use the margin, margin-top, margin-bottom, margin-left, and margin-
right properties within the @page rule to set margins for your page.

Finally, the marks property is used within the @page rule to create crop and
registration marks outside the page box on the target sheet. By default, no
marks are printed. You may use one or both of the crop and cross keywords to
create crop marks and registration marks, respectively, on the target print page.

Setting PageSize
The size property specifies the size and orientation of a page box. There are four
values, which can be used for page size:

• auto: The page box will be set to the size and orientation of the target
sheet.

• landscape: Overrides the target's orientation. The page box is of the

same size as the target, and the longer sides are horizontal.

• portrait: Overrides the target's orientation. The page box is the same size
as the target, and the shorter sides are horizontal.

• length: Length values for the 'size' property create an absolute page box.
If only one length value is specified, it sets both the width and height of
the page box. Percentage values are not allowed for the 'size' property.

In the following example, the outer edges of the page box will align with the
target. The percentage value on the 'margin' property is relative to the target
size so if the target sheet dimensions are 21.0cm x 29.7cm (i.e., A4), the
margins are 2.10cm and 2.97cm.

<style type="text/css">
<!--
@page {
size: auto; /* auto is the initial value */
margin: 10%;
}
-->
</style>

The following example sets the width of the page box to be 8.5 inches and the
height to be 11 inches. The page box in this example requires a target sheet size
of 8.5"x11" or larger.

134
 CSS

<style type="text/css">
<!--
@page {
size: 8.5in 11in; /* width height */
}
-->
</style>

Once you create a named page layout, you can use it in your document by
adding the page property to a style that is later applied to an element in your
document. For example, this style renders all the tables in your document on
landscape pages:

<style type="text/css">
<!--
@page { size : portrait }
@page rotated { size : landscape }
table { page : rotated }
-->
</style>

Due to the above rule, while printing, if the browser encounters a <table>
element in your document and the current page layout is the default portrait
layout, it starts a new page and prints the table on a landscape page.

Left, Right, and First Pages

When printing double-sided documents, the page boxes on left and right pages
should be different. It can be expressed through two CSS pseudo-classes as
follows:

<style type="text/css">
<!--
@page :left {
margin-left: 4cm;
margin-right: 3cm;
}

135
 CSS

@page :right {
margin-left: 3cm;
margin-right: 4cm;
}
-->
</style>

You can specify the style for the first page of a document with the :first pseudo-
class:

<style type="text/css">
<!--
@page { margin: 2cm } /* All margins set to 2cm */

@page :first {
margin-top: 10cm /* Top margin on first page 10cm */
}
-->
</style>

Controlling Pagination
Unless you specify otherwise, page breaks occur only when the page format
changes or when the content overflows the current page box. To otherwise force
or suppress page breaks, use the page-break-before, page-break-after, and
page-break-inside properties.

Both page-break-before and page-break-after accept the auto, always, avoid,

left, and right keywords.

The keyword auto is the default, it lets the browser generate page breaks as
needed. The keyword always forces a page break before or after the element,
while avoid suppresses a page break immediately before or after the element.
The left and right keywords force one or two page breaks, so that the element is
rendered on a left-hand or right-hand page.

Using pagination properties is quite straightforward. Suppose your document has

level-1 headers to start new chapters with level-2 headers to denote sections.

136
 CSS

You'd like each chapter to start on a new, right-hand page, but you don't want
section headers to be split across a page break from the subsequent content.
You can achieve this using the following rule:

<style type="text/css">
<!--
h1 { page-break-before : right }
h2 { page-break-after : avoid }
-->
</style>

Use only the auto and avoid values with the page-break-inside property. If you
prefer that your tables are not be broken across pages if possible, you would
write the rule as follows:

<style type="text/css">
<!--
table { page-break-inside : avoid }
-->
</style>

Controlling Widows and Orphans

In typographic lingo, orphans are those lines of a paragraph that are stranded at
the bottom of a page due to a page break, while widows are those lines
remaining at the top of a page following a page break. Generally, printed pages
do not look attractive with single lines of text stranded at the top or bottom.
Most printers try to leave at least two or more lines of text at the top or bottom
of each page.

• The orphans property specifies the minimum number of lines of a

paragraph that must be left at the bottom of a page.

• The widows property specifies the minimum number of lines of a

paragraph that must be left at the top of a page.

Here is an example to create 4 lines at the bottom and 3 lines at the top of each
page:

<style type="text/css">

137
 CSS

<!--
@page{orphans:4; widows:2;}
-->
</style>

138
 29. AURAL MEDIA
CSS

A web document can be rendered by a speech synthesizer. CSS2 allows you to

attach specific sound style features to specific document elements.

