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 Programming
Fundamentals in
JavaScript
Published by Maia L.L.C.
Idaho, U.S.A.
maiaco.com

ISBN 978-0-9962463-2-3

Copyright © 2017 by Rex A. Barzee. All rights reserved.

Except as permitted under the Copyright Act of 1976, no
part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or
otherwise, without the prior written permission of the
author.

The author and publisher of this book have used their best
efforts in preparing this book, and the information
contained in this book is believed to be reliable. These
efforts include the development, research, and testing of
the theories and computer programs in this book to
determine their correctness. However, because of the
possibility of human or mechanical error, the author and
publisher make no warranty of any kind, expressed or
implied, with regard to these programs or the
documentation or information contained in this book. The
author and publisher shall not be liable in any event for
incidental or consequential damages in connection with or
arising out of the furnishing, performance, or use of these
programs.
 Contents
Page List

iii
Preface
1. How to Use This Book
2. Conventions
3. Acknowledgments
4. Review This Book

Chapter 1. Computer Hardware

1. Chapter Outcome
2. Semiconductors
3. Parts of a Computer
4. Data Sizes
5. Clock Speeds
6. Classes of Computers
7. Categories of Software
8. Character Data
9. Execution Example
10. Review Questions

Chapter 2. Algorithms and Computer Programs

1. Chapter Outcomes
2. Defining Table
3. Algorithms
4. Computer Programs
5. Computer Operations
6. Control Structures
7. Chapter Summary
8. Review Questions

Chapter 3. HTML Basics

1. Chapter Outcomes
 2. Starting with HTML
3. Document Type Declaration
4. Comments
5. HTML Elements
6. Case Insensitive
7. Well Formed HTML
8. Required Elements
9. Example HTML Document
10. Example HTML Document with a Form
11. Common Mistakes
12. Chapter Summary
13. Review Questions
14. Assignments

Chapter 4. JavaScript Basics

1. Chapter Outcomes

iv
2. Starting with JavaScript
3. Running a Program
4. Comments
5. Statements
6. Case Sensitive
7. Declaring Variables
8. String Concatenation
9. Popup Windows
10. Text Fields and Divisions
11. Reserved Words
12. Fixing a Program that Doesn’t Work
13. Common Mistakes
14. Chapter Summary
15. Review Questions
16. Programming Assignments

Chapter 5. Variables and Arithmetic

1. Chapter Outcomes
2. Declaring a Variable
3. Variable Types
 4. Assigning a Value to a Variable
5. Desk Checks
6. Swapping Values
7. Arithmetic Expressions
8. Arithmetic Operators
9. Operator Precedence
10. Celsius to Fahrenheit
11. Fahrenheit to Celsius
12. Assignment Operators
13. Increment and Decrement Operators
14. Operator Precedence Revisited
15. Math Object
16. Volume of a Cylinder
17. Distance between Two Points
18. Round to Decimal Places
19. Common Mistakes
20. Chapter Summary
21. Review Questions
22. Programming Assignments

Chapter 6. Selection
1. Chapter Outcomes
2. Relational Operators
3. if …
4. if … else …
5. if … else if … else …
6. Power of else
7. switch
v

8. Even Integers
9. Odd Integers
10. Quadratic Formula
11. Nested If Statements
12. Common Mistakes
13. Chapter Summary
14. Review Questions
15. Programming Assignments
Chapter 7. Logic
1. Chapter Outcomes
2. Logical Operators
3. Choosing a Group
4. Disneyland Autopia
5. Exclusive Or
6. Logical Equivalences
7. Using De Morgan’s Law
8. Advanced Word Search
9. Truth Tables
10. Common Mistakes
11. Chapter Summary
12. Review Questions
13. Programming Assignments

Chapter 8. Repetition
1. Chapter Outcomes
2. Pre-test and Post-test Loops
3. Counting and Sentinel Controlled Loops
4. Repetition Control Structures
5. while
6. for
7. For Each Loop
8. do while
9. Zero-Based Counting Loop
10. Skipping Loop
11. Infinite Loop
12. Compound Interest
13. break
14. Prime Numbers
15. Repetitive Strings
16. Common Mistakes
vi

17. Chapter Summary

18. Review Questions
19. Programming Assignments
Chapter 9. Functions
1. Chapter Outcomes
2. Writing a Function
3. Calling a Function
4. Variable Scope
5. Advantages of Functions
6. Pseudo Random Integer
7. Code Reuse
8. Area of a Triangle
9. Surface Area of a Pyramid
10. How Long to Invest
11. Greatest Common Divisor
12. Common Mistakes
13. Chapter Summary
14. Review Questions
15. Programming Assignments

Chapter 10. Arrays

1. Chapter Outcomes
2. Declaring an Array
3. Creating an Array
4. Array Length
5. Accessing an Element
6. Filling an Array
7. Filling an Array with a Ramp
8. Reversing an Array
9. Summing the Values in an Array
10. Finding a Value (Linear Search)
11. Parallel Arrays
12. Finding a Range
13. Finding a Value (Binary Search)
14. Array Methods
15. Sorting an Array
16. Sorting Numbers
17. Common Mistakes
18. Chapter Summary
19. Review Questions
20. Programming Assignments

Chapter 11. Objects

vii
1. Chapter Outcomes
2. Objects and Classes
3. Unified Modeling Language
4. Relationships
5. Multiplicities
6. JavaScript Built-in Objects
7. Declaring an Object
8. Creating an Object
9. Accessing an Attribute
10. Calling a Method
11. Dictionaries
12. Local Storage
13. Document Object Model
14. Chapter Summary
15. Review Questions
16. Programming Assignments

Chapter 12. Strings

1. Chapter Outcomes
2. Creating a String
3. String Concatenation
4. Escape Sequences
5. String Length
6. Accessing a Character
7. Reversing a String
8. Comparing Strings
9. String Methods
10. Extracting a Substring
11. Counting Characters
12. Transposing Chords
13. Chapter Summary
14. Review Questions
15. Programming Assignments

Appendix A. Operator Precedence

1. Associativity
2. Precedence

Appendix B. Robust Code

Index

About the Author

 Physical Book Page Numbers
i, iii, iv, v, vi, vii, ix, x,

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,

10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19,

20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29,

30, 31, 32, 33, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39,

40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49,

50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 57, 58, 59,

60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69,

70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79,

80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89,

90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99,

100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108,

109,

110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118,

119,
120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128,
129,

130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138,

139,

141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148,

149,

150, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158,

159,

160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168,

169,

171, 172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178,

179,

180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 187, 188,

189,

190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 196, 197,

199, 200, 201, 203, 204, 206
 Preface
Learning to program a computer is a frustrating task for
many students. In my teaching experience, I have found

ix
that much of this frustration comes because students are
not shown enough programming examples. All of us learn
by watching others, so why should learning to program a
computer be any different? I wrote this book with minimal
text but filled with computer programming examples and
many hands on exercises to help beginning students learn
computer programming more efficiently and thoroughly and
with less frustration.

How to Use This Book

You can use this book as a tutorial or a reference. When
using it as a tutorial, you will find it helpful to step through
the example code line by line as if you were a computer.
Doing this is sometimes called a desk check because you
are checking the code on paper or “at your desk” instead of
running it on a computer. To aid you in desk checking the
example code, I have provided desk check locations
throughout the book. Each desk check location includes a
list of all the variables found in the corresponding example
code and values for the input variables. To perform a desk
check, step through the code as if you were the computer
and change the value of each variable just as the computer
would.

Conventions
Within the text of this book the following fonts and font
styles are used.

Bolded text is used to highlight an important term.

Italicized text emphasizes certain words that might be
missed by casual reading.
Underlined text indicates a hyperlink to a website.
Fixed width font is used to show computer code.
Menu font shows the words that appear in a computer
menu or on a computer button.

Chapters 5–12 include JavaScript code templates that use

these fonts and symbols.

Fixed width font is used for JavaScript keywords that

you must type exactly as they are shown in the
template.
Italicized text is used for words that you should replace
when you write code.
Any part of a template that is written in gray text is
optional.

For example within the following template, var is a

JavaScript keyword, name, name2, and name3 should be
replaced by names that you choose, and name2 and name3
are optional.

var name, name2, name3…;

Several locations in this book use brackets and parentheses
to specify an interval or range of numbers, like this [0, 25).
A bracket means that end of the interval is inclusive, or in
other words includes the listed number. A parenthesis
means that end of the interval is exclusive, or in other
words excludes the listed number. For example, in this
interval: [0, 25), 0 is included, but 25 is excluded.
To aid in your learning, this book contains different types
of learning tools such as

x
example code and tables to desk check that code
review questions
programming assignments

Locations within this book where you should write or do an

exercise are marked in the margin with a pencil icon like
this

Acknowledgments
I am grateful to Michael McLaughlin for our many
discussions on pedagogy and student learning. I thank my
wife for her support and proofreading of this book. I am
also grateful to my students who have used this book and
given me valuable suggestions, such as Adam Martin, one
of my teaching assistants, who gave me valuable
suggestions about the chapter on functions.

Review This Book

Please rate this book or write a review at
www.amazon.com/dp/B00TEO4IVU. Your comments and
suggestions help the author and publisher produce better
books.
 Chapter 1. Computer Hardware

1
Chapter Outcome
By the end of this chapter, you will have a basic understanding
of computer hardware so that you can begin to program
computers.

Semiconductors
Many of the parts of a computer, including the CPU and main
memory, are composed of millions or billions of microscopic
semiconductors that are etched in silicon. The word
semiconductor means these microscopic parts partially conduct
or sometimes conduct electricity. There are many different types
of semiconductors, and each type fulfills a specific purpose.
Below is a list of common semiconductors and their purpose.

1. Capacitor – a semiconductor that temporarily stores

electricity.

2. Diode – a semiconductor that allows electricity to flow in

only one direction.

3. LED – acronym for light emitting diode; a diode that emits

light when electricity is flowing through it.

4. Resistor – a semiconductor that resists the flow of electricity.

A resistor is often used to protect other parts of a computer
from surges in electricity.
 5. Transistor – a
semiconductor with
two inputs and one
output called the drain.
A small current on the
center wire of the
transistor controls a
larger current that
flows on the two outer
wires. A transistor can
be used as an amplifier
or an automated
switch with the small
electric current input
controlling the larger
input and output Figure 1: Photographs of common
current. semiconductors: a) capacitor, b) diode,
c) light emitting diode, d) resistor, and
e) transistor.
6. Integrated circuit – a
circuit composed of many (possibly billions) semiconductors
etched on a small piece of silicon; sometimes called a
computer chip.

2
Parts of a Computer
A modern computer is an electronic machine that is composed of
two major parts: hardware and software. Computer hardware is
the physical parts of a computer, such as the keyboard, mouse,
CPU, hard drive, memory, monitor, and printer. An easy
mnemonic to help you remember that hardware is the physical
parts of a computer is that the physical parts are hard. If
someone threw a piece of computer hardware at you, and it hit
you, it would hurt. Of course, each part of a computer has its
own specific purpose. Here is a list of common computer
hardware parts.
 7. Power supply – an electric circuit that converts the electricity
coming from an outlet in the wall, usually 115 volts, 60-
Hertz alternating current (AC), into electricity that a
computer can use, something like 3.3 volts direct current
(DC).

8. Keyboard – an input device that allows a user to enter data

into a computer by pressing keys.

9. Motherboard – the main circuit board to which the other

parts of a computer are attached. Figure 2 shows a
motherboard without a CPU, main memory, or other devices
attached to it.

Figure 2: A computer motherboard.

10. Bus – the wires and integrated circuits that transfer data
across the motherboard from one component to another.
3
11. BIOS – acronym for basic input and output system; usually
flash memory installed on the motherboard that contains
instructions the CPU executes when a computer is started.

12. CPU – acronym for

central processing unit;
a relatively large and
expensive integrated
circuit where most
calculations are done
within a computer.

13. Cache – a small

amount of fast
memory that
temporarily stores data
Figure 3: The top and bottom of an Intel
and instructions and is Core i7 CPU. Picture is courtesy of Intel.
often located on the
CPU. The cache
contains a partial copy of the contents of main memory so
that when the CPU needs data for a calculation, the CPU can
get the data from the cache and does not have to wait for
the data to come over a bus from main memory. Cache
memory is volatile which means that when a computer is
turned off or the electricity is removed, the contents of
cache are lost.

14. Main memory – integrated circuits that temporarily store

data and instructions for the CPU; sometimes called random
access memory (RAM). Main memory is volatile which means
that when a computer is turned off, the contents of main
memory are lost.
 Figure 4: Four gigabytes of DDR random access memory. Photo
is courtesy of newegg.com.

15. Hard
drive –

4
stores
data
semi-
perma
nently
usuall
y on a
spinni
ng
platter
where
micros
copic
spots
have
been Figure 5: A computer hard drive with its cover removed
magne exposing the platter and the head that moves above the
tized platter. Photo is courtesy of Evan-Amos at en.wikipedia.org
to
store data. A hard drive is non-volatile which means that
when a computer is turned off, the contents of a hard drive
are preserved. Figure 5 shows a hard drive with its cover
removed to expose the platter and the head that moves
 above the platter and magnetizes microscopic spots on the
platter.

16. CD or DVD drive – reads and writes data semi-permanently

to a disc using a laser. Compact discs (CD’s) and digital
versatile disks (DVD’s) are non-volatile.

