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Exploratory Multivariate Analysis by Example Using R
Second Edition Husson Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Husson, François; Lê, Sébastien; Pagès, Jérôme
ISBN(s): 9781315301860, 1315301865
Edition: Second edition
File Details: PDF, 18.05 MB
Year: 2017
Language: english
 Chapman & Hall/CRC
Computer Science and Data Analysis Series

Exploratory Multivariate
Analysis by Example Using R

François Husson
Sébastien Lê
Jérôme Pagès

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Contents

Preface xi

1 Principal Component Analysis (PCA) 1

1.1 Data — Notation — Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2.1 Studying Individuals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.2 Studying Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.3 Relationships between the Two Studies . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Studying Individuals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3.1 The Cloud of Individuals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3.2 Fitting the Cloud of Individuals . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.2.1 Best Plane Representation of NI . . . . . . . 7
1.3.2.2 Sequence of Axes for Representing NI . . . . 10
1.3.2.3 How Are the Components Obtained? . . . . 10
1.3.2.4 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3.3 Representation of the Variables as an Aid for
Interpreting the Cloud of Individuals . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.4 Studying Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.4.1 The Cloud of Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.4.2 Fitting the Cloud of Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.5 Relationships between the Two Representations NI and NK 16
1.6 Interpreting the Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.6.1 Numerical Indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.6.1.1 Percentage of Inertia Associated with a
Component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.6.1.2 Quality of Representation of an Individual or
Variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.6.1.3 Detecting Outliers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.6.1.4 Contribution of an Individual or Variable to
the Construction of a Component . . . . . . 19
1.6.2 Supplementary Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.6.2.1 Representing Supplementary Quantitative
Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.6.2.2 Representing Supplementary Categorical
Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.6.2.3 Representing Supplementary Individuals . . 24

v
vi Contents

1.6.3 Automatic Description of the Components . . . . . . . 24

1.7 Implementation with FactoMineR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.8 Additional Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.8.1 Testing the Significance of the Components . . . . . . 26
1.8.2 Variables: Loadings versus Correlations . . . . . . . . 27
1.8.3 Simultaneous Representation: Biplots . . . . . . . . . 27
1.8.4 Missing Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.8.5 Large Datasets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.8.6 Varimax Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.9 Example: The Decathlon Dataset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.9.1 Data Description — Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.9.2 Analysis Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.9.2.1 Choice of Active Elements . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.9.2.2 Should the Variables Be Standardised? . . . 32
1.9.3 Implementation of the Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.9.3.1 Choosing the Number of Dimensions to
Examine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
1.9.3.2 Studying the Cloud of Individuals . . . . . . 35
1.9.3.3 Studying the Cloud of Variables . . . . . . . 38
1.9.3.4 Joint Analysis of the Cloud of Individuals and
the Cloud of Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
1.9.3.5 Comments on the Data . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
1.10 Example: The Temperature Dataset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
1.10.1 Data Description — Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
1.10.2 Analysis Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
1.10.2.1 Choice of Active Elements . . . . . . . . . . 45
1.10.2.2 Should the Variables Be Standardised? . . . 46
1.10.3 Implementation of the Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
1.11 Example of Genomic Data: The Chicken Dataset . . . . . . 53
1.11.1 Data Description — Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
1.11.2 Analysis Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
1.11.3 Implementation of the Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

2 Correspondence Analysis (CA) 61

2.1 Data — Notation — Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
2.2 Objectives and the Independence Model . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.2.1 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.2.2 Independence Model and χ2 Test . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.2.3 The Independence Model and CA . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.3 Fitting the Clouds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.3.1 Clouds of Row Profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.3.2 Clouds of Column Profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
2.3.3 Fitting Clouds NI and NJ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
2.3.4 Example: Women’s Attitudes to Women’s Work in France
in 1970 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Contents vii

2.3.4.1 Column Representation (Mother’s Activity) . 72

2.3.4.2 Row Representation (Partner’s Work) . . . . 74
2.3.5 Superimposed Representation of Both Rows and
Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
2.4 Interpreting the Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
2.4.1 Inertias Associated with the Dimensions (Eigenvalues) 79
2.4.2 Contribution of Points to a Dimension’s Inertia . . . . 82
2.4.3 Representation Quality of Points on a Dimension or
Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
2.4.4 Distance and Inertia in the Initial Space . . . . . . . . 84
2.5 Supplementary Elements (= Illustrative) . . . . . . . . . . . 85
2.6 Implementation with FactoMineR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
2.7 CA and Textual Data Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
2.8 Example: The Olympic Games Dataset . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
2.8.1 Data Description — Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
2.8.2 Implementation of the Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
2.8.2.1 Choosing the Number of Dimensions to
Examine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
2.8.2.2 Studying the Superimposed Representation . 98
2.8.2.3 Interpreting the Results . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
2.8.2.4 Comments on the Data . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
2.9 Example: The White Wines Dataset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
2.9.1 Data Description — Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
2.9.2 Margins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
2.9.3 Inertia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
2.9.4 Representation on the First Plane . . . . . . . . . . . 109
2.10 Example: The Causes of Mortality Dataset . . . . . . . . . . 112
2.10.1 Data Description — Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
2.10.2 Margins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
2.10.3 Inertia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
2.10.4 First Dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
2.10.5 Plane 2-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
2.10.6 Projecting the Supplementary Elements . . . . . . . . 124
2.10.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

3 Multiple Correspondence Analysis (MCA) 131

3.1 Data — Notation — Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
3.2 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
3.2.1 Studying Individuals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
3.2.2 Studying the Variables and Categories . . . . . . . . . 133
3.3 Defining Distances between Individuals and Distances between
Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
3.3.1 Distances between the Individuals . . . . . . . . . . . 134
3.3.2 Distances between the Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
3.4 CA on the Indicator Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
viii Contents

3.4.1 Relationship between MCA and CA . . . . . . . . . . 136

3.4.2 The Cloud of Individuals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
3.4.3 The Cloud of Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
3.4.4 The Cloud of Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
3.4.5 Transition Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
3.5 Interpreting the Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
3.5.1 Numerical Indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
3.5.1.1 Percentage of Inertia Associated with a
Component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
3.5.1.2 Contribution and Representation Quality of
an Individual or Category . . . . . . . . . . . 145
3.5.2 Supplementary Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
3.5.3 Automatic Description of the Components . . . . . . . 147
3.6 Implementation with FactoMineR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
3.7 Addendum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
3.7.1 Analysing a Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
3.7.1.1 Designing a Questionnaire: Choice of Format 152
3.7.1.2 Accounting for Rare Categories . . . . . . . . 153
3.7.2 Description of a Categorical Variable or a
Subpopulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
3.7.2.1 Description of a Categorical Variable by a
Categorical Variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
3.7.2.2 Description of a Subpopulation (or a
Category) by a Quantitative Variable . . . . 155
3.7.2.3 Description of a Subpopulation (or a
Category) by the Categories of a Categorical
Variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
3.7.3 The Burt Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
3.7.4 Missing Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
3.8 Example: The Survey on the Perception of Genetically
Modified Organisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
3.8.1 Data Description — Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
3.8.2 Analysis Parameters and Implementation with
FactoMineR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
3.8.3 Analysing the First Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
3.8.4 Projection of Supplementary Variables . . . . . . . . . 165
3.8.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
3.9 Example: The Sorting Task Dataset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
3.9.1 Data Description — Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
3.9.2 Analysis Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
3.9.3 Representation of Individuals on the First Plane . . . 169
3.9.4 Representation of Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
3.9.5 Representation of the Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Contents ix