Aural rendering of documents is mainly used by the visually impaired. Some of

the situations in which a document can be accessed by means of aural rendering
rather than visual rendering are the following.

• Learning to read

• Training

• Web access in vehicles

• Home entertainment

• Industrial documentation

• Medical documentation

When using aural properties, the canvas consists of a three-dimensional physical

space (sound surrounds) and a temporal space (one may specify sounds before,
during, and after other sounds).

The CSS properties also allow you to vary the quality of synthesized speech
(voice type, frequency, inflection, etc.).

Here is an example:

<style tyle="text/css">
<!--
h1, h2, h3, h4, h5, h6 {
voice-family: paul;
stress: 20;
richness: 90;
cue-before: url("ping.au")
}
p.heidi { azimuth: center-left }
p.peter { azimuth: right }
-->

139
 CSS

</style>

It will direct the speech synthesizer to speak headers in a voice (a kind of audio
font) called "paul", on a flat tone, but in a very rich voice. Before speaking the
headers, a sound sample will be played from the given URL.

Paragraphs with class ‘heidi’ will appear to come from front left (if the sound
system is capable of spatial audio), and paragraphs of class ‘peter’ from the
right.

Now we will see the various properties related to aural media.

• The azimuth property sets, where the sound should come from
horizontally.

• The elevation property sets, where the sound should come from
vertically.

• The cue-after specifies a sound to be played after speaking an element's

content to delimit it from other.

• The cue-before specifies a sound to be played before speaking an

element's content to delimit it from other.

• The cue is a shorthand for setting cue-before and cue-after.

• The pause-after specifies a pause to be observed after speaking an

element's content.

• The pause-before specifies a pause to be observed before speaking an

element's content.

• The pause is a shorthand for setting pause-before and pause-after.

• The pitch specifies the average pitch (a frequency) of the speaking voice.

• The pitch-range specifies the variation in average pitch.

• The play-during specifies a sound to be played as a background, while an

element's content is spoken.

• The richness specifies the richness, or brightness, of the speaking voice.

• The speak specifies whether the text will be rendered aurally and if so, in
what manner.

• The speak-numeral controls how numerals are spoken.

• The speak-punctuation specifies how punctuation is spoken.

• The speech-rate specifies the speaking rate.

140
 CSS

• The stress specifies the height of "local peaks" in the intonation contour
of a voice.

• The voice-family specifies the prioritized list of voice family names.

• The volume refers to the median volume of the voice.

The azimuthProperty
The azimuth property sets where the sound should come from horizontally. The
possible values are listed below:

• angle: Position is described in terms of an angle within the range -

360deg to 360deg. The value 0deg means directly ahead in the center of
the sound stage.90deg is to the right, 180deg behind, and 270deg (or,
equivalently and more conveniently, -90deg) to the left.

• left-side: Same as '270deg'. With 'behind', '270deg'.

• far-left: Same as '300deg'. With 'behind', '240deg'.

• left: Same as '320deg'. With 'behind', '220deg'.

• center-left: Same as '340deg'. With 'behind', '200deg'.

• center: Same as '0deg'. With 'behind', '180deg'.

• center-right: Same as '20deg'. With 'behind', '160deg'.

• right: Same as '40deg'. With 'behind', '140deg'.

• far-right: Same as '60deg'. With 'behind', '120deg'.

• right-side: Same as '90deg'. With 'behind', '90deg'.

• leftwards: Moves the sound to the left and relative to the current angle.
More precisely, subtracts 20 degrees.

• rightwards: Moves the sound to the right, relative to the current angle.
More precisely, adds 20 degrees.

Here is an example:

<style tyle="text/css">
<!--
h1 { azimuth: 30deg }
td.a { azimuth: far-right } /* 60deg */
#12 { azimuth: behind far-right } /* 120deg */

141
 CSS

p.comment { azimuth: behind } /* 180deg */

-->
</style>

The elevationProperty
The elevation property sets where the sound should come from vertically. The
possible values are as follows:

• angle: Specifies the elevation as an angle, between -

90deg and 90deg. 0deg means on the forward horizon, which loosely
means level with the listener. 90deg means directly overhead and -
90deg means directly below.

• below: Same as '-90deg'.

• level: Same as '0deg'.

• above: Same as '90deg'.

• higher: Adds 10 degrees to the current elevation.

• lower: Subtracts 10 degrees from the current elevation.