17. Jump, thumb, or flash drive – semi-permanent memory that

can be read, written, and erased electrically. Jump drive,
thumb drive, and flash drive are different names for the
same type of memory device which stores data in flash
memory. A solid state hard drive does not store data on a
platter like a regular hard drive but instead stores data in
flash memory. Flash memory is non-volatile.

18. Monitor – an output device that displays messages, images,

etc. for a user to see.

Data Sizes
Each of the following terms is a measure of the amount of data
that a computer can store or process.

19. bit – an abbreviation for binary digit. A binary digit is a

column in a binary number where either 0 or 1 can appear.

20. nibble – four bits joined together to form a binary number.

The name nibble is an inside computing joke because a
nibble is half of a byte.

21. byte – eight bits joined together to form a binary number.

22. kilobyte – a true kilobyte is 1024 (210) bytes and not just
1000 bytes.

23. megabyte – a true megabyte is 1,048,576 (220) bytes and

5
not just 1,000,000 bytes.

24. gigabyte – 230 bytes

25. terabyte – 240 bytes

26. petabyte – 250 bytes

27. exabyte – 260 bytes

Clock Speeds
The clock within a CPU is a voltage
small electrical circuit that time
repeatedly produces an electric Figure 6: A graph of a pulsing
signal that pulses, meaning its electric signal showing three pulses
voltage rises and falls similar or cycles.
to Figure 6. This electric signal
pulses many times a second, and a single core on a CPU is
designed to complete one instruction at the end of each pulse.
Clock speed is measured in hertz. A single hertz is one cycle per
second. A cycle is from any point in the pulse to where the pulse
repeats. In other words, a single cycle starts immediately after
the electric voltage falls, includes the voltage rising, and ends
when the voltage falls again. Here are the terms used to
measure clock speeds:

28. hertz – a unit of frequency equal to one cycle per second

29. megahertz – one million cycles per second

30. gigahertz – one billion cycles per second.

Many modern computers have clock speeds of 2.5 gigahertz or

higher which means a single core on a CPU is designed to
complete 2.5 billion instructions per second. Many CPU's have
multiple cores. Each core performs calculations independently of
the other cores. A quad core CPU with a clock speed of 2.5
gigahertz is designed to complete 10 billion (4 * 2.5 gigahertz)
instructions per second. This is very fast.

Classes of Computers
Computers can be classified according to their size and primary
purpose. Here are some common computer classes.

31. micro or personal computer – a computer designed to be

used by only one person at a time, such as a smart phone,
tablet computer, laptop computer, or desktop computer.

32. workstation – a powerful computer designed to be used by

one person at a time and used to perform engineering,
scientific, and medical tasks such as designing airplane
parts.

33. mainframe – a very powerful computer designed to be used

by many people at the same time to perform business or
scientific tasks.
6

Categories of Software
Computer hardware is really just a bunch of metal that
electricity can flow through in well-defined paths. Computer
hardware will not do anything without some instructions. The
instructions are written by a computer programmer and are
called software. Computer software is simply a list of instructions
that the computer hardware executes. Computer software can
be classified according to its purpose.

34. Application – computer software that someone uses to

accomplish a specific task, such as write a letter, balance an
account, watch a movie, or play a game. Examples of
applications include Microsoft Word and Excel, Google
Chrome, and iTunes.

35. Operating system – computer software that manages the

hardware and isolates the applications from the hardware so
that the applications do not have to interact directly with the
hardware. Examples of computer operating systems include
Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X, VMS, Linux, HP-UX, and
Solaris.

Character Data
Everything in a computer’s memory is stored as a number or set
of numbers. Everything. Pictures, songs, text, instructions,
everything. Each text symbol is stored in the computer’s
memory as a number.

36. ASCII – an acronym for American Standard Code for

Information Interchange; a coding system (essentially a
table) with 128 rows that assigns a number to each English
letter and common punctuation symbol. See asciitable.com
37. Unicode – a very large coding system that includes ASCII
and assigns a number to symbols from many languages,
such as English, Portuguese, Greek, Hebrew, Arabic, and
Tagalog. See unicode.org

7
Execution Example
To help you understand how the parts of a computer work
together, consider what happens when a user double clicks on a
Microsoft Word document file (a file with a filename suffix of
.docx).

1. The operating system commands the hard drive to copy the

Microsoft Word Application (MS Word) into main memory.
2. The hard drive copies MS Word over a bus into main
memory.
3. After MS Word is in main memory, the operating system
executes MS Word and sends a command to MS Word telling
it to open the document that the user double clicked.
4. MS Word requests the operating system to read the
document from the hard drive and to place it in main
memory.
5. The operating system commands the hard drive to copy the
document file into main memory.
6. The hard drive copies the document file over a bus into main
memory.
7. For each character that is in the document
a. MS Word reads the character’s Unicode number from
main memory and requests the operating system to
draw that character in a window.
b. The operating system finds the Unicode number and its
corresponding symbol in a table and draws the symbol.

Review Questions
1. Which of the following computer components primarily
stores data? (Mark all that apply.)
a. power supply
b. keyboard
c. motherboard
d. bus
e. central processing unit (CPU)
f. cache
g. main memory
h. hard drive
i. DVD drive
j. thumb drive
k. monitor

2. Match each of the following types of computer memory with

the physical quantity that each manipulates to store data.
a. cache i. light
b. main memory ii. magnetization
c. flash memory iii. electric charge
d. hard drive
e. DVD drive

3. Computer memory that is volatile must have electricity in

order to store data. When electricity is turned off, volatile

8
memory loses its data. Non-volatile memory stores data
after electricity is turned off. Which of the following
computer memory devices are volatile? (Mark all that apply.)
a. cache
b. main memory
c. flash memory
d. hard drive
e. DVD

4. Match each term to its corresponding size in bytes.

 a. kilobyte i. 1,125,899,906,842,624 bytes
b. megabyte ii. 1024 bytes
c. gigabyte iii. 1,099,511,627,776 bytes
d. terabyte iv. 1,073,741,824 bytes
e. petabyte v. 1,048,576 bytes
f. exabyte vi. 1,152,921,504,606,846,976 bytes

5. Assume the average movie uses 3 gigabytes of space on a

hard drive. Which of these is the smallest size that can store
200 average size movies?
a. 500 megabytes
b. 500 gigabytes
c. 1 terabyte
d. 1 petabyte

6. Consider a quad core CPU with a clock speed of 2.8

gigahertz. In theory, how many instructions per second is it
able to complete?
a. 2.8 million
b. 2.8 billion
c. 11.2 billion
d. 20 billion

7. Which character coding system includes English letters?

(Mark all that apply.)
a. ASCII
b. Unicode

8. If you wanted to type a letter in Hebrew, which character

coding system would your computer need to use to store
your letter?
a. ASCII
b. Unicode
 Chapter 2. Algorithms and
Computer Programs

9
Chapter Outcomes
By the end of this chapter, you will:

Read a description of a problem and write a defining

table to help you better understand the problem.
Develop an algorithm for a common task.
Understand the basic operations that a computer can
perform.
Learn the three basic control structures: sequence,
selection, and repetition, and learn what they cause a
computer to do.

Defining Table
An algorithm is simply a list of steps to perform some
task. A large computer program contains many algorithms.
Before creating an algorithm to solve a problem, you must
be sure that you understand the problem. If you don’t, you
will probably create an algorithm that solves the wrong
problem. A defining table is a useful tool to help you
better understand a problem before you develop an
algorithm to solve it. A defining table has three sections:
input, processing, and output. To create a defining table,
simply draw a table with the three sections. Then as you
read and re-read the problem, put the parts of the problem
into their correct section in the table.

Example 1

You work for a large construction company. Your boss has

asked you to write a computer program that will read a list
of window openings for a building and compute, and output
the total cost of all the windows. The window openings are
entered in inches with the width first and the height second.
The cost of a window is computed by multiplying the area of
the window in square feet by $35.

Defining Table
Input Processing Output
A list of For each window total cost of all
window windows
openings compute area in sq. ft.
For each multiply area by $35
window add cost of this
window to the total
width in cost
inches
height in
inches 10

Example 2

You have been asked to write a program that will read from
the keyboard the radius of a circle and will output to the
monitor the diameter, circumference, and area of the circle.

Defining Table
Input Processing Output
 Defining Table
Input Processing Output

Algorithms
An algorithm is simply a list of steps to perform some
task. A recipe is an example of an algorithm because the
recipe lists the steps necessary for preparing some food.
Here is a recipe from allrecipes.com for making chocolate
chip cookies. Notice that the directions are what make a
recipe similar to an algorithm.

Ingredients

1 cup butter, softened

1 cup white sugar
1 cup packed brown sugar
2 eggs
2 teaspoons vanilla extract
3 cups all-purpose flour
1 teaspoon baking soda
2 teaspoons hot water
1/2 teaspoon salt
2 cups semisweet chocolate chips
1 cup chopped walnuts

Directions

1. Preheat oven to 350 degrees F (175 degrees C).

 2. Cream together the butter, white sugar, and brown
sugar until smooth.
3. Beat in the eggs one at a time.
4. Stir in the vanilla.
5. Dissolve baking soda in hot water. Add to batter along
with salt.
6. Stir in flour, chocolate chips, and nuts.
7. Drop by large spoonfuls onto ungreased pans.
8. Bake for about 10 minutes in the preheated oven, or
until edges are nicely browned.

11
Example 3

Here is a small algorithm for computing the average test

score from a list of test scores. Notice that it is nothing
more than the step-by-step process for performing the
calculation. A large computer program contains many
algorithms.

1. Set sum to 0
2. Get the number of students
3. For each student
a. Get the student’s test score
b. Add the student’s score to the sum
4. Divide the sum by the number of students

Example 4

Write an algorithm to brush your teeth.

Within the algorithm that you wrote, is the order of the
steps important? Are there any steps that the order does
not matter?

Computer Programs
A computer program is composed of data and instructions.
The computer stores the data temporarily in its main
memory. It also stores data more permanently in files on a
hard drive, flash memory, or digital versatile disk (DVD).
The instructions in a computer program are like the steps in
an algorithm. In a programming language like JavaScript,
the instructions are called statements. A single statement
is equivalent to a single step in an algorithm or a single
sentence in a paragraph. The statements tell the computer
what to do with the data.

12
Computer Operations
A computer has seven basic operations that it can perform,
all of which we can use when writing algorithms in a
computer program. A computer can do the following:

1. Receive data (input)

Input devices: keyboard, mouse, microphone, touch
screen, temperature sensor, hard drive, flash drive, etc.

2. Write out data (output)

Output devices: monitor, printer, speakers, lights, hard
drive, flash drive, etc.
 3. Assign a value to a variable or memory location

4. Perform arithmetic
Operators: − (negation), * (multiplication), / (division),
% (modulus), + (addition), − (subtraction)

5. Compare two values

Relational operators: < (less than), <= (less than or
equal), > (greater than), >= (greater than or equal),
== (equal), != (not equal)

6. Repeat a group of actions

7. Call a function and return from that function

You will study and use each of these basic computer

operations in later chapters of this text.

Control Structures
There are five different categories of control structures
that you can use to control the order in which a computer
executes the statements in your program. They are called
control structures because they control the order in which
the computer executes statements also called the flow of
execution.

sequence
causes the computer to execute statements in the order
they are written in a program, from top to bottom. This
is the default control structure.
selection
causes the computer to select one group of statements
to execute and another group or groups to skip. This is
 how a computer appears to make decisions.
repetition
causes the computer to repeat a group of statements.
function call and return
causes the computer to execute the statements in
another function and return a result from the other
function to the call point.
try, catch, and throw
are used to indicate an error occurred and to handle
errors.

You will study, learn, and use the first four of these control
structures in later chapters of this book. Sequence is the
default control structure and is covered in chapters 4 — 12.
Selection is taught in chapters 6 and 7. Repetition is taught
in chapter 8 and again in chapter 10, and function call is
taught in chapter 9.

13
Chapter Summary
An algorithm is simply a list of steps to accomplish a
task.
Sometimes the order in which the steps of an algorithm
are performed is very important.
A defining table is a simple tool to help a programmer
understand a problem before developing an algorithm
to solve the problem. A defining table has three
sections: input, processing, and output.
A computer is capable of performing only a few basic
operations:
receive input
display output
store data
perform arithmetic
 compare values
repeat operations
call a function
All high level tasks that a computer can do, such as edit
photographs, play music, and search data are simply
combinations of the basic operations.
A computer program contains both data and
instructions. In JavaScript, the instructions are called
statements.
The three basic control structures that a programmer
uses to control the order in which a computer executes
statements are sequence, selection, and repetition.

Review Questions
For each of the following problems write a defining table.
Then write an algorithm with numbered steps to solve the
problem. Then label each step with the name of the basic
computer operation that the computer will use during that
step.

1. Your company needs a program to compute the amount

to charge customers for mowing their lawns for an
entire season. An employee will type in the total area of
the customer’s lawn in square feet. Your company
charges 10 cents per square foot to mow a lawn one
time and will mow each lawn once a week for 15 weeks.

2. You have been asked to write a computer program that

will output an employee’s after tax pay. Your program
will read from the keyboard the number of regular
hours and overtime hours that the employee worked
and the employee’s regular hourly wage. The employee
is paid a bonus of 1.5 times regular pay for each
 overtime hour worked. Tax is 15% of the employee’s
gross pay.

