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 T HE E X P ER T ’S VOIC E® I N C+ +

C++ Standard
Library Quick
Reference
—
Peter Van Weert
Marc Gregoire
 C++
Standard Library
Quick Reference

Peter Van Weert

Marc Gregoire
C++ Standard Library Quick Reference
Peter Van Weert Marc Gregoire
Kessel-Lo, Belgium Meldert, Belgium
ISBN-13 (pbk): 978-1-4842-1875-4 ISBN-13 (electronic): 978-1-4842-1876-1
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4842-1876-1
Library of Congress Control Number: 2016941348
Copyright © 2016 by Peter Van Weert and Marc Gregoire
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or
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the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser
of the work. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions
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with respect to the material contained herein.
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Technical Reviewer: Bart Vandewoestyne
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Printed on acid-free paper
 To my parents and my brother and his wife.
Their support and patience helped me in finishing this book.
—Marc Gregoire

In loving memory of Jeroen. Your enthusiasm and courage

will forever remain an inspiration to us all.
—Peter Van Weert
Contents at a Glance

About the Authors............................................................................ xv

About the Technical Reviewer ....................................................... xvii
Introduction .................................................................................... xix

■Chapter 1: Numerics and Math ....................................................... 1

■Chapter 2: General Utilities ........................................................... 23
■Chapter 3: Containers ................................................................... 51
■Chapter 4: Algorithms .................................................................. 81
■Chapter 5: Stream I/O ................................................................. 101
■Chapter 6: Characters and Strings ............................................. 125
■Chapter 7: Concurrency .............................................................. 161
■Chapter 8: Diagnostics ............................................................... 183
■Appendix A: Standard Library Headers ...................................... 195

Index .............................................................................................. 201

v
Contents

About the Authors............................................................................ xv

About the Technical Reviewer ....................................................... xvii
Introduction .................................................................................... xix

■Chapter 1: Numerics and Math ....................................................... 1

Common Mathematical Functions.............................................. <cmath> 1
Basic Functions ........................................................................................................ 1
Exponential and Logarithmic Functions ................................................................... 2
Power Functions ....................................................................................................... 2
Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions .................................................................. 2
Error and Gamma Functions ..................................................................................... 3
Integral Rounding of Floating-Point Numbers .......................................................... 3
Floating-Point Manipulation Functions ..................................................................... 3
Classification and Comparison Functions................................................................. 4
Error Handling........................................................................................................... 5

Fixed-Width Integer Types .......................................................<cstdint> 5

Arithmetic Type Properties ...................................................... <limits> 5
Complex Numbers ..................................................................<complex> 8
Compile-Time Rational Numbers .............................................. <ratio> 9
Random Numbers................................................................... <random> 10
Random Number Generators .................................................................................. 10
Random Number Distributions ............................................................................... 13

vii
■ CONTENTS

Numeric Arrays.................................................................... <valarray> 17

std::slice ........................................................................................................... 19
std::gslice......................................................................................................... 20
std::mask_array ................................................................................................ 21
std::indirect_array ........................................................................................ 21

■Chapter 2: General Utilities ........................................................... 23

Moving, Forwarding, Swapping .............................................<utility> 23
Moving .................................................................................................................... 23
Forwarding ............................................................................................................. 25
Swapping ................................................................................................................ 26

Pairs and Tuples .................................................................................... 26

Pairs.................................................................................................... <utility> 26
Tuples ..................................................................................................... <tuple> 27

Relational Operators ..............................................................<utility> 28

Smart Pointers ....................................................................... <memory> 28
Exclusive-Ownership Pointers ................................................................................ 29
Shared-Ownership Pointers.................................................................................... 31

Function Objects ............................................................. <functional> 33

Reference Wrappers ............................................................................................... 34
Predefined Functors ............................................................................................... 34
Generic Function Wrappers .................................................................................... 35
Binding Function Arguments .................................................................................. 36
Functors for Class Members................................................................................... 37
Initializer Lists ....................................................... <initializer_list> 39
Date and Time Utilities ........................................................... <chrono> 39
Durations ................................................................................................................ 40
Time Points ............................................................................................................. 41
Clocks ..................................................................................................................... 41
C-style Date and Time Utilities ............................................................... <ctime> 42

viii
 ■ CONTENTS

C-Style File Utilities ................................................................ <cstdio> 45

Type Utilities .......................................................................................... 45
Runtime Type Identification ..................................... <typeinfo>, <typeindex> 45
Type Traits ...................................................................................<type_traits> 46

■Chapter 3: Containers ................................................................... 51

Iterators ............................................................................... <iterator> 51
Iterator Tags ............................................................................................................ 52
Non-Member Functions to Get Iterators ................................................................. 53
Non-Member Operations on Iterators ..................................................................... 54