Here is an example:

<style tyle="text/css">
<!--
h1 { elevation: above }
tr.a { elevation: 60deg }
tr.b { elevation: 30deg }
tr.c { elevation: level }
-->
</style>

The cue-afterProperty
The cue-after property specifies a sound to be played after speaking an
element's content to delimit it from other. The possible values include:

• url: The URL of a sound file to be played.

• none: Nothing has to be played.

142
 CSS

Here is an example:

<style tyle="text/css">
<!--
a {cue-after: url("dong.wav");}
h1 {cue-after: url("pop.au"); }
-->
</style>

The cue-beforeProperty
This property specifies a sound to be played before speaking an element's
content to delimit it from other. The possible values include:

• url: The URL of a sound file to be played.

• none: Nothing has to be played.

Here is an example:

<style tyle="text/css">
<!--
a {cue-before: url("bell.aiff");}
h1 {cue-before: url("pop.au"); }
-->
</style>

The cueProperty
The cue property is a shorthand for setting cue-before and cue-after. If two
values are given, the first value is cue-before and the second is cue-after. If only
one value is given, it applies to both properties.

For example, the following two rules are equivalent:

<style tyle="text/css">
<!--
h1 {cue-before: url("pop.au"); cue-after: url("pop.au") }
h1 {cue: url("pop.au") }

143
 CSS

-->
</style>

The pause-afterProperty
This property specifies a pause to be observed after speaking an element's
content. The possible values are:

• time: Expresses the pause in absolute time units (seconds and

milliseconds).

• percentage: Refers to the inverse of the value of the speech-

rate property. For example, if the speech-rate is 120 words per minute
(i.e., a word takes half a second, or 500ms), then a pause-after of 100%
means a pause of 500 ms and a pause-after of 20% means 100ms.

The pause-beforeProperty
This property specifies a pause to be observed before speaking an element's
content. The possible values are:

• time: Expresses the pause in absolute time units (seconds and

milliseconds).

• percentage: Refers to the inverse of the value of the speech-

rate property. For example, if the speech-rate is 120 words per minute
(i.e., a word takes half a second, or 500ms), then a pause-before of 100%
means a pause of 500 ms and a pause-before of 20% means 100ms.

The pauseProperty
This property is a shorthand for setting pause-before and pause-after. If two
values are given, the first value is pause-before and the second is pause-after.

Here is an example:

<style tyle="text/css">
<!--
/* pause-before: 20ms; pause-after: 20ms */
h1 { pause : 20ms }
/* pause-before: 30ms; pause-after: 40ms */
h2{ pause : 30ms 40ms }

144
 CSS

/* pause-before: ?; pause-after: 10ms */

h3 { pause-after : 10ms }
-->
</style>

The pitchProperty
This property specifies the average pitch (a frequency) of the speaking voice.
The average pitch of a voice depends on the voice family. For example, the
average pitch for a standard male voice is around 120Hz, but for a female voice,
it's around 210Hz. The possible values are:

• frequency: Specifies the average pitch of the speaking voice in hertz

(Hz).

• x-low, low, medium, high, x-high: These values do not map to

absolute frequencies, since these values depend on the voice family.

The pitch-rangeProperty
This property specifies variation in average pitch. The possible values are:

• number: A value between '0' and '100'. A pitch range of '0' produces a
flat, monotonic voice. A pitch range of 50 produces normal inflection. Pitch
ranges greater than 50 produce animated voices.

The play-duringProperty
This property specifies a sound to be played as a background while an element's
content is spoken. Possible values could be any of the followings:

• URI: The sound designated by this <uri> is played as a background while

the element's content is spoken.

• mix: When present, this keyword means that the sound inherited from
the parent element's play-during property continues to play and the sound
designated by the uri is mixed with it. If mix is not specified, the element's
background sound replaces the parent's.

• repeat: When present, this keyword means that the sound will repeat if it
is too short to fill the entire duration of the element. Otherwise, the sound
plays once and then stops.

• auto: The sound of the parent element continues to play.

145
 CSS

• none: This keyword means that there is silence.

Here is an example:

<style tyle="text/css">
<!--
blockquote.sad { play-during: url("violins.aiff") }
blockquote q { play-during: url("harp.wav") mix }
span.quiet { play-during: none }
-->
</style>

The richnessProperty
This property specifies the richness or brightness of the speaking voice. The
possible values are:

• number: A value between '0' and '100'. The higher the value, the more
the voice will carry. A lower value will produce a soft, mellifluous voice.

The speakProperty
This property specifies whether the text will be rendered aurally and if so, in
what manner. The possible values are:

• none: Suppresses aural rendering so that the element requires no time to

render.