4 Clustering 173
4.1 Data — Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
4.2 Formalising the Notion of Similarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
4.2.1 Similarity between Individuals . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
4.2.1.1 Distances and Euclidean Distances . . . . . . 177
4.2.1.2 Example of Non-Euclidean Distance . . . . . 178
4.2.1.3 Other Euclidean Distances . . . . . . . . . . 179
4.2.1.4 Similarities and Dissimilarities . . . . . . . . 179
4.2.2 Similarity between Groups of Individuals . . . . . . . 180
4.3 Constructing an Indexed Hierarchy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
4.3.1 Classic Agglomerative Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
4.3.2 Hierarchy and Partitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
4.4 Ward’s Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
4.4.1 Partition Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
4.4.2 Agglomeration According to Inertia . . . . . . . . . . 185
4.4.3 Two Properties of the Agglomeration Criterion . . . . 187
4.4.4 Analysing Hierarchies, Choosing Partitions . . . . . . 188
4.5 Direct Search for Partitions: K-Means Algorithm . . . . . . 189
4.5.1 Data — Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
4.5.2 Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
4.5.3 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
4.6 Partitioning and Hierarchical Clustering . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
4.6.1 Consolidating Partitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
4.6.2 Mixed Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
4.7 Clustering and Principal Component Methods . . . . . . . . 192
4.7.1 Principal Component Methods Prior to AHC . . . . . 193
4.7.2 Simultaneous Analysis of a Principal Component Map
and Hierarchy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
4.8 Clustering and Missing Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
4.9 Example: The Temperature Dataset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
4.9.1 Data Description — Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
4.9.2 Analysis Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
4.9.3 Implementation of the Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
4.10 Example: The Tea Dataset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
4.10.1 Data Description — Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
4.10.2 Constructing the AHC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
4.10.3 Defining the Clusters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
4.11 Dividing Quantitative Variables into Classes . . . . . . . . . 204

5 Visualisation 209
5.1 Data — Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
5.2 Viewing PCA Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
5.2.1 Selecting a Subset of Objects — Cloud of Individuals 210
5.2.2 Selecting a Subset of Objects — Cloud of Variables . . 211
5.2.3 Adding Supplementary Information . . . . . . . . . . 212
x Contents

5.3 Viewing Data from a CA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

5.3.1 Selecting a Subset of Objects — Cloud of Rows or Col-
umns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
5.3.2 Adding Supplementary Information . . . . . . . . . . 216
5.4 Viewing MCA Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
5.4.1 Selecting a Subset of Objects — Cloud of Individuals 217
5.4.2 Selecting a Subset of Objects — Cloud of Categories . 217
5.4.3 Selecting a Subset of Objects — Clouds of Variables . 218
5.4.4 Adding Supplementary Information . . . . . . . . . . 218
5.5 Alternatives to the Graphics Function in the FactoMineR Pack-
age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
5.5.1 The Factoshiny Package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
5.5.2 The factoextra Package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
5.6 Improving Graphs Using Arguments Common to Many Fac-
toMineR Graphical Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221

Appendix 225
A.1 Percentage of Inertia Explained by the First Component or by
the First Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
A.2 R Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
A.2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
A.2.2 The Rcmdr Package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
A.2.3 The FactoMineR Package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236

Bibliography of Software Packages 241

Bibliography 243

Index 245
Preface

Qu’est-ce que l’analyse des données ? (English: What is data analysis?)

As it is usually understood in France, and within the context of this book,
the expression analyse des données reflects a set of statistical methods whose
main features are to be multidimensional and descriptive.
The term multidimensional itself covers two aspects. First, it implies
that observations (or, in other words, individuals) are described by several
variables. In this introduction we restrict ourselves to the most common
data, those in which a group of individuals is described by one set of variables.
But, beyond the fact that we have many values from many variables for each
observation, it is the desire to study them simultaneously that is characteristic
of a multidimensional approach. Thus, we will use those methods each time
the notion of profile is relevant when considering an individual, for example,
the response profile of consumers, the biometric profile of plants, the financial
profile of businesses, and so forth.
From another point of view, the interest of considering values of indi-
viduals for a set of variables in a global manner lies in the fact that these
variables are linked. Let us note that studying links between all the vari-
ables taken two-by-two does not constitute a multidimensional approach in
the strict sense. This approach involves the simultaneous consideration of all
the links between variables taken two-by-two. That is what is done, for exam-
ple, when highlighting a synthetic variable: such a variable represents several
others, which implies that it is linked to each of them, which is only possible
if they are themselves linked two-by-two. The concept of synthetic variable is
intrinsically multidimensional and is a powerful tool for the description of an
individuals × variables table. In both respects, it is a key concept within the
context of this book.
One last comment about the term analyse des données since it can have at
least two meanings — the one defined previously and another broader one that
could be translated as “statistical investigation.” This second meaning is from
a user’s standpoint; it is defined by an objective (to analyse data) and says
nothing about the statistical methods to be used. This is what the English
term data analysis covers. The term data analysis, in the sense of a set of
descriptive multidimensional methods, is more of a French statistical point of
view. It was introduced in France in the 1960s by Jean-Paul Benzécri and the
adoption of this term is probably related to the fact that these multivariate
methods are at the heart of many “data analyses.”

xi
xii Preface

To Whom Is This Book Addressed?

This book has been designed for scientists whose aim is not to become statis-
ticians but who feel the need to analyse data themselves. It is therefore
addressed to practitioners who are confronted with the analysis of data. From
this perspective it is application oriented; formalism and mathematics writing
have been reduced as much as possible while examples and intuition have been
emphasised. Specifically, an undergraduate level is quite sufficient to capture
all the concepts introduced.
On the software side, an introduction to the R language is sufficient, at
least at first. This software is free and available on the Internet at the following
address: http://www.r-project.org/.
Content and Spirit of the Book
This book focuses on four essential and basic methods of multivariate ex-
ploratory data analysis, those with the largest potential in terms of applica-
tions: principal component analysis (PCA) when variables are quantitative,
correspondence analysis (CA) and multiple correspondence analysis (MCA)
when variables are categorical and hierarchical cluster analysis. The geo-
metric point of view used to present all these methods constitutes a unique
framework in the sense that it provides a unified vision when exploring mul-
tivariate data tables. Within this framework, we will present the principles,
the indicators, and the ways of representing and visualising objects (rows and
columns of a data table) that are common to all those exploratory methods.
From this standpoint, adding supplementary information by simply projecting
vectors is commonplace. Thus, we will show how it is possible to use categor-
ical variables within a PCA context where variables that are to be analysed
are quantitative, to handle more than two categorical variables within a CA
context where originally there are two variables, and to add quantitative vari-
ables within an MCA context where variables are categorical. More than
the theoretical aspects and the specific indicators induced by our geometrical
viewpoint, we will illustrate the methods and the way they can be exploited
using examples from various fields, hence the name of the book.
Throughout the text, each result correlates with its R command. All these
commands are accessible from FactoMineR, an R package developed by the
authors. The reader will be able to conduct all the analyses of the book as
all the datasets (as well as all the lines of code) are available at the following
website address: http://factominer.free.fr/bookV2. We hope that with
this book, the reader will be fully equipped (theory, examples, software) to
confront multivariate real-life data.
Note on the Second Edition
There were two main reasons behind the second edition of this work. The
first was that we wanted to add a chapter on viewing and improving the graphs
produced by the FactoMineR software. The second was to add a section to
Preface xiii

each chapter on managing missing data, which will enable users to conduct
analyses from incomplete tables more easily.
The authors would like to thank Rebecca Clayton for her help in the transla-
tion.
1
Principal Component Analysis (PCA)

1.1 Data — Notation — Examples

Principal component analysis (PCA) applies to data tables where rows are
considered as individuals and columns as quantitative variables. Let xik be
the value taken by individual i for variable k, where i varies from 1 to I and
k from 1 to K.
Let x̄k denote the mean of variable k calculated over all individual instances
of I:
I
1X
x̄k = xik ,
I i=1

and sk the standard deviation of the sample of variable k (uncorrected):

v
u I
u1 X
sk = t (xik − x̄k )2 .
I i=1

Data subjected to a PCA can be very diverse in nature; some examples

are listed in Table 1.1.
This first chapter will be illustrated using the “orange juice” dataset chosen
for its simplicity since it comprises only six statistical individuals or observa-
tions. The six orange juices were evaluated by a panel of experts according
to seven sensory variables (odour intensity, odour typicality, pulp content, in-
tensity of taste, acidity, bitterness, sweetness). The panel’s evaluations are
summarised in Table 1.2.