3. Which of the following are control structures? (Mark all

that apply.)
a. input
b. computation
c. sequence
d. selection
e. repetition
f. try, catch, and throw
g. storage
h. output
 Chapter 3. HTML Basics
Hypertext markup language (HTML) is a computer language

15
that is used to write documents for the world wide web of
information on the internet. There are several different versions
of the HTML standard, with the most recent being XHTML 1.1
and HTML 5. This chapter will help you learn enough HTML 5 so
that you can begin writing JavaScript code in your HTML
documents.

Chapter Outcomes
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

Read and write simple HTML 5 documents.

Use the online W3C Markup Validation Service to validate
that an HTML 5 document is well formed.
Fix an HTML 5 document that does not validate.
Use comments to add internal explanations to an HTML
document.

Starting with HTML

To start writing HTML documents you must have a decent text
editor, such as notepad++, TextWrangler, vim, or sublime and a
web browser, such as Google Chrome, installed on your
computer. When you use your text editor to write an HTML
document and then save the document, you must save the
document with a suffix of .html

Document Type Declaration

All HTML 5 documents must begin with a document type
declaration like this: <!DOCTYPE HTML>. It doesn’t matter
whether you write this declaration in upper or lower case or a
mix of the two. This declaration tells the computer that what
follows is an HTML 5 document. If you forget to put it at the top
of an HTML document, your browser may recognize the
document as an older version of HTML, and your browser may
draw the document incorrectly.

Comments
A comment in an HTML document is a note or documentation
that a web designer writes for himself or other designers who
will look at the HTML code. The computer ignores comments. A
comment in HTML begins with the symbols less than,
exclamation mark, and two dashes, like this: <!-- and ends
with the symbols two dashes and greater than, like this: -->.

16
HTML Elements
An HTML document is composed of elements. An element is
simply a part of an HTML document. Figure 7 shows an HTML
element and all of its parts. Notice that an HTML element is
composed of an opening tag, optional text, and a closing tag. A
single tag begins with the less than symbol (<) and ends with
the greater than symbol (>). For example
<div class="note" id="high"> or </div>. An opening tag
contains a tag name and optionally some attributes. Each
attribute is composed of a name and a value separated by an
equal sign (=), such as id="high". A closing tag has the same
name as the opening tag, but the name is preceded by a slash
character (/).
gure 7: An HTML element and its parts. An element is composed of an
ening tag, optional text, and a closing tag. An opening tag is composed of a
g name and optional attributes. An attribute is composed of a name and a
lue.

Sometimes the opening and closing tags are combined into one
tag, such as:
<input type="text" id="futureValue" size="5" />

Notice the slash character (/), which is normally in the closing

tag, is at the end of the input tag above. The slash character
appears at the end of this input tag because this tag is both an
opening and closing tag combined together.

Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) is really just a list of tags

that most web browsers understand. The following table lists
most of the HTML tags that we will use in this class. A good
reference that describes these tags in more detail is at
w3schools.com.

HTML Elements
17

Opening and Closing

Tags Purpose
 HTML Elements
Opening and Closing
Tags Purpose
<!DOCTYPE HTML> The document type declaration
that must appear at the top of
all HTML 5 documents.
Technically, this declaration is
not a tag, so it has no closing
tag.
<!-- a comment here --> A comment or notes seen only
by the developers and not the
users of a page. A comment is
not a true tag, so it has no
closing tag.
<html lang="en-us"> Begins and ends an HTML
</html> document. These are the first
and last tags of an HTML
document.
<head> Marks the start and end of the
</head> HTML document head. Every
HTML document must have one
head. The head contains
information such as the title
and author of the document
and most JavaScript code.
<meta> Provides information about a
document, such as the author,
descriptions, keywords, and
the character encoding. (No
closing tag.)
<title> Marks the title of a document.
</title> This tag should appear in the
document head.
 HTML Elements
Opening and Closing
Tags Purpose
<script> Marks the start and end of
</script> JavaScript code. You can place
a <script> tag in the head or
body of an HTML document,
but they are normally placed in
the head.
<body> Marks the start and end of the
</body> document body. Every HTML
document must have one body.
The body contains the main
information of a document that
the user will see.
<h1> Marks the start and end of a
</h1> level 1 heading. There are six
different heading tags
numbered from <h1> to <h6>
with <h1> being the largest
and <h6> being the smallest
style of heading.
<div> Marks the start and end of a
</div> division within an HTML
document. The concept of
division in HTML is very
general and is simply a large,
medium, or small section of a
document.
<canvas> Makes an area where a
</canvas> JavaScript program can draw
shapes.
<p> Marks the start and end of a
</p> paragraph.
<b> Marks the start and end of bold
</b> text.
 HTML Elements
Opening and Closing
Tags Purpose
<i> Marks the start and end of
</i> italicized text.
<br> Forces the browser to

18
insert a line break. (No
closing tag.)
<input type="text"> Makes a text field (single row)
where a user can enter data.
(No closing tag.)
<textarea> Makes a text area (multiple
</textarea> rows) where a user can enter
data.
<button type="button"> Makes a button that a user can
</button> click.

Case Insensitive
HTML 5 is not case sensitive. This means that <HTML> and
<html> and <HtMl> have the same meaning in HTML 5.
However, the standard convention is to use all lower case for
tags and attributes except for the DOCTYPE declaration, which is
all uppercase. Most developers use lower case letters for at least
two reasons:

1. Lower case letters are easier to read because they vary in

size more than upper case letters.
2. If an HTML 5 document is ever converted to XHTML, which
requires lower case tags and attributes, the conversion will
be easier.

Well Formed HTML

An HTML document should be well formed which means:

1. The document contains only the standard tags and

attributes.
2. Most opening tags have a matching closing tag. The opening
tags that don’t require a closing tag are called void tags
and include <meta> <br> and <input>.
3. Nested tags are ended before their enclosing tags are
ended. For example:

<body>
<p>Oregano is an important <i>culinary</i> herb.
It is
used in Greek and Italian dishes especially tomato
based sauces, fried vegetables, and grilled meats.
</p>
</body>

You can check an HTML document to ensure that it is well

formed by uploading it to the online validator at validator.w3.org

19
Required Elements
Every HTML 5 document must start with a <!DOCTYPE>
declaration and an opening <html> tag. Every HTML 5 document
must have a head section and a body section, and the head
section should have a <title> tag and a <meta> tag that states
the document’s character encoding. In other words, the skeleton
of every HTML 5 document should look similar to this:
<!DOCTYPE HTML>
<html lang="en-us">
<head>
<meta charset="utf-8">
<title>Title</title>
</head>
<body>
</body>
</html>
Example HTML Document
Below is a well formed HTML 5 document that includes one
comment and all the tags and text necessary for a web browser
to draw the document. The document is shown drawn by the
Google Chrome web browser in figure 8.

Example 1

<!DOCTYPE HTML>
<html lang="en-us">
<head>
<!-- The following meta tag tells the browser
that this document uses the 8-bit Unicode
Transformation Format encoding. -->
<meta charset="utf-8">
<meta name="author" content="Rex Barzee">
<title>Horse Rentals</title>
</head>
<body>
<h1>Horse Rentals</h1>
<p>We rent horsies, big horsies, medium sized
horsies, and little horsies (big dogs really). Of
course, this costs a great deal of money, and in
order for us to allow you to take the horsies
anywhere, you must sign a lot of paper work, about
the same amount as if you were buying a house or
being admitted to a hospital (which might happen
if you fall off one of our horsies).</p>
<p>We rent horsy saddles and other leather and
metal stuff. Just ask for what you want, and we
probably have it. These are used mostly to control
the horsies, which they don't like. If you don't
take great care when putting these on the horsies,
you might be admitted to the hospital as mentioned
in the above paragraph.</p>

<p>We also rent horsy trailers. These trailers

require a truck the size of Texas that drinks diesel
in order to actually pull them. Of course, if you
don't have a truck that fits this description, we'll
rent you one. See the first paragraph again for our
rental terms (big money).</p>
</body>
</html>

Figure 8: An HTML document drawn in Google Chrome. 20

Example HTML Document with a Form

Below is a well formed HTML 5 document that includes all the
tags and text necessary for a web browser to draw a document
with two text fields, a text area, and two buttons. Even though
this document is titled, “Send a Text Message” and it contains
text fields and buttons, this document doesn’t actually do
anything. It doesn’t do anything because it contains no
<script> tags. A programmer adds functionality to an HTML
document by writing JavaScript code between opening and
closing <script> tags. Beginning in the next chapter, you will
learn to write JavaScript code.

The document from example 2 is shown drawn by the Google

Chrome web browser in figure 9.

21
Example 2

<!DOCTYPE HTML>
<html lang="en-us">
<head>
<!-- The following meta tag tells the browser
that this document uses the 8-bit Unicode
Transformation Format encoding. -->
<meta charset="utf-8">
<title>Send a Text Message</title>
</head>

<body>
<h1>Send a Text Message</h1>
<p>
From (your 10-digit wireless phone number):
<input type="text" id="txtFrom" size="10">
</p>

<p>
To (10-digit wireless phone number):
<input type="text" id="txtTo" size="10">
</p>
<p>
Message:<br>
<textarea id="txaMessage" rows="8" cols="40">
</textarea>
</p>

<p>
<button type="button"
onclick="sendText()">Send</button>
<button type="button"
onclick="clearForm()">Clear</button>
</p>
</body>
</html>

Figure 9: An HTML document that contains text fields and

buttons drawn by Google Chrome.
22
It is helpful to examine the tags in example 2 in more depth.
How many different tags does example 2 use?
11. They are <html>, <head>, <meta>, <title>, <body>, <h1>,
<p>, <input>, <br>, <textarea>, <button>

Which of those 11 tags are void tags and have no closing tag?
<meta>, <input>, and <br>.

Which of those 11 tags have attributes?

<html>, <meta>, <input>, <textarea>, <button>
Notice that the two <input> tags and the <textarea> tag have
an attribute named id. An id attribute uniquely identifies an
element within an HTML document. In other words, the value
for an id attribute must be unique within a document. Notice
that the values for all three of the id attributes are different:
id="txtFrom", id="txtTo", id="txaMesssage".

Notice that the two <button> tags have an attribute named

onclick. The onclick attribute tells the browser what to do
when a user clicks on a button. In the next chapter, you will use
the onclick attribute to connect a button to JavaScript code.
Then when a user clicks the button, the browser will execute
that JavaScript code.

Does example 2 include a comment?

Yes, in the head there is a comment that describes the <meta>
tag.

Common Mistakes
Forgetting to terminate a tag

Incorrect
<div Idaho, with its volcanic
soils and cool nights, is ideal
for growing potatoes.</div>

Correct
<div>Idaho, with its volcanic
soils and cool nights, is ideal
for growing potatoes.</div>

Forgetting the double quotes for an attribute

 Incorrect Correct
<div id="output></div> <div id="output"></div>

Forgetting a closing tag

Incorrect Correct
<b>really <b>really</b>

Improperly nesting tags

Incorrect
<div>The average lifespan for a
female grizzly bear is estimated
at <b>26 years.</div></b>

Correct
<div>The average lifespan for a
female grizzly bear is estimated
at <b>26 years</b>.</div>

23
Forgetting to save an HTML file with a suffix of .html

In order for a browser to detect that your file is an HTML file,

you must save it with a suffix of .html

Chapter Summary
Hypertext markup language (HTML) is a computer language
that is used to write documents.
HTML 5 is the most recent version of HTML.
An HTML 5 document must begin with a document type
declaration and must contain a head and a body.
 HTML is composed of many tags. Each tag begins with a less
than symbol (<) and ends with a greater than symbol (>).
HTML tags usually come in pairs, an opening tag and a
closing tag.
Opening tags may contain attributes which are name/value
pairs separated by the equal symbol (=).
Opening tags that do not require a matching closing tag are
called void tags.
HTML is not case sensitive, so tags names and attribute
name may be written in upper or lower case or any
combination of upper and lower case.
HTML tags should be properly nested.

Review Questions
1. What version of HTML is taught in this book?

2. Write the HTML 5 document type declaration as it should

appear at the top of all HTML 5 documents. Include the
surrounding less than (<) and greater than (>) symbols in
your answer.

3. What is the first tag in an HTML 5 document? Include the

surrounding less than (<) and greater than (>) symbols in
your answer.

4. What are the two main sections that every HTML 5

document must have?

5. Inside which of the two main sections does the <title> tag
belong?

6. What is the tag to begin the largest type of heading?

Include the surrounding less than (<) and greater than (>)
symbols in your answer.
 Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
it would have to be put down by legislative interference.” We should think that there could not be much chance of
successful legislation if it were based upon such arguments as the foregoing; and successful it was not.
[196] Hansard, vol. clxxv. p. 479.
[197] “Seriously speaking,” said another writer, who signed, “One well behind the Scenes,” in the Times of 18th
February, and had been indulging in all kinds of pleasantry on the impossibility of the Government undertaking Life
Insurance, “if Mr. Gladstone must go into business, he had better take an easy business first, and have
Government ginshops at one corner of the street, and Government tobacco-shops at the other, and leave the
delicate matters of Assurance for the present.”
[198] The Times and the Daily Telegraph.
[199] Between 8,000 and 9,000 of these Societies have failed since the passing of the Friendly Societies Act. It has
been calculated that about 100 Societies fail in each year.
[200] Hansard, vol. clxxv.vol. clxxii. p. 1581.
[201] Hansard, vol. clxxv.vol. clxxiv, p. 1474.
[202] Both Tables and Regulations may be obtained quite easily at any Post Office opened for the transaction of
this business, and an Abstract of the Regulations, entitled Plain Rules for the guidance of Persons desiring to
Insure their Lives or to purchase Government Annuities, has been and still is distributed widely, and may be had
gratis from any postmaster or letter receiver.
[203] Thus, at the age of thirty, a person with 8l. 14s. 9d. to spare may buy an assurance of 20l. to be paid at
death. Two or three years afterwards, and after a prosperous interval, he may be disposed to increase that amount
to 25l., 40l., or 50l. Suppose the latter sum, and he has attained the age of thirty-three, he pays down another
sum of 13l. 13s. 10d., and then finds himself insured by these two single payments in the sum of 50l. whenever
death may occur. Of course he may stop here; but he may also, if he thinks fit, go on adding, at such intervals and
in such amounts as may best suit his convenience, to his original policy, till at last it acquires the value of 100l.
[204] Many postmen and rural letter-carriers are insured in this way for a sum of 100l.
[205] It will be remembered that under the Act 16 and 17 Vict., c. 45, a person could only insure his life on
condition that he purchased an annuity. It is not so generally known that in the course of eleven years not one
proposal for this twofold contract was ever received. It is not a little remarkable that now, this arrangement being
no longer compulsory, one in every hundred proposers for Life Insurance also proposes for the purchase of an
Annuity.