• normal: Uses language-dependent pronunciation rules for rendering an

element and its children.

• spell-out: Spells the text one letter at a time.

Note the difference between an element whose 'volume' property has a value of
'silent' and an element whose 'speak' property has the value 'none'. The former
takes up the same time as if it had been spoken, including any pause before and
after the element, but no sound is generated. The latter requires no time and is
not rendered.

146
 CSS

The speak-numeralProperty
This property controls how numerals are spoken. The possible values are:

• digits: Speak the numeral as individual digits. Thus, "237" is spoken "Two
Three Seven".

• continuous: Speak the numeral as a full number. Thus, "237" is spoken

"Two hundred thirty seven". Word representations are language-
dependent.

The speak-punctuationProperty
This property specifies how punctuation is spoken. The possible values are:

• code: Punctuation such as semicolons, braces, and so on are to be spoken

literally.

• none: Punctuation is not to be spoken, but instead rendered naturally as

various pauses.

The speech-rateProperty
This property specifies the speaking rate. Note that both absolute and relative
keyword values are allowed. The possible values are:

• number: Specifies the speaking rate in words per minute.

• x-slow: Same as 80 words per minute.

• slow: Same as 120 words per minute .

• medium: Same as 180 - 200 words per minute.

• fast: Same as 300 words per minute.

• x-fast: Same as 500 words per minute.

• faster: Adds 40 words per minute to the current speech rate.

• slower: Subtracts 40 words per minutes from the current speech rate.

The stressProperty
This property specifies the height of "local peaks" in the intonation contour of a
voice. English is a stressed language, and different parts of a sentence are
assigned primary, secondary, or tertiary stress. The possible values are:

147
 CSS

• number: A value between '0' and '100'. The meaning of values depends
on the language being spoken. For example, a level of '50' for a standard,
English-speaking male voice (average pitch = 122Hz), speaking with
normal intonation and emphasis would have a different meaning than '50'
for an Italian voice.

The voice-familyProperty
The value is a comma-separated, prioritized list of voice family names. It can
have the following values:

• generic-voice: Values are voice families. Possible values are 'male',

'female', and 'child'.

• specific-voice: Values are specific instances (e.g., comedian, trinoids,

carlos, lani).

Here is an example:

<style tyle="text/css">
<!--
h1 { voice-family: announcer, male }
p.part.romeo { voice-family: romeo, male }
p.part.juliet { voice-family: juliet, female }
-->
</style>

The volumeProperty
Volume refers to the median volume of the voice. It can have the following
values:

• numbers: Any number between '0' and '100'. '0' represents the minimum
audible volume level and 100 corresponds to the maximum comfortable
level.

• percentage: These values are calculated relative to the inherited value,

and are then clipped to the range '0' to '100'.

• silent: No sound at all. The value '0' does not mean the same as 'silent'.

• x-soft: Same as '0'.

• soft: Same as '25'.

148
 CSS

• medium: Same as '50'.

• loud: Same as '75'.

• x-loud: Same as '100'.

Here is an example:

<style tyle="text/css">
<!--
P.goat { volume: x-soft }
-->
</style>

Paragraphs with class goat will be very soft.

149
 30. PRINTING
CSS

You can use CSS to change the appearance of your web page when it is printed
on a paper. You can specify one font for the screen version and another for the
print version.

You have seen @media rule in the previous chapters. This rule allows you to
specify different styles for different media. So, you can define different rules for
a screen and a printer.

The following example specifies different font families for screen and printer. The
next CSS uses the same font size for both screen as well as printer.

<style tyle="text/css">
<!--
@media screen
{
p.bodyText {font-family:verdana, arial, sans-serif;}
}

@media print
{
p.bodyText {font-family:georgia, times, serif;}
}
@media screen, print
{
p.bodyText {font-size:10pt}
}
-->
</style>

150
 CSS

If you are defining your style sheet in a separate file, then you can also use the
media attribute when linking to an external style sheet:

<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css"

media="print" href="mystyle.css">

151
 31. LAYOUTS
CSS

Hope you are very comfortable with HTML tables and you are efficient in
designing page layouts using HTML Tables. But you know CSS too provides
plenty of controls for positioning elements in a document. Since CSS is the wave
of the future, why not learn and use CSS instead of tables for page layout
purposes?

The following list collects a few pros and cons of both the technologies:

• Most browsers support tables, while CSS support is being slowly adopted.

• Tables are more forgiving when the browser window size changes -
morphing their content and wrapping to accommodate the changes
accordingly. CSS positioning tends to be exact and fairly inflexible.