1.2 Objectives
The data table can be considered either as a set of rows (individuals) or as a
set of columns (variables), thus raising a number of questions relating to these
different types of objects.
2 Exploratory Multivariate Analysis by Example Using R
TABLE 1.1
Some Examples of Datasets
Field Individuals Variables xik
Ecology Rivers Concentration of pollutants Concentration of pollu-
tant k in river i
Economics Years Economic indicators Indicator value k for year
i
Genetics Patients Genes Expression of gene k for
patient i
Marketing Brands Measures of satisfaction Value of measure k for
brand i
Pedology Soils Granulometric composition Content of component k
in soil i
Biology Animals Measurements Measure k for animal i

Sociology Social classes Time by activity Time spent on activity k

by individuals from so-
cial class i

TABLE 1.2
The Orange Juice Data
Odour Odour Pulp Intensity Acidity Bitter- Sweet-
intensity typicality of taste ness ness
Pampryl amb. 2.82 2.53 1.66 3.46 3.15 2.97 2.60
Tropicana amb. 2.76 2.82 1.91 3.23 2.55 2.08 3.32
Fruvita fr. 2.83 2.88 4.00 3.45 2.42 1.76 3.38
Joker amb. 2.76 2.59 1.66 3.37 3.05 2.56 2.80
Tropicana fr. 3.20 3.02 3.69 3.12 2.33 1.97 3.34
Pampryl fr. 3.07 2.73 3.34 3.54 3.31 2.63 2.90

1.2.1 Studying Individuals

Figure 1.1 illustrates the types of questions posed during the study of individ-
uals. This diagram represents three different situations where 40 individuals
are described in terms of two variables: j and k. In graph A, we can clearly
identify two distinct classes of individuals. Graph B illustrates a dimension of
variability which opposes extreme individuals, much like graph A, but which
also contains less extreme individuals. The cloud of individuals is therefore
long and thin. Graph C depicts a more uniform cloud (i.e., with no specific
structure).
Interpreting the data depicted in these examples is relatively straightfor-
ward as they are two dimensional. However, when individuals are described
by a large number of variables, we require a tool to explore the space in which
these individuals evolve. Studying individuals means identifying the similari-
ties between individuals from the point of view of all the variables. In other
words, to provide a typology of the individuals: which are the most similar
individuals (and the most dissimilar)? Are there groups of individuals which
Principal Component Analysis 3
A B C

2
1.0
l l l
l l
ll l l

1.0
l l l l l
l
l l
ll l
ll l l
ll
ll
l l l
l l l

0.5

1
l l l
l l
0.5

l ll l
l
l l
l l ll
l l
l
Variable k

Variable k

Variable k
l l
l l
l
l ll

0.0
0.0

0
l
l l l
l l l l
l
l
l l
l l
l l
l l
−0.5

l
l

−0.5
l

−1
l l l
l l
l l
l
l
l

l l l l l
l l
−1.0

l l l
l
l ll
l l l
l l l

−1.0
l l
l

−2
l
l l l

−1.0 −0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 −1.0 −0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
Variable j Variable j Variable j

FIGURE 1.1
Representation of 40 individuals described by two variables: j and k.

are homogeneous in terms of their similarities? In addition, we should look

for common dimensions of variability which oppose extreme and intermediate
individuals.
In the example, two orange juices are considered similar if they were eval-
uated in the same way according to all the sensory descriptors. In such cases,
the two orange juices have the same main dimensions of variability and are
thus said to have the same sensory “profile.” More generally, we want to know
whether or not there are groups of orange juices with similar profiles, that is,
sensory dimensions which might oppose extreme juices with more intermediate
juices.

1.2.2 Studying Variables

Following the approach taken to study the individuals, might it also be possi-
ble to interpret the data from the variables? PCA focuses on the linear rela-
tionships between variables. More complex links also exist, such as quadratic
relationships, logarithmics, exponential functions, and so forth, but they are
not studied in PCA. This may seem restrictive, but in practice many relation-
ships can be considered linear, at least for an initial approximation.
Let us consider the example of the four variables (j, k, l, and m) in Fig-
ure 1.2. The clouds of points constructed by working from pairs of variables
show that variables j and k (graph A) as well as variables l and m (graph F)
are strongly correlated (positively for j and k and negatively for l and m).
However, the other graphs do not show any signs of relationships between
variables. The study of these variables also suggests that the four variables
are split into two groups of two variables, (j, k) and (l, m), and that, within
one group, the variables are strongly correlated, whereas between groups, the
variables are uncorrelated. In exactly the same way as for constructing groups
of individuals, creating groups of variables may be useful with a view to syn-
thesis. As for the individuals, we identify a continuum with groups of both
 4 Exploratory Multivariate Analysis by Example Using R

very unusual variables and intermediate variables, which are to some extent
linked to both groups. In the example, each group can be represented by one
single variable as the variables within each group are very strongly correlated.
We refer to these variables as synthetic variables.
A B C
1.0

l
l l l
l l l
l l l

0.0

0.0
l
l
l ll l l l l
ll l l
l
l l l l l l l
l l l
l l

−0.6 −0.4 −0.2

−0.6 −0.4 −0.2

l l l l
0.5

l l l l
l l l l l
l l l
l
ll l l l l
l l l l
l l l l
l l l l l
l l l
Variable k

l l l

Variable l

Variable l
l l
l l l l
l l
l l l
l
0.0

l l l
l l l l l
l
l ll ll l l
l ll l ll
l l l l
l ll l l l
l l
l l
l l l
l l
l l l l l l
ll l l
l l l l
l ll l l l l
−0.5

l l l l
l l
l l
l
l l l l
l l l
l l
l l l l
l l l l
−0.8

−0.8
l l l l l l
l l l
l
l ll
l l l l
l l l l l l l
−1.0

l l l l
l l l l l l l l
l l l l
l l
l l l l
−1.0

−1.0
l l l
l l l l l
l l
l l l

−1.0 −0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 −1.0 −0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 −1.0 −0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0
Variable j Variable j Variable k
D E F
l l l
l l l
l l l
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

l l l
l l l
l l l
l l l l ll ll l
l l l
l l l l l l
l l l l l l l l l
l l l
l l l
l l l l l l l l l
l l l l l l
l l l l l l
l l l l l l
l l l
l l l l l l l l l
l l l l l l
l l l
Variable m

Variable m

Variable m
l l l
l l l
l l l l l l
ll l l l l l l l
l l l l l l
l l l l l l
l l l l ll l l l
l l l
l l l l l l
l l l
l l l
l l l
l l l l l l
l l l l l l
l l l
l l l
l l l l l l
l l l l l l
l l l
l l l l l l l l l
l l l l l l
l l l
l l l l l l
l l l
l l l l l l

l l l l l l

l l l

l l l
−0.2

−0.2

−0.2

l l l

−1.0 −0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 −1.0 −0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 −1.0 −0.8 −0.6 −0.4 −0.2 0.0
Variable j Variable k Variable l

FIGURE 1.2
Representation of the relationships between four variables: j, k, l, and m,
taken two-by-two.