CHAPTER XI.
CONCLUDING CHAPTER.
“And when I shall go to my account, and the great Questioner whose judgments err
not, shall say to me, 'What didst thou with the lent talent?' I can truly answer, 'Lord, it
is here; and with it all that I could add to it—doing my best to make little much.'”—
Ebenezer Elliott.

The above words of the brave Corn Law Rhymer refer of course to far higher duties than any
with which we have dealt in this volume. That application may be made of them even to our
present subject is nevertheless clear, and we leave the thoughtful reader to make it. Real
economy and frugality are virtues, and as such are inculcated in the Christian code; neglect of
them is condemned both by the moral and the religious code. Christ expressed the very spirit of
economy, care of little things, a prudent thrift, and avoidance of all waste, when after
miraculously feeding the multitude in the desert He instructed His disciples to “gather up the
fragments that remain, that nothing be lost:” and it is at least noteworthy, that this injunction
immediately followed another, wherein He warned the same men against the greed of life,
telling them that a man's riches did not consist in the abundance of his possessions.
This may be perhaps a very fitting opportunity to say that a great deal depends upon the
motive and the object for which such virtues are cultivated; that it is very possible to attach far
too great an importance to mere habits of saving: the motive for saving may at times be
vicious, and the purpose for which and the manner how the hoards once scraped together may
be applied, more vicious still. This is so palpable that we need not dwell upon the subject. Not
less so is the wise medium course to be followed. The difference between those who cultivate
and those who neglect frugal and economical habits may be expressed simply in the former
having bread enough and to spare, and the latter having bread for to-day—and not always that
—but none for to-morrow. It is by the capacity of looking forward in the present moment to the
possibilities of to-morrow that the civilized man is distinguished from the savage; it is by the
readiness with which provision is made for possible emergencies that the wise man is
distinguished from the fool. Real economy, aided by prudence, is a virtue. Cicero says that “the
best source of wealth is economy;” but it is also the best source of comfort, self-respect, and
independence. Prudence thinks of an adverse season amidst the prosperity of a good one; and
Economy arranges for the bad time. Prudence thinks of two very possible and one certain
contingency in the life of every human being; and Economy weighs the chances well and
provides for the worst—it provides for the incidence of failing health, and for the chances of
losing, through one of the many eventualities of life, worldly position, or the means of
breadwinning; and it also does something to provide for that time when the anxieties, the joys,
and the sorrows of life shall be hushed in death.
It is well, therefore, and it is almost indispensable, that these habits should be cultivated; it is
well also, and quite indispensable, that means and provisions should be used to this end. The
first stone which the learned Wotton refers to in the motto on the first page of this volume, is
without doubt the first act in the habit of economy; and we have been endeavouring
throughout the course of this history to point out with some approach to accuracy the exact
spot where a person may lay this indispensable “first stone,” where he may probably best lay
the second or third, and how possibly he may commence with the superstructure.
Savings Banks and the other provident measures of which we have spoken are principally to be
regarded as preliminary means, the first or stepping-stones to higher things. When a man has
become, for example, a depositor in any of the numerous kinds of Savings Banks, he has only
taken, as it were, the first step on the road to competence; but one step leads to another.[206] A
very slight knowledge of human nature will show that when once a man gets his foot upon the
round of the social ladder, and keeps it there till he is secure of his footing, he is soon ambitious
of taking the next step. So true is this regarded, that in common parlance many kinds of
journeymen are said to have made their fortune when they have saved their first pound. When
George Stephenson's wages were raised to twelve shillings a week, he declared “he was now a
made man for life;” when he had saved his first guinea, he proudly said to one of his mates,
that he “was now a rich man.” And in one sense he was right; he had taken the first step; and
further, “The man who,” says Mr. Smiles, “after satisfying his wants, has something to spare, is
no longer poor.”
We have said that Savings Banks are preliminary means. We think, however, that they are the
safest initiatory steps that could be taken by those of the labouring classes who wish to rise
from small beginnings to those higher things spoken of.[207] Thousands of people of small
means are content with them; with the Savings Bank they begin, continue, and end, and many
of them have had reason to congratulate themselves upon having taken such a course: they
have been saved endless trouble and disaster, have in the great majority of instances felt that
their earnings were safe, that the profits were not going up and down like those of their
neighbours, but were always steady, always to be relied upon, and always calculable to a
penny. That these returns are really not so insignificant as many suppose, and that if small
earnings are allowed to accumulate at compound interest they must make a decent provision
against the winter of life, the following case will demonstrate.[208] The late Mr. Thomas Allen of
Gledholt, Huddersfield, on the 28th of March, 1818, gave to each of his seven servants a
sovereign to become depositors on the opening of the Huddersfield Savings Bank. On that day
Esther Sykes became a depositor to the extent of 1l.

£ s. d.
She continued to deposit the Savings from her wages from that time to the 21st of
July, 1828, amounting to 119 11 0
Interest accruing from 1818 to 1828 30 9 0
150 0 0
This sum of £150 being allowed to accumulate by interest until 1836 became 200 0 0
From 1836 interest on this sum had to be withdrawn half-yearly, which from 1836
to 1863 amounted to 160 9 8
Esther Sykes died March, 1863, aged 78, and her executors received from the
Bank the sum of 200 0 0

Thus in this interesting case the cash deposited at different times amounted to 119l. and the
total amount of interest on that sum was 240l., of which 160l. was paid to the depositor herself
during her lifetime, and 200l. to her executors. It is not a little curious, nor is it surprising, that
five of the relatives and legatees of this Esther Sykes should have gone to the Huddersfield
Savings Bank to deposit the money left to them.
Of the other promising provident measures adapted to the requirements of the industrious
classes, the most important, but at the same time a somewhat hazardous one, is that of co-
operative societies. These societies, though beset with difficulties, are doing a good work in
many localities. The stronghold of the system, be it remembered, is in a town where, owing to
the cupidity of the manager of the Savings Bank, the savings of years were swallowed up, and,
in consequence, habits of accumulation in this form were rooted out from among the people.
The co-operative principle can be directly traced to the wide-spread distrust created by this
gigantic and far-reaching fraud. It remains now to be seen whether a higher intelligence and a
greater power of self-government than is generally found in large associations of working men
will not be indispensable to the progress of these societies. Personally, we have little hesitation
in affirming that the real progress of these classes will be safer, and not only safer but quicker,
if the bulk of them will leave combined enterprises of this nature to those of their fellows who
have already saved money enough to enable them not only to enter into such business, but to
lose in the venture. Once a man has run up an account in any of the people's banks—whether
the old or the new banks does not make much difference—he might, and perhaps ought to risk
a proportion in such societies, which, where properly and prudently managed, are very
beneficial to all connected with them.[209]
The same remarks apply to Building Societies to a great extent; though here perhaps there is
little of the risk which besets all kinds of large and small joint-stock companies. Unfortunately,
however, the working-class element, which was prominent at the origination of building clubs, is
being rapidly eliminated from them in most localities, and almost everywhere the tradesman
class predominates.[210] The working classes, if they have not been saving their earnings for
years, cannot command and pay, with that regularity necessary in such enterprises, the
instalments due; and hence they either do not venture to join at all (except where the club is
on a very small scale), or if they do, they ultimately withdraw from them.[211]
Fifty other different objects might be mentioned for which the working classes require the
means of accumulating the trifles they can save with the object of employing some of the
money on higher kinds of investments when it has amounted to a good round sum; the
purchase of a cottage, of an annuity, of a life insurance policy, are only a few of them. In this
way the Savings Bank not only assists the industrious classes by offering machinery expressly
fitted for their present advantage, but does an equally beneficial work in leading them on safely
to higher and more important investments.
Let it be granted that Savings Banks fulfil all, or most, of the conditions which we have
assigned them and ask for them, what then remains to be done to make their advantages
better known, and to bring them still more within the reach of those classes for which they are
specially designed, and to which they are specially applicable? It may indeed be questioned
whether, having provided the facilities, society should not now leave the matter where it is, to
the operation of advancing intelligence, to the growth of economical knowledge, and to the
increase in the experience of the poorer classes. Working men are tired, and to our own
knowledge have long been, of hearing of societies and organizations for their elevation;[212] they
know perfectly well that their “elevation”—for which no doubt too few of them care—must
begin, continue, and end in themselves. The better class of workmen laugh at many schemes
designed for their benefit; and although there may be odd instances of men who seem not to
be above being turned into an “object,” it is simply repellant to the great bulk of them.[213]
A working man, though he may not like to be “raised,” may like to be advised how he can best
help himself: and such advice is quite necessary and legitimate under certain conditions and in
certain circumstances. It altogether depends, it appears to us, upon the person who does it and
the manner in which it is done. First and foremost it seems to be not only necessary but right
that masters of workmen should endeavour to influence those under them; that they should—
"Relinquishing their several 'vantage posts
Of wealthy ease and honourable toil"—
do something to direct aright those energies from which they have benefited, and which if
rightly developed may also in time lead their possessors to comfort, to reputation, even to
wealth. A master's duty to his workmen, as we remember to have seen it expressed
somewhere, scarcely ends when he pays them their wages. The men may be thoroughly
independent, and after accomplishing their stipulated work may be, and feel that they are, their
own masters: but there are nevertheless divers opportunities for masters, without claiming or
assuming superiority, to benefit those employed under them. The master is pretty generally
under the pressing responsibility of superior knowledge and greater experience; and he who
sees how the worldly position of his men can be safely improved, and does not at least attempt
to suggest or help to this improvement, can scarcely be said to fulfil the duties of his position.
An employer may, indeed, be too conscious of his dignity, and, standing on the lofty pedestal
reared for him or which he has reared for himself, throw down with a lavish hand bounties upon
his men; and they will not be accepted, and perhaps ought not to be: but let him show a
personal interest in them, prudently advise them, “show a wisdom that shall bridge the gulf”
that separates the two, and he will not only do much to destroy the feeling, which has become
almost instinctive among workmen, that the master is somehow selfishly acting for his own
ultimate benefit, but he will awaken a confidence, become the object of the men's esteem, and
wield an enormous influence over them.
Let so much as this be granted, or even let part of it be granted, employers of labour may not
only turn their thoughts to such schemes for savings as we have been engaged upon, but they
may easily arrange, in conjunction with the proper authorities, branch schemes such as
described in the last two chapters, to be suited to the varying circumstances of the case. If they
are convinced of the benefits of the one, let them advise; if they wish to give reasonable help,
let them act.
Without reference, however, to the Government schemes just referred to, the State sets an
admirable example to all large employers in the provident arrangements which have been made
for public officers; and we think there must be much in the provisions in question which might
be turned to good account in, and be made applicable to, large private concerns. Few
Government employés should ever come to beggary; if they have not been prematurely cast
aside, either by wilful misconduct or gross carelessness on their own part, they cannot come to
the parish: further, great numbers of them are assisted to make provision for their families at
their death. Nearly all Government servants may be said to have bargained with their masters
at the time they entered the service, not only for a fair day's wage for a fair day's work, but for
nearly all the provisions of a Friendly Society during sickness; for a Deferred Annuity when they
are past work, or after a certain age; and in some instances—it ought to be in all—for
assistance towards insuring their lives for the benefit of their family. It were idle to say that
none of these considerations enter into the original contract, and have had no influence on the
scale of remuneration paid for actual work; it were far more to the point to say that
departments of Government compel their servants to be provident and to prepare; for sickness,
old age, and death, and make it involuntary in the case of sickness and old age, by taking the
necessary payments upon themselves.
Of the scheme of Life Insurance at present in force in the Post Office, for example, we spoke in
the previous chapter. With regard to sickness, a certain time is allowed for full pay; another
definite period for half-pay. In respect to Superannuation Allowances, which we have termed
the Deferred Annuities, it is true that at one time civil servants were required to pay towards it
out of their salaries; but this has been discontinued by Act of Parliament, and the present
arrangement may simply be considered as a small rise in the rate of wages—the deduction
being compulsory on all classes alike.
Why should not a similar plan, or at any rate the principle of it, be urged upon private
employers? Spite of some of the difficulties which would at once present themselves, we
believe that there is little impracticable about it, and little that might not be surmounted. Even if
it should be found impossible to apply such arrangements to many concerns, there is still the
admirable machinery designed in connexion with the Annuities Act of 1864; and we again
commend the plan to the attention and candour of large employers.
We think that to a very large extent the influence which masters must exercise over their
workmen, or which they could not fail to exercise if they were to show a proper degree of
interest in their subordinates, has never yet been exercised. If reason, persuasion, entreaty of a
certain kind, alike fail—as they may often have done—to induce saving habits and due
provident provision for themselves and families, we confess a difficult problem presents itself.
This difficulty has been felt for years. Forty years ago the Quarterly Review, in an able article,
said that Savings Banks ought to have formed a sinking fund before that time for the abolition
of poor rates: “If the present state of things continues,” says the writer, “it should become a
question whether the master ought not to deposit in the Savings Bank at least a shilling in the
pound of all wages paid by him, to be placed to the account of the individuals whom he
employs.” Several times since this was written, the Quarterly Review has returned to the
charge. For many years our system of Poor Laws has rigidly assessed property for the relief of
poverty, and secured the necessaries of life for all the destitute, no matter how largely they
themselves may have been answerable for their destitute condition. With some beneficial
changes the law stands the same, and is scrupulously enforced.
It is very clear that many men's wages are so high in good times, that, if they worked steadily
and lived with moderation, they might easily reserve out of them a fund of supply against times
of want, which would carry them through till their trade revived. The immense power in the
hands of the working classes to promote their own self-dependence is illustrated by the
enormous sums spent by these classes alone in mere indulgence; and it is shown again, in the
immense funds raised amongst them to support combinations and strikes. That thousands will
not use the means they have is proved by their excesses, their prodigality, the recklessness of
their expenditure, the division of the days of the week into days of work and days of gross and
obstinate idleness; and in much of this—regarding the result which follows to themselves, their
wives and families, if they have the misfortune to have them—there is perhaps more real
delinquency than in many of the crimes for which penal statutes have been framed.
The question is at any rate admissible, whether the same power which can order a compulsory
payment of rates to support the poor, might not, and ought not, to restrict the means by which
men are made and kept in poverty; or whether the same laws which make the frugal support
the improvident should not also compel the improvident to do something to support
themselves. This principle is indeed recognised by Government, as we have already shown, in
the arrangements made for its own servants; it is therefore not a question so much of principle
as of degree, and whether the Government should insist on a measure of coercive contribution
applying to others beyond their control. “I have often thought,” said the late Mr. J. Silk
Buckingham, in a letter now before us, “it would be perfectly wise and just to pass a law
compelling all employers of labour of every class, age, and sex, to deduct five per cent. from
the wages or salaries of all in their employ, to be invested in the Government funds for a
Deferred Annuity after sixty years of age, giving power to the labourers themselves to make
further additions as they saw fit on the voluntary principle. If it should be said that no
Government has a right to make people provide for themselves by force of law, I am sure they
have as great a right to do this as to make the honest, sober, and industrious part of the people
pay in poor rates and taxes for maintaining paupers and criminals, who have become so chiefly
through want of prudential conduct in youth.”[214]
Finally, it is upon those who will not, and cannot by any available means, be brought to apply
the remedy of provident investments during the heyday of life for themselves, that we think
some such arrangement as that upon which the Government insists on employing civil servants,
should be brought to bear, and that, only as a dernier ressort, our Legislature should consider
whether it were not possible, and within its province, to apply a more complete and direct
remedy by force of law. Formidable obstacles, we repeat, may be imagined, and actually would
be experienced, in either case; but they could easily be smoothed by the fifty years' experience
which the country has had of Savings Bank management and the conduct of provident schemes
generally, and they may very possibly be entirely removed by the far-reaching, simple, ancillary
measures of the last four years.