• Tables are much easier to learn and manipulate than CSS rules.

But each of these arguments can be reversed:

• CSS is pivotal to the future of Web documents and will be supported by

most browsers.

• CSS is more exact than tables, allowing your document to be viewed as

you intended, regardless of the browser window.

• Keeping track of nested tables can be a real pain. CSS rules tend to be
well organized, easily read, and easily changed.

Finally, we would suggest you to use whichever technology makes sense to you
and use what you know or what presents your documents in the best way.

CSS also provides table-layout property to make your tables load much faster.
Following is an example:

<table style="table-layout:fixed;width:600px;">
<tr height="30">
<td width="150">CSS table layout cell 1</td>
<td width="200">CSS table layout cell 2</td>
<td width="250">CSS table layout cell 3</td>
</tr>
</table>

152
 CSS

You will notice the benefits more on large tables. With traditional HTML, the
browser had to calculate every cell before finally rendering the table. When you
set the table-layout algorithm to fixed, however, it only needs to look at the first
row before rendering the whole table. It means your table will need to have
fixed column widths and row heights.

Sample ColumnLayout
Here are the steps to create a simple Column Layout using CSS:

Set the margin and padding of the complete document as follows:

<style tyle="text/css">
<!--
body {
margin:9px 9px 0 9px;
padding:0;
background:#FFF;
}
-->
</style>

Now, we will define a column with yellow color and later, we will attach this rule
to a <div>:

<style tyle="text/css">
<!--
#level0 {
background:#FC0;
}
-->
</style>

Up to this point, we will have a document with yellow body, so let us now define
another division inside level0:

<style tyle="text/css">
<!--

153
 CSS

#level1 {
margin-left:143px;
padding-left:9px;
background:#FFF;
}
-->
</style>

Now, we will nest one more division inside level1, and we will change just the
background color:

<style tyle="text/css">
<!--
#level2 {
background:#FFF3AC;
}
-->
</style>

Finally, we will use the same technique, nest a level3 division inside level2 to get
the visual layout for the right column:

<style tyle="text/css">
<!--
#level3 {
margin-right:143px;
padding-right:9px;
background:#FFF;
}
#main {
background:#CCC;
}
-->
</style>

154
 CSS

Complete the source code as follows:

<style tyle="text/css">
<!--
body {
margin:9px 9px 0 9px;
padding:0;
background:#FFF;}
#level0 {
background:#FC0;}
#level1 {
margin-left:143px;
padding-left:9px;
background:#FFF;}
#level2 {
background:#FFF3AC;}
#level3 {
margin-right:143px;
padding-right:9px;
background:#FFF;}
#main {
background:#CCC;}
-->
</style>
<body>
<div id="level0">
<div id="level1">
<div id="level2">
<div id="level3">
<div id="main">
Final Content goes here...
</div>

155
 CSS

</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</body>

Similarly, you can add a top navigation bar or an ad bar at the top of the page.

156
 32. VALIDATIONS
CSS

Validation is the process of checking something against a rule. When you are a
beginner, it is very common that you will commit many mistakes in writing your
CSS rules. How you will make sure whatever you have written is 100% accurate
and up to the W3 quality standards?

If you use CSS, your code needs to be correct. Improper code may cause
unexpected results in how your page looks or functions.

But if you want to validate your CSS style sheet embedded in an (X)HTML
document, you should first check that the (X)HTML you use is valid.

Tool to check the validity of (X)HTML document: Validate (X)HTML document.

You can use the following tools to check the validity of your CSS.

W3C CSS Validator (World Wide Web Consortium) This

validator checks your CSS by either file upload, direct input, or
using URI - one page at a time. This validator helps you to
locate all the errors in your CSS.

The WDG CSS check validator, lets you validate your CSS by
direct input, file upload, and using URI. Errors will be listed by
line and column numbers if you have any. Errors usually come
with links to explain the reason of error.

A CSS validator checks your Cascading Style Sheets to make sure they comply
with the CSS standards set by the W3 Consortium. There are a few validators
which will also tell you which CSS features are supported by which browsers
(since not all browsers are equal in their CSS implementation).

Why Validate Your HTML Code?

There are a number of reasons why you should validate your code. But major
ones are:

• It helps cross-browser, cross-platform, and future compatibility.

• A good quality website increases search engine visibility.

157
 CSS

• Professionalism: As a web developer, your code should not raise errors

while it is being used by visitors.

158
 33. CSS2 REFERENCE GUIDE
CSS

This is a complete reference guide for web developers where we have listed all
the CSS properties defined in the World Wide Web Consortium's Recommended
Specification for Cascading Style Sheets, Level 2.