When confronted with a very small number of variables, it is possible to

draw conclusions from the clouds of points, or from the correlation matrix
which groups together all of the linear correlation coefficients r(j, k) between
the pairs of variables. However, when working with a great number of vari-
ables, the correlation matrix groups together a large quantity of correlation
coefficients (190 coefficients for K = 20 variables). It is therefore essential to
have a tool capable of summarising the main relationships between the vari-
ables in a visual manner. The aim of PCA is to draw conclusions from the
linear relationships between variables by detecting the principal dimensions
of variability. As you will see, these conclusions will be supplemented by the
definition of the synthetic variables offered by PCA. It will therefore be eas-
ier to describe the data using a few synthetic variables rather than all of the
original variables.
In the example of the orange juice data, the correlation matrix (see Ta-
ble 1.3) brings together the 21 correlation coefficients. It is possible to group
Principal Component Analysis 5

the strongly correlated variables into sets, but even for this reduced number
of variables, grouping them this way is tedious.

TABLE 1.3
Orange Juice Data: Correlation Matrix
Odour Odour Pulp Intensity Acidity Bitter- Sweet-
intensity typicality of taste ness ness
Odour intensity 1.00 0.58 0.66 −0.27 −0.15 −0.15 0.23
Odour typicality 0.58 1.00 0.77 −0.62 −0.84 −0.88 0.92
Pulp content 0.66 0.77 1.00 −0.02 −0.47 −0.64 0.63
Intensity of taste −0.27 −0.62 −0.02 1.00 0.73 0.51 −0.57
Acidity −0.15 −0.84 −0.47 0.73 1.00 0.91 −0.90
Bitterness −0.15 −0.88 −0.64 0.51 0.91 1.00 −0.98
Sweetness 0.23 0.92 0.63 −0.57 −0.90 −0.98 1.00

1.2.3 Relationships between the Two Studies

The study of individuals and the study of variables are interdependent as
they are carried out on the same data table: studying them jointly can only
reinforce their respective interpretations.
If the study of individuals led to a distinction between groups of individ-
uals, it is then possible to list the individuals belonging to only one group.
However, for high numbers of individuals, it seems more pertinent to char-
acterise them directly by the variables at hand: for example, by specifying
that some orange juices are acidic and bitter whereas others have a high pulp
content.
Similarly, when there are groups of variables, it may not be easy to inter-
pret the relationships between many variables and we can make use of specific
individuals, that is, individuals who are extreme from the point of view of
these relationships. In this case, it must be possible to identify the individu-
als. For example, the link between acidity-bitterness can be illustrated by the
opposition between two extreme orange juices: Fresh Pampryl (orange juice
from Spain) versus Fresh Tropicana (orange juice from Florida).