[206] “To save money,” says Mr. Greg, “and to have invested it securely, is to have become a capitalist. To have
become a capitalist is for the poor man to have overleaped a great gulf; to have opened a path for himself into a
new world; to have started on a career which may lead him, as it has led so many originally not more favoured by
fortune than himself, to comfort, to reputation, to wealth, to power.”
[207] “I have studied the matter to the core, and it has resulted in a firm conviction, that were all the many
valuable schemes which have been devised for ameliorating the condition of the masses conjoined, for safely,
surely, and reasonably meeting the exigencies of every-day life, the Savings Bank single-handed would outvie them
all.”—Mr. James Frame's Tracts on Savings Banks.
[208] We are indebted to Mr. Sikes of Huddersfield for the particulars of this case.
[209] Mr. W. B. Chorley, author of a Handbook of Social Intercourse, &c. &c. was asked his opinion on co-operative
societies, that opinion to be inserted in the Co-operator, the Society's organ. Mr. Chorley gives it very candidly, the
Editor with equal candour giving it insertion. “The working man's earnings should be absolutely safe. Post Office
Savings Banks are the only means of deposit which I am warranted in unconditionally recommending under all
circumstances. I am far from saying that in peculiar cases and districts the workman may not act judiciously in
joining co-operative stores; but it cannot be extended beyond a certain point with success, and I fear that any
attempts to push or rapidly extend the plan over a large area will prove a mistake ending in failure and loss.” ... Mr.
Smiles in his Workmen's Earnings, Strikes, and Savings, a reprint of articles from the Quarterly Review, and Mr.
Greg in his Provident Investments, a reprint of an article in the Edinburgh Review, express similar views on the co-
operative principle as applied exclusively to the working classes as those we have quoted from Mr. Chorley.
[210] The first Benefit Building Society which can be traced was founded in 1815 under the auspices of the Earl of
Selkirk. It was a village club composed of some working men in Kirkcudbright, in Scotland. Other institutions of a
similar kind followed, and were called “Menages,” and soon afterwards the principle was introduced into England.
In 1836 the first Act was passed with regard to them.
[211] “A Building Society of which I am a trustee started some five years ago with a considerable majority of
working men; but in the course of its operations (on looking over the list to-day) I find there are very few who can
be strictly called working men left. The punctuality of the payments, the fines, and those arrangements which are
essential to the proper working of a society, acting upon men who are occasionally thrown out of employment, and
without means altogether, have compelled them to withdraw themselves.”—Evidence of Mr. W. Cooper. Committee
on Provident Investments. 1850.
[212] A large volume might be compiled which should simply give a bare indication of the aims of such schemes
and societies, including one set forth in a MS. volume which we have seen in the British Museum, entitled,
Greevous Grones for the Poore, done by a Wellwisher, down to the latest benevolent scheme, and its list of
patrons beginning with an Archbishop and ending with the Squire.
[213] Savings Banks are not free from an amount of patronizing, which is only very rarely appreciated by the
workman, though it may delight the very small shopkeeper class. Mr. Boodle, in his examination before a Savings
Bank Committee, in 1849, thought fit to relate a very ludicrous instance of this, which, though told to show the
amount of confidence reposed in the names of some trustees, really proves something very different. “At one
time,” says Mr. Boodle, “the late Lord Spencer was attending as manager, and a depositor put in a sum of money;
he looked at his book when it was returned to him, and finding the name of 'Spencer,' asked the actuary who it
was. The actuary replied 'Lord Spencer.' The man said, 'You do not mean that this is Lord Spencer?' When
reassured, he said, 'Then I will give another sovereign,' and actually did put in another sovereign.” This must have
been a red-letter day in this person's history, though it reasonably admits of doubt whether the incident would be
matter of personal gratification to Lord Spencer, the wise and excellent Lord Althorp of the Lower House.
[214] “For the last twelve years,” says a living practical philanthropist, “I have been considerably engaged in the
administration of Poor Law Relief. I could not disguise from my reluctant notice the painful fact of how large and
overwhelming a percentage of applicants for relief had been, for long periods of their life, in the habit of earning
wages, the surplus of which remaining over and above the cost of their maintenance, would, if properly invested,
have secured them an honourable independent subsistence for the unproductive residue of their lives. Their frugal
contemporaries, whom they scandalized by their example (and it might have been said, derided for what they
considered their meanness), they further tax with the burden of their subsistence. They commit a constructive
injustice upon their more provident fellow-citizens; and when society inveighs against the gratuitous pauper, not
because he is poor, but because he has viciously made himself so, society is not unjust in such a retaliation upon
its trespassers. The gracious law of England, which makes the Poor Law compulsory, would deal with scarcely
more than even-handed justice were it to compel some kind of club payment too. And if it were an infringement of
the liberty of the subject to compel my neighbour to support a club, it is an infringement of my liberty to compel
me to support my neighbour.”—Meliora, edited by Viscount Ingestre, vol. ii.

APPENDIX.

(A.)

An Abstract of the Provisions of Mr. Whitbread's Bill, as amended by Committee, “for

establishing a Fund and Assurance Office for Investing the Savings of the Poor.” (1807.)[215]

This Bill provided that the Office of the Poor's Fund should be under the management and
direction of so many Commissioners as his Majesty should see fit to appoint under his royal sign
manual; that they should subscribe an oath to execute their powers and trusts faithfully and
honestly; that any two of them might together execute the duties of the Office; and further,
that the said Commissioners might, with the approbation of the Lords of the Treasury, appoint
some person properly qualified to conduct the business, under the title of Accountant, and also
such cashiers, clerks, and servants as they should find necessary.
It provided, that any person who should subsist wholly or principally by the wages of his or her
labours should be entitled to the benefits and advantages of this Office, under and subject to
the following

Rules and Regulations of the Office of the Poor's Fund.

1. That any proper person may so pay to the Accountant, or remit through the Post Office, any
sum not exceeding five pounds.
2. That no person remit or pay more than 20l. in any one year, nor more than 200l. in the
whole.
3. That when any sum is remitted through the Post Office, the Postmaster of the place from
which the money is sent shall keep a proper record of each transaction, and adopt such
measures as the Postmaster-General shall from time to time direct; and that each Postmaster
shall receive for his trouble, from the person paying in the money, one penny in the pound
upon the value thereof.
4. That cash accounts with each person shall be opened in the principal office in London, and
that the money which may be paid or remitted shall be laid out each week in the purchase of
perpetual annuities, the annuities so purchased to stand in the name of the Commissioners of
the Poor's Fund.
5. That, after such purchase, the proportion of each person, from the amount contributed, shall
be credited in a stock account, he or she being debited in the cash account for the sum
expended.
6. That the dividends as they become due be likewise carried to the credit of the said persons;
and on the sums amounting to ten shillings, the same shall be payable to him or her.
7. That the dividends may be allowed to accumulate, but principal and dividends must not
exceed 20l. in any one year, nor 200l. in all.
8. That any person entitled to the annuities purchased in this manner who may wish to sell the
whole or part, will be allowed to do so on signifying the desire personally, or in writing. In
either case the person shall be furnished with a form of request for the purpose, and, when
properly filled up and attested, the annuities shall be sold.
9. That the sale of all annuities desired in one week shall be made on some one day in the
next.
10. That after the sale the proportion due to each person shall be carried to his or her cash
account, and the money be payable forthwith.
11. That the Accountant shall make out and sign a warrant for the sums called for, the person
giving a receipt on the warrant when it is paid.
12. That persons entitled to the money may authorize in writing any other person to receive the
warrant, and after signing the warrant the money may be paid to such other person.
13. That any person residing beyond the limits of the two-penny post (London) may have such
warrant transmitted through the Post Office.
14. That when a sum is paid to the cashier or other officer for the purchase of annuities, a
proper receipt shall be given; that when a sum is transmitted through the post, the receipt shall
be at once sent through the post; and that when the money has been laid out in such
purchases as were ordered to be made, the certificates of such purchases, with their amount
and denomination, shall be sent to the purchasers, or such other persons as they shall appoint.
15. Provides for the investment of small surpluses, and the payment of the dividends upon
them.
16. Provides that no payment, gratuity, or reward shall be allowed to be made to any person
employed in the Office of the Poor's Fund over and above the regular salaries determined upon.
*****
Other clauses of the Act provided that the expenses of the Office should be defrayed by such
sums as were secured by the dividend, interest, and accumulations of the surplus arising from
unclaimed dividends, the remainder of the expenses being borne on the Consolidated Fund.
*****
With regard to The Poor's Assurance Office, the Bill provided for the appointment of the
principal conductor, who should be called “the Actuary,” in the same manner in which “the office
of Accountant” was to be created for the former business.
It provided for the calculation of Tables, which Tables should produce “sufficient funds to
answer the payments to be assured, as well as the charges and expenses of the establishment
and management of such Assurance Office;” that these Tables should be varied; that they
should be approved by the Lords of the Treasury, who should make them public in such manner
as they saw fit.
The persons who were entitled to the benefits of the Poor's Fund should also be entitled to the
benefits of Assurance Office under the following

Rules and Regulations of the Poor's Assurance Office.