• Aural
• Background
• Border
• Classification
• Dimension
• Font
• Generated Content
• List and Marker
• Margin
• Outlines
• Padding
• Positioning
• Table
• Text
• Print
• Pseudo-classes
• Pseudo-elements

Click any property to see its description with examples:

Property Description

azimuth Describes the position of a sound source along the

horizontal axis of the listener's environment.

background Composite property for the following properties:

background-attachment

background-color

background-image

background-position

background-repeat

background- Determines if the background image is fixed in the window

159
 CSS

attachment or scrolls as the document scrolls

background- Sets the background color of an element

color

background- Sets the background image of an element

image

background- Sets the initial position of the element's background image,

position if specified; values normally are paired to provide x, y
positions; default position is 0% 0%.

background- Determines how the background image is repeated (tiled)

repeat across an element

border Sets all four of an element's borders; value is one or more

of a color, a value for border-width, and a value for border-
style

border-bottom Sets an element's bottom border; value is one or more of a

color, a value for border-bottom-width, and a value
for border-style

border-bottom- Sets the thickness of an element's bottom border.

width

border-collapse Sets the table border rendering algorithm

border-color Sets the color of all four of an element's borders; default is

the color of the element

border-left-color Sets the color of an element's left borders; default is the

color of the element

border-right- Sets the color of an element's right borders; default is the

color color of the element

border-top-color Sets the color of an element's top borders; default is the

color of the element

border-bottom- Sets the color of an element's bottom borders; default is

color the color of the element

border-left Sets an element's left border; value is one or more of a

160
 CSS

color, a value for border-left-width, and a value for border-

style.

border-left-width Sets the thickness of an element's left border

border-right Sets an element's right border; value is one or more of a

color, a value for border-right-width, and a value
for border-style.

border-right- Sets the thickness of an element's right border

width

border-spacing With separate borders set the spacing between borders.

One value sets vertical and horizontal spacing and two
values sets horizontal and vertical spacing respectively.

border-style Sets the style of all four of an element's borders

border-top Sets an element's top border; value is one or more of a

color, a value for border-top-width, and a value for border-
style

border-top-width Sets the thickness of an element's top border.

border-width Sets the thickness of all four of an element's borders

bottom Used with the position property to place the bottom edge of
an element

caption-side Sets the position for a table caption

clear Sets which margins of an element must not be adjacent to

a floating element; the element is moved down until that
margin is clear

clip Sets the clipping mask for an element

color Sets the color of an element

content Inserts generated content around an element.

counter- Increments a counter by 1; value is a list of counter names,

increment with each name optionally followed by a value by which it is
incremented.

161
 CSS

counter-reset Resets a counter to zero; value is a list of counter names,

with each name optionally followed by a value to which it is
reset.

cue-after Plays the designated sound after an element is spoken

cue-before Plays the designated sound before an element is spoken

cursor Defines the shape of the cursor

direction Defines direction of the flow of an element content

display Controls how an element is displayed

elevation Sets the height at which a sound is played

empty-cells With separate borders, hides empty cells in a table

float Determines if an element floats to the left or right, allowing

text to wrap around it or be displayed inline

font Sets all the font attributes for an element. Value is any of
the values for:

font-style

font-variant

font-weight

font-size

line-height
font-family

font-family Defines the font for an element, either as a specific font or

as one of the generic serif, sans-serif, cursive, fantasy, and
monospace.

font-size Defines the font size

font-size-adjust Adjusts the current font's aspect ratio

font-stretch Determines the amount to stretch the current font

font-style Defines the style of the face, either normal or some type of

162
 CSS

slanted style

font-variant Defines a font to be in small caps

font-weight Defines the font weight. if a number is used, it must be a

multiple of 100 between 100 and 900; 400 is normal, 700
is the same as the keyword bold

height Defines the height of an element

left Used with the position property to place the left edge of an
element

letter-spacing Inserts additional space between text characters

line-height Sets the distance between adjacent text baselines

list-style Defines list-related styles using any of the values for:

list-style-image

liststyle-position

list-style-type

list-style-image Defines an image to be used as a list item's marker, in lieu

of the value for:

list-style-type

list-style- Indents or extends (default) a list item's marker with

position respect to the item's content

list-style-type Defines a list item's marker either for unordered lists

(circle, disc, or square) or for ordered lists (decimal,
loweralpha, lower-roman, none, upper-alpha, or upper-
roman)

margin Defines all four of an element's margins

margin-bottom Defines the bottom margin of an element. Default value is

0.

margin-left Defines the left margin of an element. Default value is 0.

margin-right Defines the right margin of an element. Default value is 0.