1.3 Studying Individuals

1.3.1 The Cloud of Individuals
An individual is a row of the data table, that is, a set of K numerical values.
The individuals thus evolve within a space RK called “the individual’s space.”
If we endow this space with the usual Euclidean distance, the distance between
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
 n6 MARY TUDOR, QUEEN OF FRANCE who might amount
to as many as twenty-five, in gallant trim of various sorts and many
in gold brocade." The Queen came next, riding under a canopy of
white satin embroidered above and around with roses, and
supported by two porcupines which the clergy had prepared for her,
and which was borne by the officers of the town. Her dress was now
" of gold brocade with a white gown," made in English fashion with
tight sleeves, " very costly both in jewels and goldsmith work." She
held in her hand a sceptre of white wood, and all round her under
the canopy were her running footmen, while the Scots Guards made
a second circle just outside the canopy. The Dauphin rode just
beyond the edge of her canopy, and they laughed and talked
together, for " une si belle personne tout or et diamants plut fort au
due de Valois." x The reality of all this magnificence far exceeded the
description, wrote the Venetian ambassador, " to the great glory of
the Queen." Abbeville welcomed her with enthusiasm, and trumpets,
clarions, bells and artillery all vied in making the noise without which
jubilation is impossible. The people were delighted with her, and
admired her fair beauty and gentle manners, for they were not all so
critical as the Venetian ambassador, who at once spotted what he
called the weak point in her face, its light eyebrows and eyelashes.
Under clangour of bells and blare of trumpets, and amid the press of
her new subjects, Mary, still a little pale from her recent fatigues and
stormy crossing, rode through the Porte Marcade down the wet
chaussee, all hung with tapestries now damp with rain, meeting
Mysteries and Moralities at every corner, till she came to the Church
of St Wolfran, Abbeville's patron saint, " Louise de Savoie," by La
Maulde Claviere, p. 369.
 BETROTHAL TO LOUIS XII. 117 where she dismounted to
give thanks. On the Place where was Mary's lodging her most trying
ordeal was before her, for there awaited her Madame Claude, who
had been " slightly indisposed and unable to go out of the town to
meet her." Mary was of those who thinketh little evil, and her kind
heart was moved at the sight of that white, plain face, with its sweet
expression, and she met her then, as later, "with, the utmost
courtesy and honour and very lovingly." x The Venetians, who
delighted in spectacles, give no account of Mary's formal
presentation to her husband, and for that reason I inclined to the
belief that Gaguin's 2 account is apocryphal, and that Mary was
allowed to sup in peace and rest before the ball given by the Duke
and Duchess of Brittany (as Francois and Claude were called by the
English) in the evening. Neither do their letters mention the homage
to St Wolfran, but to give thanks at the parish church was usual on
such occasions and not likely to have been omitted. What a day for a
girl of nineteen to have passed through ! No wonder she looked a
little pale and weary, but her spirits never flagged nor her amazing
energy, and she showed her usual zest in dancing and listening to
songs and music. Her people said she cared for nothing in the world
so much as dancing and singing, and that night she danced and
smiled her way into the hearts of the whole Court, " for she
conducts herself with so much grace and has such good manners."
The enthusiastic Venetian exclaimed, " She is a paradise ! ' and
envied the King. The ball must have been a sumptuous affair. English
and French noblemen vied with one another in 1 C. S. P. Venice, ii.
509, 510, 511, for description of whole episode. 2 Gaguin, Chronique
de France.
 n8 MARY TUDOR, QUEEN OF FRANCE magnificence, and
their ladies, too, were glittering with jewels and brocades, but in this
trial by glory San Severino was easily the handsomest in his gown of
cloth of gold lined with superb sables. The stuff for it, ordered
specially from Florence, had only arrived the day before, to the
despair of the tailors, who had had to work all night to have it ready
for Sunday's doings. While one end of the town was dancing and
singing, in the poorer quarter across the river men were fighting
flames for their lives and homes. Fire had seized the wooden hovels,
and no help was to be expected from the King's men, for the tocsin
was not allowed to disturb the King's amusements. Thickly curtained
windows shut out the sight of the flames from the court, while the
Italians in the house of the Venetian ambassador watched their
progress with vehement prayers for deliverance.1 The high wind
fanned them, and many of the houses were burnt down before the
sounds of royal merriment ceased ; but God was merciful to the
Italians, and the flames were got under before they leapt the river.
Thus by shipwreck and by fire was Mary's new life ushered in. 1 C.
S. P. Venice, ii. 511.
 CHAPTER VI QUEEN OF FRANCE MARY'S lodging is said to
have been " at the corner of the street leading from the Castle of
Ponthieu to the rue St Giles," and this, according to " Le Roi des
Ribauds," was connected by a temporary gallery with the Hotel
Gruthuse,1 the King's house, from which it was distanced a short
stone's throw. But the gardens adjoined, and it was by this way,2
the morning being fine, that the marriage procession passed about
eight o'clock on Monday, October 9, for the wedding was to take
place an hour later. First walked twenty-six knights two and two,
then followed trumpeters and all sorts of musicians and macers.
Mary came next, escorted by the Duke of Norfolk and the Marquis of
Dorset. She wore a gown of stiff gold brocade trimmed and lined
with ermine, her headgear was in the English fashion, and her
jewels were of very great price, but she was still pale and showed
traces of fatigue, and, according to the usual tradition, did not look
her best as a bride, for millinery turns its back on emotions. She was
surrounded by her other noblemen, all cap in hand, and more
sumptuously dressed than for the entry, for they all wore gowns of
some kind of cloth of gold lined with 1 " Lives of the Princeses of
England," vol. v. p. 42 et seq. 2 C. S. P. Venice, ii. 508, 510, 511. "9
 120 MARY TUDOR, QUEEN OF FRANCE most beautiful
sables, or other kind of fine fur, and their gold chains were
wearisome to look at, so burdensome did they appear in their
massiveness. After the noblemen followed the Queen's gentlewomen
and maidens in gold brocade, one after the other, walking between
two ^ gentlemen cap in hand. Slowly this streak of moving gold
passed from the garden gate to the door of the hall where the
ceremony was to take place, by a way lined by the gentlemen of the
Scots Guards with their maces in their hands, and by the archers of
the Guard. The crush at the door was very great, and within the dim
hall, lighted by windows representing the deeds of St Wolfran, was
Louis, dressed, like his wife, in cloth of gold and ermine and seated
on a chair near the altar. When Mary appeared " the King doffed his
bonnet and the Queen curtseyed to the ground," then he kissed her,
and she was seated by his side on the chair waiting for her under a
canopy held by the princes of France. The treasurer, Robertet, now
handed the King a necklace in which was set "a great pointed
diamond with a ruby almost two inches long without foil," x and
Louis put it round Mary's neck. Mass then began, and the Dauphin
served the King, while Madame, " with a marvellous sorrow," served
Mary, as she had been wont to do her mother : 2 the candles were
held by princes of France. The Cardinal of Bayeux married them and
then sung Mass, and when he gave the wafer, one half to the King
and the other to the Queen, Louis, after he had kissed and received
his, turned and kissed his wife. Then Mary again curtseyed to the
ground, and departed to her own 1 L. and P. H. VIII., i. 5495 ; Calig.
D. vi. 199. 2 Fleurange, op. dt,t pp. 267-8.
 QUEEN OF FRANCE 121 rooms to dine with the French
princesses, when she was waited on by French officers and the
JDuke of Albany. The English ambassadors dined with the Duke of
Brittany and the rest of the company in the large chamber of the
King's palace where open house was kept for all comers during three
days. After dinner they all danced in the hall till evening, and the
glitter of the company can hardly be imagined — jewels, cloths of
gold and silver, brocades, and brilliant silks ; beautiful women and
fine men, French and English, it was impossible to say which were
the most richly clad, only an Englishman was always known by his
heavy gold chain. In the evening Louis had Mary dressed in French
fashion and they gave a ball, and there was more dancing, good
cheer, and banqueting when Mary was served for the last time by
Englishmen, who, clad in cloth of gold, knelt the whole time. Some
thought the French fashion did not become her so well as the
English, others thought she had never looked better in her life ; but
whichever may be correct, Louis at anyrate could not bear her to
leave his side. She must have chattered away to him a kind of
mixture of her own desires and vague remembrances of her
brother's wishes, for she asked him to undertake a new Italian
expedition, and told him she longed above all things to go to Venice,
and Louis promised that they would go together.1 The evening
passed, " and at the eighth hour before midnight, the Queen was
taken away from the entertainment by Madame to go and sleep with
the King," and "the next morning, the 10th, the King seemed very
jovial and gay and in love by his countenance." 1 C. S. P. Venice, ii.
507,
 122 MARY TUDOR, QUEEN OF FRANCE But alas ! it was not
for long. " Ces amoureuses nopces" x were too much for him, "
antique anddebile" as he was, and the same day the gout gripped
him again. Perhaps it was this that made him take such a profound