1. That any person desirous of insuring his life shall deliver or send the usual particulars to the
Assurance Office.
2. That in every case proof of age and proof of sound health should be produced; the affidavits
in each case to be sworn to before a Justice of the Peace.
3. That, in the case of any misrepresentation being proved in the original proposals, the sums
paid shall be forfeited.
4. That the Actuary may require any persons proposing to insure to attend personally at the
Assurance Office, providing they live within the limits of the London two-penny post.
5. That no payment for any assurance, whether annually, half-yearly or quarterly, shall be less
than ten shillings.
6. That no annual payment, nor the entire yearly amount of payments, shall exceed five
pounds; that no assurance shall be made for more than 200l.; or if a gross sum and an annuity
shall both be assured to the same person, the whole shall not exceed the value of 200l.
7. Provides for fines for arrears according to the time which has elapsed, and for renewing a
policy which may have become void.
8. That all money received shall be vested in transferable annuities, as in the case of the Poor's
Fund.
9. Provides for payment on proof of death—the affidavit to be sworn to before a Justice of the
Peace.
10. That the rules for the management of the Assurance Office, and the remuneration to be
paid to its officers, shall be settled on the same basis as those for the Poor's Fund.
*****
The Act then goes on to provide that the Commissioners shall be empowered to frame rules for
the guidance of the officers of each Office; that the Commissioners to be appointed shall deliver
to the Governor and Company of the Bank of England a true and attested copy of their
commission of appointment; that this shall be their authority for transacting business with the
Bank, and shall be received and admitted as evidence in all courts of law and equity, and before
all judges and magistrates, of the due and legal appointment of the Commissioners, and
authorizing them to exercise all the powers and authorities granted to them under the Act.
The Act then further provides that all dividends, &c., shall be exempted from the tax on
property, and from the stamp duty on probates and letters of administration.
That the policies and other instruments shall be exempt from stamp duties.
That all letters and packets shall be sent by or through the Post Office, to or from either of the
two departments, exempt from the payment of all postage.
The Act concludes by making provision for the punishment of forgery and perjury.
[215] Referred to at some length at page 23, and other portions of this work, where the preamble of the bill is
given.

(B.)

An Abstract of the Provisions of the Consolidated Act of 1863, entitled “An Act to Consolidate
and Amend the Laws relating to Savings Banks.” (26 & 27 Vict. cap. 87.—28th July 1863.)

Sec. 1. Provides for the Repeal of previous Acts and parts of Acts, as set forth in the following
Schedule:—

Extent of
Date of Act. Title.
Repeal.
9 Geo. IV. c. 92. An Act to consolidate and amend the Laws relating to The whole.
Savings Banks.
3 Will. IV. c. 14. An Act to enable Depositors in Savings Banks and others Sections 21, 22,
to purchase Government Annuities through the medium 25, 28, 29, 30,
of Savings Banks, and to amend an Act of the Ninth Year 31, 32, 33, 34,
of His late Majesty to consolidate and amend the Laws and 35.
relating to Savings Banks.
5 & 6 Will. IV. An Act to extend to Scotland certain Provisions of an Act The whole.
c. 57. of the Ninth Year of His late Majesty to consolidate and
amend the Laws relating to Savings Banks, and to
consolidate and amend the Laws relating to Savings
Banks in Scotland.
7 & 8 Vict. c. 83. An Act to amend the Laws relating to Savings Banks, and The whole.
to the Purchase of Government Annuities through the
medium of Savings Banks.
11 & 12 Vict. An Act to amend the Laws relating to Savings Banks in The whole.
c. 133. Ireland.
17 & 18 Vict. An Act to continue an Act of the Twelfth Year of Her Section 2.
c. 50. present Majesty for amending the Laws relating to
Savings Banks in Ireland, and to authorize Friendly
 Societies to invest the whole of their Funds in Savings
Banks.
22 & 23 Vict. An Act to enable Charitable and Provident Societies and The whole.
c. 53. Penny Savings Banks to invest all their Proceeds in
Savings Banks.
23 & 24 Vict. An Act to make further Provision with respect to Moneys The whole.
c. 137. received from Savings Banks and Friendly Societies.

Sec.[216] 2. Provides that persons who may have formed or shall form any society or institution
of the nature of a bank to receive deposits of money for the benefit of persons depositing the
same, accumulating at compound interest, and repayable when required, but, after the
necessary expenses have been met, deriving no benefit from such money, shall have the
benefit of this Act if they wish it. The conditions annexed are, that such persons shall cause the
rules and regulations for the conduct of the business to be entered, deposited, and filed, as
shall be afterwards directed.
Further, that no bank, the rules of which shall not be sanctioned and approved by the National
Debt Commissioners, shall be entitled to the provisions of this Act. (a)
Sec. 3. Savings Banks under the Act shall keep a book in which shall be entered the rules of
each bank, and these books shall be open at all reasonable times to the inspection of
depositors. When any of the rules are altered, such alterations to be entered in the book. The
rules not to be in force till such alteration is made. (a)
Sec. 4. Two written or printed copies of rules shall be sent by Savings Bank trustees to the
certifying barrister, who must certify that they are according to law; the certificate of the
barrister to be paid for by a fee not to exceed one guinea; and the barrister, after certifying the
rules, to return one copy to the trustees and transmit the other copy to the National Debt
Commissioners. (a)
Sec. 5. Every Savings Bank certified under the provisions of this Act to bear the title of “Savings
Bank certified under the Act of 1863;” any other bank, company, or person adopting this title,
to be declared guilty of a misdemeanour, and punishable accordingly.
Sec. 6. Requires that the following regulations shall be adopted and enrolled among the rules of
all Savings Banks:—
(1) The treasurer, trustees, or managers shall not derive any benefit from deposits, nor
directly or indirectly have any salary, allowance, profit, or benefit whatsoever beyond their
actual expenses for the purposes of the bank. The expenses of management, including the
remuneration to paid officers, does not come within the meaning of this clause. (a)
(2) That not less than two persons, being trustees, managers, or paid officers employed for
this specific purpose, shall be present on all occasions of public business, and be parties to
every transaction of deposit and repayment, so as to form a double check of every such
transaction.
(3) The depositor's pass book to be compared with the ledger on every transaction of
repayment and on its first production after the 20th of November in each year.
(4) The depositor to produce his book at least once in each year for this examination.
 (5) No receipt to be taken or money paid except at the bank and during the hours of public
business.
(6) A public accountant or auditor, not of their own body, to examine the books of the
bank, and to report the result, not less than once in every half-year, and to report to the
committee of management the correct amount of the liabilities and assets of the bank.
(7) That a book containing an extracted list of each depositor's balance, omitting the
name, but giving the distinctive number and separate amount of each, checked and
audited as above, be open during the hours of public business for the inspection of any
depositor.
(8) The trustees or committee of management to hold meetings at least every half-year,
and keep minutes of their proceedings in a book to be provided for the purpose.
(9) In the case of banks having branch agencies, the rules to provide for the due receipt
and accounting of all moneys received; for the presence of a second party to every
transaction; and for a periodical examination of the depositor's book.
Sec. 7. Provides that the trustees of every Savings Bank shall transmit weekly returns to the
National Debt Office, giving such particulars as the Commissioners shall direct, showing the
week's transactions and the cash balances remaining in the treasurer's hands.
Sec. 8. The treasurer, actuary, or cashier, and every paid officer of a Savings Bank entrusted
with the receipt of money, to give security by means of bond or bonds, with one or more
sureties, to the Comptroller-General of the National Debt Office. (c)
Sec. 9. Provides that any officer receiving deposits and not paying them over to the managers
shall be guilty of a misdemeanour. (c)
Sec. 10. The moneys, goods, chattels, and effects of all Savings Banks to be invested in the
trustees for the time being. (a)
Sec. 11. No trustee or manager of Savings Banks in Great Britain shall be personally liable
except—
(1) For moneys actually received by him on account of said banks and not paid over in the
usual manner.
(2) For neglect or omission to comply with the above recited regulations as to the
maintenance of checks, the audit of accounts, the holding of meetings and the keeping of
the minutes of the same;
(3) Or for neglect in taking security from his subordinate officers.
Sec. 12. Trustees or managers in Ireland may limit the amount of their responsibility by
declaring in writing that they are willing to be answerable for a specific amount only, which
shall not be less, however, than 100l. At the same time Irish trustees, &c., to be liable for
amounts actually received by them and not accounted for. (d) and (e)
Sec. 13. Provides that the treasurer or any trustee may be required, on a demand from not less
than two trustees and three managers, or from a meeting of trustee and managers, to pay over
all the moneys remaining in his or their hands, and assign and transfer or deliver all securities
and effects, books, papers or other property, to such persons as may be appointed to receive
them; proceedings to be taken in case of any neglect or refusal to comply with the demand. (a)
Sec. 14. Provides that executors, &c., of officers of Savings Banks shall pay money due to
Savings Banks, in case of death, bankruptcy or insolvency, before any other debts whatsoever.
(b)
See. 15. The trustees of Savings Banks shall invest all the money received by them in the Banks
of England or Ireland; and no sum or sums shall be paid or laid out by trustees in any other
manner or upon any other security whatever, except only such sums of money as from time to
time must remain in the hands of the treasurers of such banks to answer the exigencies
thereof. This provision not to prevent any depositor withdrawing his money from a Savings
Bank and investing the same in any other securities. (a)
Sec. 16. Provides that trustees of Savings Banks may receive money from depositors and apply
it for their benefit in any other manner agreed upon. (a)
Sec. 17. Provides that central banks may invest the money of branch banks in the manner
already described. (a)
Sec. 18. Provides penalties for false declarations for the purpose of paying money into the
Banks of England or Ireland. (a)
Sec. 19. The Commissioners of the National Debt to invest the money paid into the bank in the
purchase of bank annuities, Exchequer-bills, or parliamentary securities of whatsoever kind
created or issued, or any stock or debenture guaranteed by authority of Parliament; the interest
arising from the money so invested to be in like manner invested as above. (a)
Sec. 20. Makes it lawful for any three or more National Debt Commissioners to execute and to
do all matters and things required by the operations of this Act. (b)
Sec. 21. Money invested with the Commissioners to be allowed interest at the rate of three
pounds five shillings per cent. per annum. (c)
Sec. 22. Interest due from the Commissioners to be calculated half-yearly up to Nov. 20 and
May 20, and carried to the account of Savings Bank additional principal. No interest to be
allowed on any fractional part of a pound. (a)
Sec. 23. Interest arising to depositors may be calculated yearly, or twice a year, and carried to
the principal. Interest to depositors not to exceed three pounds and tenpence per cent. per
annum. (c)
Sec. 24. Trustees of Saving Banks to appoint an agent who shall be authorized to receive
money from the Commissioners for repayment to depositors. The agreement for the
appointment of this agent, signed by two trustees, shall be deposited with the Commissioners;
but it may be revoked and another appointment made.
Sec. 25. Trustees may draw for the whole or any part of the sum placed in the hands of
Government by drafts on Commissioners; interest to be added by the cashiers of the bank. (a)
Sec. 26. Drafts exceeding 5,000l. must be signed by four trustees, and their signature must be
attested by separate witnesses, who may be managers or other creditable persons. Drafts for
10,000l. not to be paid before fourteen days after the receipt of such drafts. (a)
Sec. 27. Repayment of more than one draft of 10,000l. to any one bank not to be made in any
one day. (a)
Sec. 28. Trustees may receive in person, instead of through the usual agent, payment of drafts
properly executed. (a)
Sec. 29. The surplus after paying necessary expenses of banks to be paid over to the
Commissioners for investment in a separate account; and trustees may draw upon such surplus
fund for the purposes of the Savings Bank by certificate. (a)
Sec. 30. Deposits of minors may be taken, and repayment may be made before the person has
attained the age of twenty-one. (a)
Sec. 31. Repayment to be made to a married woman who may have deposited money, unless
the husband of such woman shall give notice in writing that he requires payment to be made to
him. (c)
Sec. 32. The funds of charitable societies, penny banks, &c., may be deposited in Savings
Banks; if with the approval of the Commissioners, without any restriction as to the amount; and
without that approval, to the extent of 100l. per annum, or 300l. in this whole. (e)
Sec. 33. The funds of any friendly society, legally enrolled and certified, may be invested
without any restriction as to amount, provided a copy of the rules of such society is deposited
with the Savings Bank. (d)
Sec. 34. The receipt of the treasurer, trustee, or other officer of any such charitable institution,
penny bank, or friendly society, shall be deemed a sufficient discharge for any money deposited
and withdrawn from the Saving Bank. (a)
Sec. 35. Members of friendly societies, penny banks, &c., may also subscribe to any Savings
Bank. (a)
Sec. 36. No sum to be taken in a Savings Bank without the depositor discloses his name,
profession, business, and residence; these particulars to be entered in the books of the office.
(a)
Sec. 37. Persons allowed to deposit as trustees on behalf of others; but repayment can only be
made with the receipt of the trustee and also the person or persons for whom the trust account
has been held.
Sec. 38. Provides that it shall not be lawful for depositors in any one Savings Bank to deposit in
any other Savings Bank. A declaration to this effect must be made at the time of the first
deposit. The penalty on a false declaration to be forfeiture to the sinking fund of all deposits.
The declarations to be filed, and a copy with the penalty attached thereto to be annexed to, or
printed in, the deposit book. (a) and (c)
Sec. 39. Deposits of more than 30l. cannot be received in any one year, nor more than 150l. in
the whole; and when principal and interest together amount to 200l., interest shall cease till it
is brought below that sum. (a) This prohibition not to extend to accounts opened before July
1828. A depositor may close his account and make further deposits as a new depositor.
Sec. 40. Depositors may transfer their accounts to any other Savings Bank by means of transfer
certificates, the form of which is presented in Appendix (C).
Sec. 41. In the case of a depositor dying and leaving any sum exceeding 50l. the money must
not be paid except upon the probate of the will of the deceased depositor, or letters of
administration of his or her estate and effects. No duty to be paid on probate when the estate
is under 50l., provided the person claiming such probate or letters of administration produce a
certificate of the amount of the depositor's interest in the bank at the time of his death. (a)
Sec. 42. Administration bonds, &c., for effects not exceeding 50l. sterling shall be exempted
from stamp duty. (a)
Secs. 43, 44, 45. Make provision for payment when depositors die without a will, to those who
appear to be next of kin, &c. (a)
Sec. 46. Makes provision for payment on the death of an illegitimate depositor according to the
statute of limitations.
Sec. 47. Adapts the provisions of the Act as to intestate depositors to the law of Scotland. (b)
Sec. 48. Provides that any dispute arising between the trustees of Savings Banks and any
individual depositor or his representatives, the matter in question shall be referred to the
barrister appointed by the Act, and “whatever award, order, or determination shall be made by
the barrister shall be binding and conclusive on all parties, and shall be final to all intents and
purposes without any appeal.” (c)
Sec. 49. On being referred to, the barrister may inspect any book or books belonging to the
bank in question, and may administer oaths to witnesses; false evidence to be perjury, and the
offender prosecuted and punished accordingly. (c)
Sec. 50. No powers of attorney given by trustees or depositors, no drafts or orders, no
instrument of appointment or instrument for the revocation of any appointment, no
determination or order of the revising barrister, nor any other instrument whatever required to
be given, issued, signed, made, or produced in pursuance of this Act, to be subject to or
charged with any stamp duty or duties whatsoever. (a)
Sec. 51. Provides for the appointment of auditors in Ireland, whose names shall be sent up to
the National Debt Office without delay. (d)
Sec. 52. Every depositor in Ireland to be furnished with a deposit-book which shall contain the
rules of the bank printed at length. A duplicate copy of the rules, and also of every annual
statement, shall also be exhibited from time to time in each Irish bank, and shall be open to the
inspection of every depositor. (d)
Sec. 53. Provides for the regular inspection of the books of Irish depositors, not less than twice
every year. (d)
Sec. 54. Commissioners may close accounts with Savings Banks in Ireland which do not comply
with their instructions, and re-open them if they think fit. (c) In each case the Commissioners
shall forthwith publish a notification of the account being closed, or of the account being re-
opened, in the Dublin Gazette, and also in some newspaper published in the county in which
the said bank is established. (d)
Sec. 55. For the more effectually ascertaining from time to time the actual and progressive
state of all Savings Banks enrolled under this Act, the trustees of every bank shall annually
cause a general statement of the funds of their bank to be prepared up to the 20th November
in each year, showing the balance or principal sum due to all the depositors, a statement of the
expenses incurred, stating in whose hands such balance is then remaining. Such annual
statement shall be attested by two managers or trustees, or one manager and one trustee, and
countersigned by the secretary or actuary of such bank, and shall be transmitted to the
National Debt Office in London or Dublin (as the case may be) within nine weeks from the date
above given. If trustees neglect to transmit this account, or refuse to obey the other orders or
directions of the Commissioners, then it shall be lawful for the Commissioners to close the
accounts of such trustees who thus transgress, and also lawful to re-open them if they see
occasion. (a)
Sec. 56. If the accounts are not prepared and transmitted within the prescribed time, it shall be
lawful for the Commissioners to forthwith publish in the London Gazette, and a newspaper
published in the county where the bank is situated, the name of such defaulting bank. (b)
Sec. 57. The Commissioners are empowered to call for a detailed statement of all the expenses
incurred in the management of any Savings Bank. (b)
Sec. 58. The treasurer of a Savings Bank must sign the annual statement, where it is shown by
that statement that any sum of money belonging to the bank is in his hands. (b)
Sec. 59. A duplicate of every such annual statement, accompanied by a list of the trustees and
managers for the time being, shall be publicly affixed and exhibited in some conspicuous part of
each Savings Bank for the information of all depositing therein; and every depositor shall be
entitled to receive from the Savings Bank a private copy of the annual statement on payment of
one penny. (a)
Sec. 60. The National Debt Commissioners shall, once in each year, render the fullest account
of all their dealings with Savings Banks to the Lords of the Treasury, and copies of all such
accounts shall be laid before both Houses of Parliament.
Sec. 61. A distinct account to be rendered in the same way, showing the aggregate amount of
the Separate Surplus Fund.
Sec. 62. Savings Banks to compute interest on the 20th of May and the 20th of November in
each year. (a)
Sec. 63. The Commissioners may keep a balance in the Bank of Ireland under the title of “The
Fund for the Banks for Savings,” to meet the drafts which may be drawn on account of Savings
Banks in Ireland. (a)
Sec. 64. All receipts, orders, certificates, endorsements, accounts, and returns required for
carrying out this Act, shall be made in such manner as shall be approved by the
Commissioners.
Sec. 65. This Act shall be a full and sufficient indemnity and discharge to the Commissioners,
and to the Governor of the Bank, &c. for all things to be done or required to be done in
pursuance of this Act. (a)
Sec. 66. Commissioners may employ a barrister and such officers as may be necessary to the
carrying out of the provisions of this Act, and the Treasury shall pay them their remuneration,
and meet incidental expenses. (a)
Sec. 67. This Act to apply to all Savings Banks (except those mentioned in the next section)
established or hereafter to be established in England, Scotland, Ireland, or Wales; Berwick-on-
Tweed, the Islands of Guernsey and Jersey, and the Isle of Man.
Sec. 68. This Act must not be held to repeal Acts relating to Post Office Savings Banks, or any
of the powers granted to the Commissioners for the Reduction of the National Debt.[217]
[216] Many of the clauses of the Consolidation Act having been taken entire from previous Acts, and only part of
the provisions being new, we propose to distinguish those clauses originally passed in 1828 (9 George IV. c. 92)
with the letter (a); those passed 3 William IV. c. 14, by (b); in 1844 (7 and 8 Victoria, c. 82) by (c); in 1848 (11
and 12 Victoria, c. 133) by (d); and under 25 and 26 Victoria, c. 75, by (e). All the other sections of this Act not so
marked are new provisions introduced in 1863.
[217] We find from The Clauses relating to the Establishment of the proposed Bradford Corporation Savings Bank,
kindly forwarded to us by Mr. Rayner, with whom the scheme originates, that sections 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 11, 14, 30 to
39 inclusive, 41 to 46 inclusive, 48 to 50 inclusive, of the Consolidation Act are proposed to be incorporated in the
new Bill about to be introduced into the House of Commons. The new clauses provide that the Corporation may
establish a Savings Bank, make regulations for its conduct, appoint a Committee of the Council to manage the
undertaking, and a treasurer and other officers to work it; that the aggregate amount of deposits shall not exceed
a quarter of a million sterling; that interest should be given at the rate of three farthings per pound per month (or
three pounds fifteen per cent. per annum) that debentures shall be issued to depositors for the amounts invested;
and that when a person's deposits amount to 50l., he may require a mortgage for that sum to bear interest at four
per cent. Other sections provide that the Corporation may raise money by annuities, for the transfer of annuities,
for the exemption of deposits and annuities from property and income tax, and for the remedies for depositors,
mortgages, and annuitants, by applying the Acts of 1855, 1858, and 1862, to them. We regret our want of space
to enter more fully into the details of this important and promising scheme.