163
 CSS

margin-top Defines the top margin of an element. Default value is 0.

marker-offset The marker-offset property can be used in bulleted lists for

specifying the distance between the nearest border edges
of a marker box (or bullet) and its associated principal box.

marks The marks property is used to set crop marks and cross
marks on paged media. This is used with the @page rule.

max-height max-height property is used to constrain the height of an

element.

max-width max-width property is used to set the maximum width of

an element.

min-height min-height property is used to constrain the height of an

element.

min-width min-width property is used to constrain the width of an

element.

orphans Sets the minimum number of lines allowed in an orphaned

paragraph fragment

outline The outline property is a shorthand property to specify all

outline properties.

outline-color The outline-color property is used to specify the color of the

outline. Note that, unlike the border property, outline does
not take up extra space and it can be non-rectangular.

outline-color- The outline-style property is used to specify the style of the

style outline. Note that, unlike the border property, outline does
not take up extra space and it can be non-rectangular.

outline-width The outline-color property is used to specify the color of the

outline. Note that, unlike the border property, outline does
not take up extra space and it can be non-rectangular.

overflow Determines how overflow content is rendered

padding Defines all four padding amounts around an element

padding-bottom Defines the bottom padding of an element. Default value is

164
 CSS

padding-left Defines the left padding of an element. Default value is 0

padding-right Defines the right padding of an element. Default value is 0

padding-top Defines the top padding of an element. Default value is 0

page Associates a named page layout with an element

page-break-after Forces or suppresses page breaks after an element.

page-break- Forces or suppresses page breaks before an element.

before

page-break- Suppresses page breaks within an element

inside

pause The pause property is CSS shorthand for specifying

shorthand property for specifying pauses in aural media.

pause-after Pauses a media after speaking an element

pause-before Pauses a media before speaking an element

pitch Sets the average pitch of an element's spoken content

pitch-range Sets the range of the pitch, from 0 (flat) to 100 (broad);
default is 50

play-during If a URL is provided, it is played during an element's

spoken content, specifying repeat loops the
audio; mix causes it to mix with, rather than replace, other
background audio.

position Sets the positioning model for an element

quotes Sets the quote symbols used to quote text

richness Sets the richness of the voice, from 0 (flat) to 100

(mellifluous); default is 50

right Used with the position property to place the right edge of
an element.

165
 CSS

size The size property is used in paged media to specify the size
of the page.

speak Determines how an element's content is spoken.

speak-header Determines if table headers are spoken once for each row
or column or each time a cell is spoken.

speak-numeral Determines how numerals are spoken

speak- Determines if punctuation is spoken or used for inflection

punctuation

speech-rate Sets the rate of speech; a number sets the rate in words
per minute

stress Sets the stress of the voice, from 0 (catatonic) to 100

(hyperactive); default is 50.

table-layout Determines the table-rendering algorithm

text-align Sets the text alignment style for an element

text-decoration Defines any decoration for the text; values may be

combined

text-indent Defines the indentation of the first line of text in an

element; default is 0

text-shadow Creates text drop shadows of varying colors and offsets

text-transform Transforms the text in the element accordingly

top Used with the position property to place the top edge of an
element.

vertical-align Sets the vertical positioning of an element

visibility Determines if an element is visible in the document or table

voice-family Selects a named voice family to speak an element's content

volume Sets the volume of spoken content; numeric values range

from 0 to 100

166
 CSS

white-space Defines how whitespace within an element is handled

widows Sets the minimum number of lines allowed in a widowed

paragraph fragment

width Defines the width of an element

word-spacing Inserts additional space between words

z-index Sets the rendering layer for the current element.

Pseudo-classes & Pseudo-elements

Property Description

:active Use this class to add special effect to an activated element

:focus Use this class to add special effect to an element while the
element has focus

:hover Use this class to add special effect to an element when you
mouse over it

:link Use this class to add special effect to an unvisited link

:visited Use this class to add special effect to a visited link

:first-child Use this class to add special effect to an element that is the
first child of some other element.