dislike to old Lady Guildford and insist on her returning home. Louis
was determined to abide by the original contract, and said his wife's
foreign train was too large. Lady Guildford distrusted Louis as
profoundly as he disliked her and had an aversion not inexplicable to
leaving her pupil in the hands of such a feeble old man. She went so
far, however, as to refuse to leave them alone and when Louis would
have been " merry " she was always there with her forbidding look.
Still she was Mary's one stay in the circumstances of her marriage,
and it was hard, much probably as the Queen resented her assumed
airs of authority, to part from her. But go she had to, though Mary
wept and said she had never expected such treatment, said she
would write to her brother, and told her to wait at Boulogne till the
answer arrived, for she would reinstate her. Norfolk refused to
meddle with the arrangement out of pique, for the suite was of
Wolsey's choosing, not his. Here is Mary's indignant and peremptory
letter : — " My good Brother, as heartily as I can I recommend me
unto your Grace, marvelling much that I never heard from you since
our departing, so often as I have sent and written unto you. And
now am I left post alone in effect, for on the morn after marriage my
chamberlain and all other men servants were discharged, and in like
wise my mother Guildford with other my women and maidens,
except such as never had experience nor know1 Journal de Louise
de Savoie, October 9, 1514.
 QUEEN OF FRANCE 123 ; ledge how to advertise or give
me counsel in any time of I need, which is to be feared more shortly
than your grace thought at the time of my departing, as my mother
Guildford can more plainly shew your grace than I can write, to
whom I beseech you to give credence. And if it may be by any mean
possible I humbly require you to cause my said mother Guildford to
repair hither once again. For else if any chance hap other than weal
I shall not know where nor by whom to ask any good counsel to
your pleasure nor yet to mine own profit. I marvel much that my
lord of Norfolk would at all times so lightly grant everything at their
requests here. I am well assured that when ye know the truth of
everything as my mother Guildford can shew you, ye would full little
have thought I should have been thus intreated ; that would God my
lord of York had come with me in the room of Norfolk ; for then I am
sure I should have been left much more at my heartsease than I am
now. And thus I bid your grace farewell with [mutilated] as ever had
Prince : and more heartsease than I have now. [I beseech] give
credence to my mother Guildford. By your loving sister, Mary, Queen
of France." x Not content with this, on the same date, the day
before Lady Guildford and the rejected suite returned to England,
she wrote to Wolsey : "I recommend me unto you as heartily as I
can, and as showeth [be not] intreated as the King and you thought
I should have been, for the morn after the marriage all my servants,
both men and women, were discharged. Insomuch that my mother
Guildford was also discharged, whom as you 1 L. and P. H. VIIL, i.
5488 ; Calig. D. vi. 253.
 124 MARY TUDOR, QUEEN OF FRANCE know the King and
you willed me in anywise to be counselled. But for anything I might
do in no wise might I have any grant for her abode here, which I
assure you, my lord, is much to my discomfort, besides many other
discomforts, that ye would full little have thought. I have not yet
seen in France any lady or gentlewoman so necessary for me as she
is, nor yet so meet to do the King my brother service as she is. And
for my part, my lord, as you love the King, my brother, and me, find
the means that she may in all haste come hither again, for I had as
lief lose the winning I shall have in France to lose her counsel when
I shall lack it, which is not like long to be required as I am sure the
noblemen and gentlemen can shew you more than becometh me to
write in this matter. I pray you my lord give credence to my mother
Guildford in everything concerning this matter. And albeit my lord of
Norfolk hath neither dealt with me nor yet with her at this time, yet I
pray you to be a good lord unto her. And would to God my [ . . . "]
had been so good to have had you with me hither when I had my
lord of Norfolk. And thus fare ye well, my lord. My lord, I pray you
give credence to my [mother Guild]ford in my sorrows she have
delyre. [?] From your own while I live, Mary, Queen of France." l
Poor Mary, she was already paying dear, she thought, for her jewels,
and was little consoled that day by her husband's new gifts of rubies
and diamonds and pearls. But Louis had a story of his own to tell,
for Henry and Wolsey both wrote on the subject, the bishop as fol1
L. and P. H. VIII., i. 5489 ; Calig. D. vi. 143.
 QUEEN OF FRANCE 125 lows: * — " Since the King, my
sovereign lord and master, your good brother had ordered on
account of the true, perfect, and entire confidence which he had in
Mistress Guildford that she should be with the Queen, his sister, your
wife, on account of the good manners and experience which he
knew her to have, and also because she speaks the language well :
in order also that the said Queen, his sister, might be better advised,
and taught by her how she ought to conduct herself towards you
under all circumstances, considering, moreover, that the Queen, his
said good sister, is a young lady and that she should be abroad, not
understanding the language perfectly, and having no acquaintance
with any of the ladies there, to whom she might disclose such
feelings as women are given to, and that she had no one of her
acquaintance to whom she could familiarly tell and disclose her
mind, that she might find herself desolate as it were, and might
thereby entertain regret and displeasure, which peradventure might
cause her to have some sickness and her bodily health to be
impaired, which God forbid, and should such an accident happen, I
believe, Sir, that you would be most grieved and displeased. And
whereas, Sir, I have known and understood that the said Mistress
Guildford is at Boulogne on her return here, and that she was
entirely discharged, doubting lest the King, my master, should he
know it, might think it somewhat strange, I have ventured to write
to the said lady to tarry awhile in the said town of Boulogne until I
had written to you my poor and simple opinion on this subject,
which Sir, I now do. And, by your leave, Sir, it seems to me that you
should retain her for some 1 Bethune MS. 8466, f. 61, Bib. Nat.,
Paris, quoted by Mrs Green, op. cit., p. 48.
 126 MARY TUDOR, QUEEN OF FRANCE time in the service
of the Queen, your wife, and not discharge her so suddenly, seeing
and considering that the King, your said good brother, has taken her
from a solitary place which she had never intended to quit, to place
her in the service of the Queen, his good sister. And I have no
doubt, Sir, that when you know her well you will find her a wise,
honourable, and confidential lady, very desirous and earnest to
follow out in all things possible to her, your wish or pleasure in all
that you may order or command, whatever report has been or may
be made to the contrary." Gerard Danet1 had been sent on with
letters to Wolsey, while the good lady planted herself at Boulogne to
await the development of events which she expected would make
for her restoration, and on his way to Canterbury had fallen in with
Suffolk. The Duke wrote at once to Wolsey of the affair in which he
saw the hands of the Howards, " fader and son," and asked Wolsey
to see that something was done, for if Mary was not well treated
they would be blamed. But Louis would have none of her. First he
remarked dryly to the English agent 2 that " his wife and he be in
good and perfect love as ever two creatures can be, and both of age
to rule themself, and not to have servants that should look to rule
him or her. If his wife have need of counsel or to be ruled he is able
to do it, but he was sure it was never the Queen's mind or desire to
have her again, for as soon as she came aland, and also when he
was married, she began to take upon her not only to rule the Queen
but also that she should not come to him but that she should be
with her, nor that no lady nor lord should speak with her but | « L.
and P. H. VIII., i. 5512 ; Calig. D. vi. 147. 2 Ibid., i. 5553 ; Calig. D.
yi. 201.
 QUEEN OF FRANCE 127 she should hear it, and began to
set a murmur and a banding among the ladies of the court." "And
then he swore that there was never man that better loved his wife
than he did, but or he would have such a woman about her he had
liefer be without her." He was sure that when Henry knew all, he
would be satisfied. "For in nowise he would not have her about his
wife, also he said that he is a sickly body and not at all times that
[he would] be merry with his wife to have any strange wo[man
there] but one that he is well acquainted with [and before whom he]
durst be merry, and that he is sure [the Queen his] wife is content
withal for he hath set [about her neither] lady or gentle- woman to
be with her for her [mistress but her] servants and to obey her
commandments." But poor Lady Guildford's unkindest cut was to
come from her young mistress, for three weeks after those
impassioned letters Mary calmly assured the Earl of Worcester that "
she loved my Lady Guildford well, but she is content that she come
not, for she is in that case that she may well be without her, for she
may do what she will," l and Worcester adds rather doubtfully, " I
pray God that so it may continue to his pleasure." The dismissing of
the sheep dog was done by Louis but the rest of the suite, save
those in the original contract, was got rid of in a much more
ceremonious fashion by means of the Council.2 Francis d'Angouleme
was at the bottom of it, for he did and undid all in the court, and
with him just now the English ambassadors had to reckon. He was
cordiality itself, and sent florid messages to Henry, desiring
Worcester 1 L. and P. H. VIII., i. 5553 ; Calig. D. vi. 201. 2 Ibid., i.
5495 ; Calig. D. vi. 199.