Sequential Containers ........................................................................... 54

std::vector....................................................................................... <vector> 54
std::deque ........................................................................................... <deque> 60
std::array ........................................................................................... <array> 60
std::list and std::forward_list ......................<list>, <forward_list> 61
Sequential Containers Reference ........................................................................... 63
std::bitset....................................................................................... <bitset> 66

Container Adaptors ................................................................................ 67

std::queue ........................................................................................... <queue> 68
std::priority_queue ........................................................................ <queue> 68
std::stack ........................................................................................... <stack> 69
Example .................................................................................................................. 69
Reference ............................................................................................................... 70

Ordered Associative Containers ............................................................ 71

std::map and std::multimap .................................................................<map> 71
std::set and std::multiset .................................................................<set> 72
Searching ............................................................................................................... 72
Order of Elements ................................................................................................... 73
Complexity .............................................................................................................. 73
Reference ............................................................................................................... 73

ix
■ CONTENTS

Unordered Associative Containers .... <unordered_map>, <unordered_set> 75

Hash Map................................................................................................................ 76
Template Type Parameters ..................................................................................... 76
Hash Functions ....................................................................................................... 76
Complexity .............................................................................................................. 77
Reference ............................................................................................................... 77

Allocators .............................................................................................. 79
■Chapter 4: Algorithms .................................................................. 81
Input and Output Iterators ..................................................................... 81
Algorithms ......................................................................... <algorithm> 82
Terminology ............................................................................................................ 82
General Guidelines.................................................................................................. 82
Applying a Function on a Range ............................................................................. 83
Checking for the Presence of Elements.................................................................. 84
Finding Elements .................................................................................................... 84
Binary Search ......................................................................................................... 85
Subsequence Search .............................................................................................. 86
Min/Max.................................................................................................................. 87
Sequence Comparison ............................................................................................ 88
Copy, Move, Swap ................................................................................................... 88
Generating Sequences............................................................................................ 89
Removing and Replacing ........................................................................................ 90
Reversing and Rotating .......................................................................................... 91
Partitioning ............................................................................................................. 92
Sorting .................................................................................................................... 93
Shuffling ................................................................................................................. 94
Operations on Sorted Ranges ................................................................................. 95

x
 ■ CONTENTS

Permutation ............................................................................................................ 96
Heaps...................................................................................................................... 97
Numeric Algorithms ............................................................................ <numeric> 98

Iterator Adaptors ................................................................. <iterator> 99

■Chapter 5: Stream I/O ................................................................. 101
Input and Output with Streams ........................................................... 101
Helper Types ..............................................................................................<ios> 102
std::ios_base .......................................................................................<ios> 103
I/O Manipulators ..................................................................<ios>, <iomanip> 105
Example ................................................................................................................ 106
std::ios ..................................................................................................<ios> 106
std::ostream................................................................................. <ostream> 108
std::istream................................................................................. <istream> 110
std::iostream .............................................................................. <istream> 112

String Streams ....................................................................<sstream> 112

Example ................................................................................................................ 113

File Streams ........................................................................<fstream> 113

Example ................................................................................................................ 114
operator<< and >> for Custom Types ............................................... 115
Stream Iterators ............................................................... <iterator> 115
std::ostream_iterator .................................................................................. 115
std::istream_iterator .................................................................................. 116

Stream Buffers ............................................................... <streambuf> 117

C-Style Output and Input ...................................................... <cstdio> 117
std::printf() Family ....................................................................................... 118
std::scanf() Family ......................................................................................... 122

xi
■ CONTENTS

■Chapter 6: Characters and Strings ............................................. 125

Strings .................................................................................. <string> 125
Searching in Strings ............................................................................................. 126
Modifying Strings ................................................................................................. 127
Constructing Strings ............................................................................................. 128
String Length ........................................................................................................ 128
Copying (Sub)Strings ............................................................................................ 128
Comparing Strings ................................................................................................ 129
String Conversions ............................................................................................... 129

Character Classification ...................................... <cctype>, <cwctype> 130

Character-Encoding Conversion .......................... <locale>, <codecvt> 131
Localization .......................................................................... <locale> 134
Locale Names ....................................................................................................... 134
The Global Locale ................................................................................................. 135
Basic std::locale Members ............................................................................. 136
Locale Facets........................................................................................................ 136
Combining and Customizing Locales .................................................................... 145
C Locales .......................................................................................... <clocale> 147

Regular Expressions ............................................................... <regex> 148

The ECMAScript Regular Expression Grammar .................................................... 149
Regular Expression Objects .................................................................................. 153
Matching and Searching Patterns ........................................................................ 155
Match Iterators ..................................................................................................... 158
Replacing Patterns ............................................................................................... 159

xii
 ■ CONTENTS

■Chapter 7: Concurrency .............................................................. 161