:lang Use this class to specify a language to use in a specified

element

:first-letter Use this element to add special effect to the first letter of a text

:first-line Use this element to add special effect to the first line of a text

:before Use this element to insert some content before an element

:after Use this element to insert some content after an element

167
 34. COLOR REFERENCES
CSS

The following table shows the 16 color names that were introduced in HTML 3.2,
to support the 16 colors that 8-bit graphics cards offered. Same set of color can
be used in CSS:

Color Name Hex Value Color Show

aqua #00ffff Demo

black #000000 Demo

blue #0000ff Demo

fuchsia #ff00ff Demo

green #008000 Demo

gray #808080 Demo

lime #00ff00 Demo

maroon #800000 Demo

navy #000080 Demo

olive #808000 Demo

purple #800080 Demo

red #ff0000 Demo

silver #c0c0c0 Demo

teal #008080 Demo

white #ffffff Demo

yellow #ffff00 Demo

168
 CSS

There are other colors, which are not part of HTML or XHTML but they are
supported by most of the versions of IE or Netscape. These color names can be
used in CSS as well.

Color Name Hex Value Color Show

aliceblue #f0f8ff Demo

antiquewhite #faebd7 Demo

aquamarine #7fffd4 Demo

azure #f0ffff Demo

beige #f5f5dc Demo

bisque #ffe4c4 Demo

blanchedalmond #ffebcd Demo

blueviolet #8a2be2 Demo

brown #a52a2a Demo

burlywood #deb887 Demo

cadetblue #5f9ea0 Demo

chartreuse #7fff00 Demo

chocolate #d2691e Demo

coral #ff7f50 Demo

cornflowerblue #6495ed Demo

cornsilk #fff8dc Demo

crimson #dc143c Demo

cyan #00ffff Demo

darkblue #00008b Demo

darkcyan #008b8b Demo

169
 CSS

darkgoldenrod #b8860b Demo

darkgray #a9a9a9 Demo

darkgreen #006400 Demo

darkkhaki #bdb76b Demo

darkmagenta #8b008b Demo

darkolivegreen #556b2f Demo

darkorange #ff8c00 Demo

darkorchid #9932cc Demo

darkred #8b0000 Demo

darksalmon #e9967a Demo

darkseagreen #8fbc8f Demo

darkslateblue #483d8b Demo

darkslategray #2f4f4f Demo

darkturquoise #00ced1 Demo

darkviolet #9400d3 Demo

deeppink #ff1493 Demo

deepskyblue #00bfff Demo

dimgray #696969 Demo

dodgerblue #1e90ff Demo

firebrick #b22222 Demo

floralwhite #fffaf0 Demo

forestgreen #228b22 Demo

gainsboro #dcdcdc Demo

170
 CSS

ghostwhite #f8f8ff Demo

gold #ffd700 Demo

goldenrod #daa520 Demo

gray #808080 Demo

greenyellow #adff2f Demo

honeydew #f0fff0 Demo

hotpink #ff69b4 Demo

indianred #cd5c5c Demo

indigo #4b0082 Demo

ivory #fffff0 Demo

khaki #f0e68c Demo

lavender #e6e6fa Demo

lavenderblush #fff0f5 Demo

lawngreen #7cfc00 Demo

lemonchiffon #fffacd Demo

lightblue #add8e6 Demo

lightcoral #f08080 Demo

lightcyan #e0ffff Demo

lightgoldenrodyellow #fafad2 Demo

lightgreen #90ee90 Demo

lightgrey #d3d3d3 Demo

lightpink #ffb6c1 Demo

lightsalmon #ffa07a Demo

171
 CSS

lightseagreen #20b2aa Demo

lightskyblue #87cefa Demo

lightslategray #778899 Demo

lightsteelblue #b0c4de Demo

lightyellow #ffffe0 Demo

limegreen #32cd32 Demo

linen #faf0e6 Demo

magenta #ff00ff Demo

mediumblue #0000cd Demo

mediumorchid #ba55d3 Demo

mediumpurple #9370db Demo

midnightblue #191970 Demo

mistyrose #ffe4e1 Demo

moccasin #ffe4b5 Demo

oldlace #fdf5e6 Demo

orange #ffa500 Demo

orchid #da70d6 Demo

peachpuff #ffdab9 Demo

peru #cd853f Demo

pink #ffc0cb Demo

plum #dda0dd Demo

purple #800080 Demo

rosybrown #bc8f8f Demo

172
 CSS

royalblue #4169e1 Demo

salmon #fa8072 Demo

sandybrown #f4a460 Demo

seagreen #2e8b57 Demo

sienna #a0522d Demo

skyblue #87ceeb Demo

slateblue #6a5acd Demo

steelblue #4682b4 Demo

tan #d2b48c Demo

thistle #d8bfd8 Demo

tomato #ff6347 Demo

violet #ee82ee Demo

wheat #f5deb3 Demo

whitesmoke #f5f5f5 Demo

yellow #ffff00 Demo

yellowgreen #9acd32 Demo

173