 128 MARY TUDOR, QUEEN OF FRANCE " that sithens the
Duke of Angouleme might not come to your presence, to bear the
Earl of Angouleme's heart to you," * and many " other good and
hearty words." He had cause for contentment if any man of his
upbringing, ambitions and temperament ever had, for his chances of
a near throne were increased rather than diminished by Louis'
marriage, which had so enfeebled the King that he could not leave
his bed " and maketh semblance as he would depart every day, but
yet he lieth still ever excusing him by his gout." 2 And his dutiful
son-in-law gaily retailed to his friend Fleuranges the greatest joy he
had ever had in his whole life of twenty years; "Je suis sure, ou on
m'a bien fort menti, qu'il est impossible que le Roi et la Reine
puissent avoir enfants." 3 Hence partly his cordiality to the king, who
had sent " une hacquenee pour le [Louis] porter plus vite et plus
doucement en Enfer ou au Paradis." On Friday, October, 13, the
English departed laden with presents of plate, and with them Mary's
rejected household, leaving Lady Elizabeth Grey, Mary Fenes, Anne
Boleyn, Elizabeth Grey [of Wilton], and Anne Jerningham, most of
them young and inexperienced. She retained in all thirteen men,
including Dr Denton, her almoner, and Maitre Guillaume, her
physician, and six women, with Jean Barnes, " the chamberiere."
Mary's eight trumpeters went away with their pockets full of gold
from the King, Monsieur, Madame, and the whole court, while the
French court musicians and singers were far from content, for the
King had forbidden them at the peril of their lives to go to play 1 L.
and P. H. VIIL, i. 5495 ; Calig. D. vi. 199. 2 Ibid. 3 Fleurange, op.
cit., p. 269.
 QUEEN OF FRANCE 129 or sing as wandering minstrels for
money in the lodgings of the English. The Court continued at
Abbeville till after the 20th, and Mary was continually by the bedside
of her husband, who, she told the ambassadors, " maketh as much
of her as it is possible for any man to make of a lady." * She played
to him on her lute and sang, and he was never happy but in her
presence, and emptied his seven coffers of jewels slowly into her
lap. The Dauphin and Longueville were her very good friends, and
both asked her to use her influence with Henry for the deliverance at
a reduced ransom of French prisoners in whom they were interested,
and she wrote twice on the subject to her brother. There is little
doubt that Mary found Francis an amusing companion, and she
probably flirted with her son-in-law, for, after all, she was but
nineteen and he but twenty, and now she was allowed to do as she
liked. Henry did not write to her, but did to his brother-in-law, who
had written to him to tell of his joy in the prospect of having an heir.
Henry replied that he hoped the rather capricious nature of his sister
would not upset these conjugal felicities, "et ainsi lui donnames
avisement et conseil avant son departement, et ne faisons aucun
doute l'un jour plus que l'autre ne la trouvez telle que doit etre
envers vous et faire toutes choses qui vous peuvent venir a gr£,
plaisir ou contentement." Before the departure of the English from
Abbeville the Dauphin had caused a joust to be proclaimed which
was considered of extraordinary character. In November, after the
entry of the Queen into Paris 1 L. and P. H. VIIL, i. 5495 ; Calig. D.
vi. 199. 9
 130 MARY TUDOR, QUEEN OF FRANCE lie, with nine aides,
would answer at the barrier all vomers that were gentlemen of name
and arms, on horseback and on foot. " The laws of horseback were
that with sharp speares they should run five courses at Tilt and five
more at Randon, being well armed and covered with pieces of
advantage for their best defeDce. After this to fight twelve strokes
with sharpe swords. This being done, he and his aides offered to
fight at Barriers with the same persons with a hand spear and a
sword." x The French herald had carried the proclamation of the
jousts to England, and " the Duke of Suffolk, the Marquis of Dorset,
and his four brethren, the Lord Clinton, Sir Edward Nevile, Sir Giles
Capell, Thomas Cheyne, and others got licence of the King to go
over to this challenge."2 When Suffolk met Dannet at Canterbury he
was on his way to Boulogne, where he landed on October 20, and
after, no doubt, visiting Lady Guildford with what comfort he could,
he set out with the Marquis and his brothers, who were all awaiting
him " in grey coats and hoods because they would not be known."3
The Duke was eager to " stryke wyet the Frynche King," 4 and his
one dread was that the Council, i.e. the Duke of Norfolk and his son,
the Earl of Surrey, would insist on his returning home before this
was accomplished, " Wherefore, my lord," he wrote to Wolsey, "I
beseech you nold your hand fast that I be not sent for back." It was
Suffolk's first visit to France, and his idea of distance was insular, not
continental, for he expected to be in Paris the day after his landing
at Boulogne, but 1 Herbert's History of Henry VIII., pp. 51 et seq. 2
Stow's Chronicle, ed. 1592, pp. 848 et seq. 3 Ibid. 4 L. and P. H.
VIII., i. 5512 ; Calig. D. vi. 147.
 QUEEN OF FRANCE 131 travelling rapidly and passing by
Abbeville to Beauvais, they came up with the Court there on the
25th. On hearing of their arrival Louis sent for Suffolk at once to
come to him alone, and the Duke was brought straight into the
King's room, where he was in bed, with the Queen sitting beside
him. Suffolk did his " rywarynes and knyelled down by his bed sede ;
[the nobleman's own spelling] and soo he brassed me in hes armes
and held me a good wyell, and said I was hartylle wyecoum and
axsed me, How dows men esspysseal good brodar whom I am so
moche bounden to lowf abouf hall the warld ? " x Suffolk assured
Louis of Henry's goodwill and thanks for the honour and love
showed to his sister. " And upon that his Grace said that there
should [be nothing] that he will spare to do your grace's pleasure a
service, with as hearty manner as ever I saw a man : and, Sir, I said
unto him that your Grace would do unto him in like case ; and he
said, I doubt it not, for I know well the nobleness, and trust so much
in your master that I reckon I have of him the greatest jewel that
ever one prince had of another." At this appropriate moment Suffolk
rose from his knees and made his reverence unto the Queen. He
gave her her brother's messages and Queen Katharine's, and was
more than relieved to see that Mary could control her feelings and
order herself wisely and honourably, "the which I assure your Grace
rejoiced me not a little ; your Grace knows why." Then he goes on,
"for I think there was never queen in France that hath demeaned
herself more honourably or wiselier, and so says all the noble men in
France that have seen 1 L. and P. H. VIIL, i. 5523 ; Calig. D. vi. 149.
 i32 MARY TUDOR, QUEEN OF FRANCE her demeanour, the
which letted not to speak of it ; and as for the King [there was]
never a man that set his mind more upon [woman] than he does on
her, because she demeans herself so winning unto him, the which I
am sure [will be no] little comfort unto your Grace." The
conversation turned upon the coming jousts, and the Duke said it
would be little honour to win, seeing there were two or three
hundred answerers, and Louis said that he would introduce him and
the Marquis to the Dauphin to be his aides, and sent for Francis. He
came showing himself all regard and courtesy, and in his
exaggerated way declared them not aides only but brothers, and
carried Suffolk off to supper. There again the conversation was all of
jousting and the King of England's prowess, and Francis, with great
tact, would talk of nothing but his admiration for Henry's skill. During
this interview there is no mention of the " trwcheman " in the French
language which last year Suffolk had found necessary, so that he
must have taken lessons since his Flemish courtship. With Suffolk's
coming to the Court Mary's difficultiesincreased, for it was noticed
that she gave him many marks of her friendship, but the Duke,
according to the testimony of the Marquis of Dorset, behaved
himself well and wisely in all matters, and the Dauphin's jealous
precautions1 (he insisted that his wife should never leave the Queen
alone for a single minute by day, and that Madame d'Aumont should
sleep in her room at night) seemed absolutely unnecessary to any
who had not been brought up by Louise de Savoie. 1 L. and P. H.
VIII., i. 5569 ; Calig. D. vi. 188.
 QUEEN OF FRANCE 133 The Queen had the pleasure of
seeing Suffolk for one day only at Beauvais, and the day after the
interview the English departed with Francis for Paris, hunting the
boar by the way, when Suffolk and Dorset both killed, and on the
28th they came to Paris to "commune" about the jousts and to see
about armour and trappings. The Court came on behind more slowly,
and did not arrive at St Denis till the 30th, where, during the feasts
of All Hallows and All Souls, they remained quietly in the Abbey. On
Friday, November 3, about ten o'clock, the English ambassadors for
the Coronation, the Duke of Suffolk, the Marquis of Dorset, the Earl
of Worcester, the Lord of St Johns [i.e. the prior of the English
langue of the Order of St John of Jerusalem in England], and Dr
West, were sent for, and the ceremony was announced for the
following Sunday.1 After this official visit, Suffolk was commanded to
the King's lodging to see the two princesses. When he came in, the
King " mad me to kyes hys dawttares," 2 and they conversed for
some time about Wolsey's affairs. These were going smoothly, for at
Abbeville Louis had ordered the French bishop-elect to retire from
the contest and had told Robertet to compensate him, and now
Longueville said that everything possible was being done about the
Cardinalate. The immediate question to be settled with the
ambassadors was the meeting of the two kings, and there was an
amicable haggle over the place. While the King was entertaining the
Duke, Mary had received a very important visitor, Louise de Savoie,
mother of the Dauphin. She arrived in Paris at eleven o'clock on 1 L.