(C.)

Form of Certificate for Transfer from one Savings Bank to another, or to any other description of
Savings Bank.

Savings Bank at_______________, in the county of_______________.

Whereas _______________ of _______________, a depositor in the above-named Savings
Bank, is desirous of closing his [or her] account with the said bank for the purpose of
transferring his [or her] deposits to the Savings Bank at _______________, in the county of
_______________; and to enable him [or her] so to do, the said depositor has applied for a
certificate of the whole amount due to him [or her], pursuant to the Act (26 and 27 Vict. c. 87):
we hereby certify that the sum due to the said depositor for money deposited by him [or her] in
this Savings Bank, inclusive of all interest due to him [or her] at this date, amounts to the sum
of [state the amount in words], of which the sum of [state the amount, if any, in words] has
been deposited since the twentieth of November last; and we further certify, that his [or her]
account with this Savings Bank has been closed by the issue of this certificate.
Witness our hands this _________ day of _________, 18____.
______________ ⎫ Two of the Trustees or Managers [appointed
⎬ for this object, by the Trustees] of the
______________ ⎭ above-named Savings Bank.

Examined _________________
the Actuary or Secretary of the above-named Savings Bank.
 (D.)

An Abstract of the Act “To make further provision for the Establishment of Savings Banks for
Seamen.” (19 and 20 Vict. c. 41.—7th July, 1856.)

Preamble. Whereas by the Merchant Shipping Act, 1854, certain powers were given to the
Commissioners for the Reduction of the National Debt for the purpose of establishing Savings
Banks for Seamen; and whereas it has since been found to be expedient that the immediate
management and control of such Savings Banks should be placed in the hands of the Board of
Trade. Be it enacted, &c.
Sec. 1. That the Board of Trade may establish in London a central Savings Bank for seamen,
and branch banks at such ports or places as they may deem expedient; and that they may
receive deposits from or on account of seamen, or their wives and children; and that the total
amount standing in the name of any one depositor shall not exceed 200l.
Sec. 2. The Board of Trade may appoint shipping offices branch Savings Banks under this Act,
and shipping masters agents of the said board to conduct this business.
Sec. 3. The Commissioners of the National Debt shall receive the moneys deposited in these
banks on the request of the Board of Trade; shall invest these moneys in the same way as they
do the moneys of other banks; and shall pay, together with interest, the sums received on a
request signified in the like manner.
Sec. 4. Provides that the Board of Trade may make any alterations which they think fit with
respect to the persons entitled to become depositors, the making and withdrawal of deposits,
the rate and payment of interest, or any other matter connected with these banks; such
regulations to be binding upon all.
Sec. 5. Provides that all sums of money due to any deceased depositor, shall be paid and
applied subject to the conditions of the provisions of the Merchant Shipping Act.
Sec. 6. Provides that any person forging a document, or making false representations in order
to obtain deposits or interest, shall be punishable with penal servitude or imprisonment.
Sec. 7. The Board of Trade to pay all expenses in carrying out this Act out of the interest
received from the National Debt Commissioners.
Sec. 8. An annual account of all deposits and repayments shall be laid before both Houses of
Parliament, as also a copy of all regulations made for carrying out this Act.
Sec. 9. All criminal proceedings under this Act to be carried on as under the Merchant Shipping
Act of 1854.[218]
[218] An Act for the establishment of Savings Banks in connexion with the Admiralty, for the benefit of the seaman
and marines of the Royal Navy, has just been introduced into the House of Commons, and will, doubtless, be
quickly passed into law.

(E.)
An Abstract of the Act “To Amend and Consolidate the Laws relating to Military Savings Banks.”
(22 and 23 Vict. c. 20.—13th August, 1859.)

Sec. 1. Repeals the 5 and 6 Vict. c. 71, and the 8 and 9 Vict. c. 27, amending it, and the 12 and
13 Vict. c. 71, and amends and consolidates the said Acts. It also provides that deposits made
under these Acts shall not be affected by their repealment.
Sec. 2. Makes it lawful for her Majesty to establish or continue military or regimental Savings
Banks, for the purpose of receiving sums of money from non-commissioned officers and
soldiers employed in her service in the United Kingdom and foreign stations (India alone
excepted), and for the purpose of receiving moneys or funds raised or paid for objects or
purpose connected with these officers and soldiers which her Majesty may think fit to authorize
to be deposited in these banks.
Sec. 3. Provides that the Secretary at War, with the concurrence of the Commander-in-Chief
and the Lords of the Treasury, may make regulations for the conduct of these banks; and that
when these regulations shall be signed by her Majesty and laid before Parliament they shall be
binding on all concerned.
Sec. 4. These regulations shall determine the rate of interest (which must not exceed three
pounds fifteen shillings per cent. per annum), and all the minor points connected therewith; the
circumstances under which deposits shall be forfeited to the public; the payment of the money
of deceased depositors: may make provision for the deposit of money created for charitable
purposes, and may make it obligatory on commanding officers to so deposit such funds; shall
make provision for the withdrawal of money; and shall provide for the keeping of proper
accounts, and generally for all such matters as relate to Savings Banks.
Sec. 5. The receipt of infants and married women shall be a sufficient discharge for what shall
be deemed a valid payment made to them.
Sec. 6. The moneys received in these banks may be applied by the persons receiving them to
the payment of such ordinary army services as it may be their duty to pay; and sums payable
to depositors shall be paid out of the grants by Parliament for these services.
Sec. 7. Provides that the Secretary at War may direct payment out of the moneys so granted to
be made to the account of the National Debt Commissioners, and carried to the account of the
Fund for the Military Savings Banks.
Sec. 8. The Commissioners of the National Debt to invest the surplus money in the purchase of
bank annuities; the interest arising also to be so applied; and such interest or dividends shall
not be subject to any taxes, charges, or impositions whatever.
Sec. 9. The Secretary at War may direct, at fourteen days' notice, the moneys invested in
annuities to be transferred to the account of the Paymaster-General at the Bank of England.
Sec. 10. Empowers the National Debt Commissioners to sell the annuities.
Sec. 11. The money arising from the dissolution of certain Regimental Benefit Societies, which
was placed in the Savings Banks in the name of each member to accumulate until his
discharge, by the Act (12 and 13 Vict. c. 71) may be withdrawn under certain conditions.
Sec. 12. The officers of Regimental Savings Banks shall not be personally liable except for their
own wilful neglect or default.
Sec. 13. Provides that full accounts of all transactions in these banks shall be laid before both
Houses of Parliament before the 1st of April in each year.
Sec. 14. Military Savings Banks not to be within the provisions of the Acts relating to Savings
Banks proper.
Sec. 15. Refers to the construction of the word “India.”
Sec. 16. Provides that the Act shall take effect immediately after the regulations have been
framed.

(F.)