Threads ................................................................................ <thread> 161
Launching a New Thread ...................................................................................... 161
A Thread’s Lifetime ............................................................................................... 162
Thread Identifiers ................................................................................................. 162
Utility Functions .................................................................................................... 163
Exceptions ............................................................................................................ 163

Futures ................................................................................. <future> 164

Return Objects ...................................................................................................... 164
Providers............................................................................................................... 165
Exceptions ............................................................................................................ 167

Mutual Exclusion .................................................................... <mutex> 168

Mutexes and Locks ............................................................................................... 168
Mutex Types .......................................................................................................... 170
Lock Types ............................................................................................................ 171
Locking Multiple Mutexes..................................................................................... 172
Exceptions ............................................................................................................ 173
Calling a Function Once ........................................................................ <mutex> 173

Condition Variables ...........................................<condition_variable> 174

Waiting for a Condition ......................................................................................... 174
Notification ........................................................................................................... 175
Exceptions ............................................................................................................ 176

Synchronization................................................................................... 176
Atomic Operations ................................................................ <atomic> 178
Atomic Variables ................................................................................................... 178
Atomic Flags ......................................................................................................... 181
Nonmember Functions ......................................................................................... 181
Fences .................................................................................................................. 182

xiii
■ CONTENTS

■Chapter 8: Diagnostics ............................................................... 183

Assertions ...........................................................................<cassert> 183
Exceptions ...................................................<exception>, <stdexcept> 184
Exception Pointers........................................................... <exception> 184
Nested Exceptions ........................................................... <exception> 186
System Errors ............................................................. <system_error> 187
std::error_category ...................................................................................... 188
std::error_code .............................................................................................. 188
std::error_condition .................................................................................... 189

C Error Numbers ................................................................... <cerrno> 190

Failure Handling .............................................................. <exception> 190
std::uncaught_exception() ......................................................................... 190
std::terminate() ............................................................................................ 191
std::unexpected() .......................................................................................... 191

■Appendix A: Standard Library Headers ...................................... 195

Numerics and Math (Chapter 1) .......................................................... 195
General Utilities (Chapter 2) ................................................................ 196
Containers (Chapter 3) ........................................................................ 197
Algorithms (Chapter 4) ........................................................................ 197
Stream I/O (Chapter 5)......................................................................... 198
Characters and Strings (Chapter 6) ..................................................... 199
Concurrency (Chapter 7)...................................................................... 199
Diagnostics (Chapter 8) ....................................................................... 200
The C Standard Library........................................................................ 200

Index .............................................................................................. 201

xiv
About the Authors

Peter Van Weert is a Belgian software engineer whose

main interest and expertise are programming
languages, algorithms, and data structures.
He received his master’s of science in computer
science summa cum laude with congratulations of the
Board of Examiners from the University of Leuven. In 2010,
he completed his PhD thesis on the design and efficient
compilation of rule-based programming languages at the
research group for declarative programming languages
and artificial intelligence of the same university.
During his doctoral studies, he was a teaching assistant for
object-oriented programming (Java), software analysis and
design, and declarative programming.
After graduating, Peter joined Nikon Metrology to work on large-scale, industrial
application software in the area of 3D laser scanning and point cloud inspection. At
Nikon, he has mastered C++ and refactoring and debugging of very large code bases
and has gained further proficiency in all aspects of the software development process,
including the analysis of functional and technical requirements, and agile and scrum-
based project and team management.
In his spare time, he has co-authored two award-winning Windows 8 apps, and he is
a regular speaker at and board member of the Belgian C++ Users Group.

Marc Gregoire is a software engineer from Belgium.

He graduated from the University of Leuven, Belgium,
with a degree in “Burgerlijk ingenieur in de computer
wetenschappen” (equivalent to a master’s of science in
engineering in computer science). The year after, he
received the cum laude degree of master’s in artificial
intelligence at the same university. After his studies,
Marc started working for a software consultancy
company called Ordina Belgium. As a consultant, he
worked for Siemens and Nokia Siemens Networks on
critical 2G and 3G software running on Solaris for
telecom operators. This required working in
international teams stretching from South America and
USA to EMEA and Asia. Now, Marc is working for Nikon
Metrology on industrial 3D laser scanning software.

xv
■ ABOUT THE AUTHORS

His main expertise is C/C++, specifically Microsoft VC++ and the MFC framework.
He has experience in developing C++ programs running 24/7 on Windows and Linux
platforms: for example, KNX/EIB home automation software. In addition to C/C++,
Marc also likes C# and uses PHP for creating web pages.
Since April 2007, he has received the yearly Microsoft MVP (Most Valuable
Professional) award for his Visual C++ expertise.
Marc is the founder of the Belgian C++ Users Group (www.becpp.org), author of
Professional C++, and a member on the CodeGuru forum (as Marc G). He maintains a
blog at www.nuonsoft.com/blog/.