and P. H. VIII., i. 5547 ; Calig. D. vi. 153. 2 Ibid.
 134 MARY TUDOR, QUEEN OF FRANCE the 3rd, " et celui
mesme jour sans me reposer je feus conseillee d'aller saluer la reine
Marie a St Denys : et sortis de la ville de Paris a trois heures apres
midy avec grand nombre de gentishommes." * It is very regrettable
that she did not record in her diary her opinion of the Queen, but,
on the other hand, it proves that there was nothing to be said
against Mary, for in that case it would certainly have been her
pleasure to write it. On Sunday, November 5, the Queen was
crowned. The English were brought to the church by M. de
Montmorency, and an hour after Mary came in with a great company
of noblemen and ladies. The Dauphin led her, and before her went
the Dukes of Alencon, Bourbon, Longueville, Albany, the Count of
Venddme, and the Count of St Pol, with many others. The Queen
kneeled before the altar, and was anointed by the Cardinal of Brie,
who delivered to her the sceptre and the vierge of justice, put a ring
upon her finger, and lastly set the crown upon her head, "which
done the Duke of Brittany (i.e. the Dauphin) led her to a stage made
on the left side of the altar, where she was set in a chair, under a
c[loth of State], and the said Duke stood behind her holding th[e
crown] from her head to ease her by the weight thereo[f. And] then
the High Mass sungen by the said Cardinal, whereat the Queen
departed. After Agnus she [was] houseld. Mass done, she departed
to the p[alace] and we to our lodgings to our dinners."2 Louis had
watched the ceremony privately, and next day he left the abbey
about seven 1 "Journal de Louise de Savoie," November 3, 1514. 2
L. and P. H. VIII., i. 5560 ; Calig. D. vi. 205.
 QUEEN OF FRANCE 135 in the morning for Paris, and Mary
followed about nine to make her solemn entry. After dinner at the
Chapelle St Denis began the wearisome ceremonial, a repetition on a
more grandiose scale of the entry into Abbeville. The city sent
deputations to greet her, the law and the merchants likewise, and as
Mary's French was not equal to the burden of replying to their
welcome, the Archbishop of Paris had to be her spokesman. This
was just outside the barriers, where the procession was formed, a
replica of that at Abbeville. There were the same guards, the
mingling of the French and English heralds, royal and noble, the
Princes of the blood, the Queen's courser and palfrey, and then
Mary, this time seated in her litter of state, wearing her crown,
glittering with jewels worn on her gown of cloth of gold and in her
hair. The Dauphin, "lui aussi tout or et diamants," again rode by her
side, and they frequently spoke together. Then followed as before
the ladies, the French princesses, and the State carriages of the
Queen with her ladies and damsels. At the Porte St Denis the trades
were waiting with a canopy of cloth of gold embroidered with roses
and lilies, and this they bore over the Queen, but, once inside the
gate, another halt had to be made to allow a second canopy borne
by the merchants and burgesses to be placed over that of the
trades. At this point was an allegorical display on a tapestry-covered
scaffold of the arms of the city of Paris, a galley under sail with the
four winds blowing with bursting cheeks upon it. On the deck were
Ceres and Bacchus, while Paris held the tiller. Sailors manned the
yards and chanted,
 136 MARY TUDOR, QUEEN OF FRANCE " Noble dame bien
soit venue en France : Par toi vivons en plaisir et en joye, Francoys,
Angloys vivent a leur plaisance : Louange a Dieu du bien qu'il nous
envoy e." Mary's courteous grace in acknowledging the acclamation
with which she was greeted as usual pleased the people, and she
passed on down the tapestry-hung streets, and through the crowds
of cheering people, passed the Fontaine du Ponceau, where the
water was scattered over two plants, a lily and a rose ; passed the
convent of the Holy Trinity, where she saw herself presenting the
Pax to her husband, passed the Porte au Peintres, the Holy
Innocents, and then on by the Chatelet, where Justice and Truth met
together, and she herself, labelled " Stella Maris," was in the
foreground, to the Palais Royale, where the angel Gabriel was
greeting Mary in the field of France, and they sang, " Comme la
paise entre Dieu et les hommes Par le moyen de la vierge Marie Fut
jadis faicte, ainsy a present somme Bourgoys Francoys deschargez
de nos sommes Car Marie avecque nous se marie." But this was not
the end, though the afternoon was wearing on. The procession now
proceeded to Notre Dame de Paris, where all the learned in
theology, law and medicine met her in their furred gowns, and
outside the church she was harangued by a venerable doctor.
Through the open doors of the Cathedral could be seen dimly the
group of great ecclesiastics waiting to welcome her. Mary got out of
her litter and entered the doors, and at once the bells rang out, and
the organs sounded, while the
 QUEEN OF FRANCE 137 whole clergy chanted the Te Deum,
as they turned and led the procession to the high altar. There the
whole company adored the Mass, and then the Archbishop of Paris
bade the Queen welcome. Back again in her litter to the Palais
Koyale (and it was now six o'clock) went the Queen with no chance
of rest, for the gargantuan part of her day's work remained, and she
had to sup in public at the celebrated marble table, the centre of the
government of France. In the Grande Salle the doric pillars were all
surrounded by sideboards laden with gold and silver plate, the walls
were hung with tapestry, and the air was so melodious with clarion
and trumpet, that it seemed paradise rather than a room in an
earthly palace. Mary had Madame Louise de Savoie, and her
daughter the Duchess of Alencon, with the Duchess of Nevers, at
her table, while her ladies, English and French, dined near by. There
were many wonderful dishes of the four and twenty blackbirds type ;
a phoenix beating its wings till fire consumed it ; a cock and a hare
jousting ; a St George on horseback leading La Pucelle against the
English. The heralds and musicians cried " Largesse," and Mary gave
to them a ship of silver, and at last, after being rejoiced by a few
more pastimes and diversions, she was at liberty to take her leave.1
Next day after Mass she rode to the Hotel des Tournelles (which
Suffolk calls Turnells tout court), and there she found her husband
awaiting her. The remainder of the week was filled by ceremonies
incident to the presentations of gifts by the guilds and merchants of
the city of Paris, but Mary found time to write to Wolsey for
temporary 1 Vespasian B. ii., quoted by Mrs Green, op. cit, pp. 56 et
seq.
 138 MARY TUDOR, QUEEN OF FRANCE help till her estate
was settled for her whilom French master, John Palsgrave, who had
not returned to England with the rest of her rejected train, but had
made his way to Paris, evidently encouraged by his mistress, in
order to study.1 * L. and P. H. VIII., i. 5582. RO.
 CHAPTER VII THE ENGLISHMEN IN PARIS ON MONDAY,
September 28, before the marriage, Montjoye, the French Herald,
had carried the French challenge to England, and the jousts had
been proclaimed at Canterbury by the Garter King at Arms. The date
now had been definitely fixed for November 13, and nothing else
was talked of in Paris, while the Dauphin was and had been so busy
with the arrangements that he had not attended any councils, nor
taken part in any of the deliberations with the English
ambassadors.1 The Earl of Dorset had no very exalted opinion of
him as a j ouster, and he told Wolsey that " we found him and his
company not like as they have been named ; for though they do run
trimly and handle themself well [enough] with their small and light
staves, they could not well trim themselves in their harn[ess but] be
content to have our poor advices." 2 But if he knew little about
harness he took delight in organizing the ceremonies of the
occasion, and erected an arch triumphant at Les Tournelles, in the
rue St Antoine, on which four shields were to be placed, and the
rules were " that he who would touch any of them must first enter
his name and arms. That he who touched the first which was silver
should run at tilt according to the articles, who touched 1 La Maulde
Claviere, o}). cit. 370. 2 L. and P. H. VIII., i. 5569 ; Calig. D. vi. 188.
139
 i4o MARY TUDOR, QUEEN OF FRANCE the golden should
run at Randon as above mentioned. He that touched the black shield
should fight on foot with hand spears or swords for the one hand :
six foynes with the hand spear, and then eight strokes to the most
advantage (if the spear so long held), and after that twelve strokes
with the sword. He that touched the tawny shield should cast a
spear on foot with a target on his arm and after fight with a two-
handed sword." 1 The weather made the preparations difficult. It
poured constantly, and the floor of the lists was every day a serious
question, for the sand strewn upon it was daily washed away.2
Francis was determined that the tourney should outshine in all
things the tales he had heard of English magnificence, and money
flowed like water, "une veritable d^bauche d'or et d'argent."
Armourers, painters and tailors were all reaping a golden harvest,
and he borrowed and bought horses wherever he could.3 It was all
for a woman's eyes too, for the Dauphin's passion for his mother-in-
law was becoming notorious, and the story goes that he had even
arranged to surprise Mary one night in her room, but was prevented
by a friend of his own, whose reasoning was too forcible to be
disregarded.4 His mother also remonstrated, and it was possibly at
this time that Suffolk had " words " with him. Francis had to content
himself with outdoing his rival in millinery, for it was absurd that he
should have even hoped to overcome him in the lists, and for this he
had no opportunity, though Suffolk had hoped and longed to come
to strokes with the French King, and, failing 1 Herbert's Life of Henry
VIII., p. 51 et seq. 2 La Maulde Claviere, op. cit. 377. 3 Ibid. 4 Ibid.,
383.
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