“An Act[219] to grant Additional Facilities for depositing Small Savings at Interest, with the
Security of the Government for due repayment thereof.” (24 Vict. c. 14.—17th May, 1861.)

Postmaster-General may direct Officers in Post Office to receive Deposits.

1. It shall be lawful for the Postmaster-General, with the consent of the Commissioners of Her
Majesty's Treasury, to authorize and direct such of his officers as he shall think fit, to receive
deposits for remittance to the principal office, and to repay the same, under such regulations as
he, with the concurrence of the Commissioners of Her Majesty's Treasury, may prescribe in that
respect.

Legal Title of Depositor to Repayment.

2. Every deposit received by any officer of the Postmaster-General appointed for that purpose
shall be entered by him at the time in the depositor's book, and the entry shall be attested by
him and by the dated stamp of his office; and the amount of such deposit shall, upon the day
of such receipt, be reported by such officer to the Postmaster-General, and the
acknowledgment of the Postmaster-General, signified by the officer whom he shall appoint for
the purpose, shall be forthwith transmitted to the depositor; and the said acknowledgment shall
be conclusive evidence of his claim to the repayment thereof, with the interest thereon, upon
demand made by him on the Postmaster-General; and, in order to allow a reasonable time for
the receipt of the said acknowledgment, the entry by the proper officer in the depositor's book
shall also be conclusive evidence of title for ten days from the lodgment of the deposit; and if
the said acknowledgment shall not have been received by the depositor through the post within
ten days, and he shall, before or upon the expiry thereof, demand the said acknowledgment
from the Postmaster-General, then the entry in his book shall be conclusive evidence of title
during another term of ten days, and toties quoties; provided always that such deposits shall
not be of less amount than one shilling, nor of any sum not a multiple thereof.

Depositors entitled to Repayments not later than Ten Days after Demand made.
3. On demand of the depositor, or party legally authorized to claim on account of a depositor,
made in such form as shall be prescribed in that behalf, for repayment of any deposit, or any
part thereof, the authority of the Postmaster-General for such repayment shall be transmitted to
the depositor forthwith; and the depositor shall be absolutely entitled to repayment of any sum
or sums that may be due to him within ten days at farthest after his demand shall be made at
any Post Office where deposits are received or paid.

Names of Depositors, &c., not to be disclosed.

4. The officers of the Postmaster-General engaged in the receipt or payment of deposits shall
not disclose the name of any depositor, nor the amount deposited or withdrawn, except to the
Postmaster-General, or to such of his officers as may be appointed to assist in carrying this Act
into operation.

Money to be paid to Commissioners for the Reduction of the National Debt, and repaid to
Depositors through Post Office.
5. All moneys so deposited with the Postmaster-General shall forthwith be paid over to the
Commissioners for the Reduction of the National Debt; and all sums withdrawn by depositors,
or by parties legally authorized to claim on account of depositors, shall be repaid to them out of
the said moneys, through the office of Her Majesty's Postmaster-General.

Additional Security to Depositor.

6. If at any time the fund to be created under the authority of this Act by the investment of the
deposits shall be insufficient to meet the lawful claims of all depositors, it shall be lawful for the
Commissioners of Her Majesty's Treasury, upon being duly informed thereof by the
Commissioners for the Reduction of the National Debt, to issue the amount of such deficiency
out of the Consolidated Fund of the United Kingdom, or out of the growing produce thereof;
and the said Commissioners of Her Majesty's Treasury shall certify such deficiency to
Parliament.

Rate of Interest payable to Depositors.

7. The interest payable to the parties making such deposits shall be at the rate of two pounds
ten shillings per centum per annum; but such interest shall not be calculated on any amount
less than one pound, or some multiple thereof, and not commence until the first day of the
calendar month next following the day of deposit, and shall cease on the first day of the
calendar month in which such deposit is withdrawn.

Interest, how calculated.

8. Interest on deposits shall be calculated to the thirty-first day of December in every year, and
shall be added to and become part of the principal money.

Investment of Funds received under this Act.

9. The moneys remitted to the Commissioners for the Reduction of the National Debt, under
the authority of this Act, shall be invested in some or in all of the securities in which the funds
of Savings Banks established under the existing laws may be invested; and a separate and
distinct account shall be kept by the said Commissioners of all receipts, investments, sales, and
repayments; and a balance sheet of such account, from the first of January to the thirty-first of
December in every year, shall be laid before both Houses of Parliament not later than the thirty-
first of March in every year.

Depositors desiring to Transfer their Deposits.

10. If any depositor making deposit under this Act shall desire to transfer the amount of such
deposit to a Savings Bank established under the Acts relating to Savings Banks, he shall, upon
application to the chief office of the Postmaster-General, be furnished with a certificate stating
the whole amount which may be due to him, with interest, and thereupon his account under
this Act shall be closed; and, upon delivery of such certificate to the trustees or managers of
the Savings Bank to which it is proposed by the depositor to transfer such deposit, they shall, if
they think fit, open an account for the amount stated in such certificate for such depositor, who
shall thereupon be subject to the rules of such Savings Bank; and the amount so transferred
shall, upon such certificate being forwarded to the Commissioners for the Reduction of the
National Debt, be written off in the books of the said Commissioners from the amount of
moneys received under the authority of this Act, and shall be carried to the account of the
Savings Bank to which such transfer shall have been made; and, in like manner, if any depositor
in a Savings Bank, established under the Savings Bank Acts, shall desire to transfer the amount
due to him, with interest, from such Savings Bank to the Postmaster-General, for deposit under
the provisions of this Act, the trustees or managers of such Savings Bank shall, upon his
request, furnish such depositor with a certificate, in a form to be approved by the
Commissioners for the Reduction of the National Debt, signed by two trustees of such Savings
Bank, and thereupon his account with such Savings Bank shall be closed, which certificate the
depositor may deliver to any officer of the Postmaster-General authorized to receive deposits
under this Act, and such certificate shall for the amount therein set forth be considered to be a
deposit made under the authority of this Act, and being forwarded to the said Commissioners,
the said amount shall then be transferred in the books of the said Commissioners from the
account of the said Savings Bank to the credit of the account of moneys deposited under the
authority of this Act. Provided always, that nothing contained in this Act respecting Savings
Banks shall render it necessary to have the rules and regulations of any Savings Bank again
certified if the same have been before certified according to law.

Postmaster-General, with consent of Treasury, to make Regulations, copies of which to be laid

before Parliament.
11. The Postmaster-General, with the consent of the Commissioners of Her Majesty's Treasury,
may make, and from time to time, as he shall see occasion, alter regulations for
superintending, inspecting, and regulating, the mode of keeping and examining the accounts of
depositors, and with respect to the making of deposits and to the withdrawal of deposits and
interest, and all other matters incidental to the carrying this Act into execution, in his
department; and all regulations so made shall be binding on the parties interested in the
subject-matter thereof, to the same extent as if such regulations formed part of this Act; and
copies of all regulations issued under the authority of this Act shall be laid before both Houses
of Parliament within fourteen days from the date thereof, if Parliament shall be then sitting,
and, if not, then within fourteen days from the next re-assembling of Parliament.

Accounts to be laid before Parliament.

12. An annual account of all deposits received and paid under the authority of this Act, and of
the expenses incurred during the year ended the thirty-first of December, together with a
statement of the total amount due at the close of the year to all depositors, shall be laid by the
Postmaster-General before both Houses of Parliament not later than the thirty-first of March in
every year.

Accounts to be examined by Commissioners of Audit.

13. The annual accounts of the Postmaster General, and of the Commissioners for the
Reduction of the National Debt, to the thirty-first of December in each year, in respect to all
moneys deposited or invested under the authority of this Act, shall annually, prior to the thirty-
first of March, in each year, be submitted for examination and audit to the Commissioners for
auditing public accounts.

Provisions of Savings Banks Acts applicable to this Act.

14. All the provisions of the Acts now in force relating to Savings Banks, as to matters for which
no other provision is made by this Act, shall be deemed applicable to this Act, so far as the
same are not repugnant thereto.

Expenses of Act.
15. All expenses incurred in the execution of this Act shall be paid out of the moneys received
under the authority of this Act.
[219] This Act is so short in proportion to its importance, that it is here given entire. Many of the provisions of the
Consolidated Act (1863) apply to the banks established under this Act.

(G.)

Abstracts of Minor Acts of Parliament relating to Savings Banks.

26 Victoria, c. 14, entitled “An Act to Amend the Laws relating to Post Office Savings Banks,”
(4th May, 1863,) provides:—
Sec. 1. For the transfer of the accounts of minors.
Sec. 2. For the funds of a Savings Bank closing its business to be paid over to the National Debt
Commissioners, the money arising from the sale of property to be carried to the separate
surplus fund; the receipt of the trustees on the sale of property to be a sufficient discharge to
the purchaser. The trustees of Savings Banks about to close to have power to compensate their
officers out of the separate surplus fund.
Sec. 3. The information necessary as to the steps to be taken when the trustees of any bank
have determined to close.
Sec. 4. For the conversion of perpetual Government annuities at three per cent. into capital
stock at two pounds ten shillings per cent.
Sec. 5. Power to trustees to appoint managers to sign transfer certificates.
Sec. 6. That the warrants for converting annuities into capital stock shall be laid before
Parliament.

26 Victoria, c. 25, entitled “An Act to make further Provision for the Investment of the Moneys
received by the Commissioners for the Reduction of the National Debt from the Trustees of
Savings Banks established under the Act 9 Geo. IV. c. 92,” (8th June, 1863,) provides:—
Sec. 1. For the cancelling of 24,000,000l. of capital stock of annuities, and the creation of a
charge on the Consolidated Fund for that amount.
Sec. 2. That the Treasury may cancel an additional amount of stock not exceeding 5,000,000l.
creating equivalent terminable annuities chargeable upon the Consolidated Fund.
Sec. 3. That the Commissioners may invest the interest payable on the securities created under
this Act, and other moneys remitted to them, in the purchase of parliamentary securities, or in
any stock or debentures or other securities the interest for which is guaranteed by Parliament.
Sec. 4. That issues in money may be made out of the Consolidated Fund on Savings Bank
account on certificate from the National Debt Commissioners.
Sec. 5. That at least one half of the whole amount of securities held for Savings Banks,
exclusive of the amount of the charge on the Consolidated Fund (Section 1), shall be
parliamentary securities.
Sec. 6. That every year the National Debt Commissioners shall prepare a balance sheet giving
the assets and liabilities in respect to Savings Banks, to the credit of which shall be placed the
amount of the charge upon the Consolidated Fund for twenty-four millions and all other moneys
and securities of every kind; and that a copy of this balance sheet be laid before Parliament
each year.
Sec. 7. That the deficiency shown shall be a charge upon the Consolidated Fund.
Sec. 8. That the powers of investment granted to the Commissioners by other Acts, in so far as
they are not varied by this Act, shall continue in force.
*****
“The Savings Bank Investment Act,” which has just received the Royal Assent (20th March,
1866), empowers the Treasury to substitute terminable annuities for capital stock standing to
the account of Savings Banks and Post Office Savings Banks, and empowers the Treasury to
make rules as to payments to the National Debt Commissioners. The Treasury is likewise
empowered to cancel capital stocks of annuities, and to substitute terminable annuities. The
warrants issued by the Treasury to the Bank of England to be a sufficient authority for the
cancelling of the stock.

(H.)
 Financial Returns, giving the most recent information relating to Savings Banks, Post Office
Savings Banks, and Military Banks, including the entire Amount of Deposits placed in each kind
of Bank from their commencement.

SAVINGS BANKS AND FRIENDLY SOCIETIES.

An Account of the Gross Amount of all Sums Received and Paid by the National Debt
Commissioners on account of Savings Banks and Friendly Societies in Great Britain and Ireland
from their commencement (August, 1817) to the 20th of November, 1865, inclusive.
[Transcriber's Note: Column headers for table, below:]
A. From August, 1817, to 20th November 1865.
B. Gross Amount of all Sums received from Trustees, including Interest up to 20th Nov. 1865.
C. Gross Amount of all Sums paid to Trustees, including Interest.
D. Amount of Money, Principal and Interest, due to the Trustees (Nov. 1865), including
£302,030 8s.5d. due on account of the separate Surplus Fund.
E. Value of the Securities held by the Commissioners (Nov. 1865), at the Prices of that day, to
provide for the Money due to Trustees.

A. B. C. D. E.
£ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d.
Savings Banks. 90,179,614 18 51,142,506 15 39,037,108 3 36,010,477 4 7
Great Britain 9 0 9
& Ireland.
Friendly 5,509,975 4 3 3,594,271 4 11 1,915,703 19 4 1,071,198 3 6
Societies.
Great Britain
& Ireland.
Total. 95,689,590 3 4,736,777 19 11 40,952,812 3 37,081,675 8 1
Savings Banks 0 1
and
Friendly
Societies.
Balance Deficient 3,871,136 15 0
£40,952,812 3
1

POST OFFICE SAVINGS BANKS.

An Account of the Sums due to all Depositors in Post Office Savings Banks throughout the
United Kingdom on the 31st March, 1865; of the Expenses of Management of the Post Office
Savings Banks to the same date; of the Amount standing to the Credit of the Post Office
Savings Banks, on the same date, in the books of the Commissioners for the Reduction of the
National Debt; of the Balance in the hands of the Postmaster-General at the same date; and
of the Amount of any Loss sustained by the Post Office Savings Banks from the Frauds
committed in the Transmission of Deposits, or otherwise.
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