xvi
About the Technical
Reviewer

Bart Vandewoestyne is an enthusiastic, solo-parenting

software engineer living in Belgium. After obtaining his
master’s degree from the Computer Science
department at the University of Leuven, he worked as a
researcher in the numerical analysis and applied
mathematics section of that same university. He
successfully completed his PhD in 2008. Three years of
postdoctoral work later, Bart left the academic world for
industry. He now works as a senior development
software engineer for Esterline Belgium, where he
develops and maintains software for professional
flight-simulator alignment.
Bart enjoys reading about and exploring all aspects
of C++ software development. In his spare time, and
when he’s away from his keyboard, he enjoys running,
swimming, paragliding, and spending quality time with
his now 6-year-old son Jenne. He wants the world to
know how much he cares about Jenne, and he hopes
that his child will also transform his passion into his
profession.

xvii
Introduction

The C++ Standard Library

The C++ Standard Library is a collection of essential classes and functions used by
millions of C++ programmers on a daily basis. Being part of the ISO Standard of the
C++ Programming Language, an implementation is distributed with virtually every
C++ compiler. Code written with the C++ Standard Library is therefore portable across
compilers and target platforms.
The Library is more than 20 years old. Its initial versions were heavily inspired by
a (then proprietary) C++ library called the Standard Template Library (STL), so much
so that many still incorrectly refer to the Standard Library as “the STL.” The STL library
pioneered generic programming with templated data structures called containers and
algorithms, glued together with the concept of iterators. Most of this work was adapted by
the C++ standardization committee, but nevertheless neither library is a true superset of
the other.
The C++ Standard Library today is much more than the STL containers and
algorithms. For decades, it has featured STL-like string classes, extensive localization
facilities, and a stream-based I/O library, as well as all headers of the C Standard Library.
In recent years, the C++11 and C++14 editions of the ISO standard have added, among
other things, hash map containers, generic smart pointers, a versatile random-number-
generation framework, a powerful regular expression library, more expressive utilities
for function-style programming, type traits for template metaprogramming, and a
portable concurrency library featuring threads, mutexes, condition variables, and atomic
variables. Many of these libraries are based on Boost, a collection of open-source C++
libraries.
And this is just the beginning: the C++ community has rarely been as active and alive
as in the past few years. The next version of the Standard, tentatively called C++17, is
expected to add even more essential classes and functions.

Why This Book?

Needless to say, it is hard to know and remember all the possibilities, details, and
intricacies of the vast and growing C++ Standard Library. This handy reference guide
offers a condensed, well-structured summary of all essential aspects of the C++ Standard
Library and is therefore indispensable to any C++ programmer.
You could consult the Standard itself, but it is written in a very detailed, technical
style and is primarily targeted at Library implementors. Moreover, it is very long: the C++
Standard Library chapters alone are over 750 pages in length, and those on the

xix
■ INTRODUCTION

C Standard Library encompass another 250 pages. Other reference guides exist but are
often outdated, limited (most cover little more than the STL containers and algorithms),
or not much shorter than the Standard itself.
This book covers all important aspects of the C++14 and C11 Standard Libraries,
some in more detail than others, and always driven by their practical usefulness. You will
not find page-long, repetitive examples; obscure, rarely used features; or bloated, lengthy
explanations that could be summarized in just a few bullets. Instead, this book strives to
be exactly that: a summary. Everything you need to know and watch out for in practice is
outlined in a compact, to-the-point style, interspersed with practical tips and short,
well-chosen, clarifying examples.

Who Should Read This Book?

The book is targeted at all C++ programmers, regardless of their proficiency with the
language or the Standard Library. If you are new to C++, its tutorial aspects will quickly
bring you up to speed with the C++ Standard Library. Even the most experienced C++
programmer, however, will learn a thing or two from the book and find it an indispensable
reference and memory aid. The book does not explain the C++ language or syntax itself,
but is accessible to anyone with basic C++ knowledge or programming experience.

What You Will Learn

• How to use the powerful random-number-generation facilities
• How to work with dates and times
• What smart pointers are and how to use them to prevent memory leaks
• How to use containers to efficiently store and retrieve your data
• How to use algorithms to inspect and manipulate your data
• How lambda expressions allow for elegant use of algorithms
• What functionality the library provides for file and
stream-based I/O
• How to work with characters and strings in C++
• How to write localized applications
• How to write safe and efficient multithreaded code using the C++11
concurrency library
• How to correctly handle error conditions and exceptions
• And more!

xx
 ■ INTRODUCTION

General Remarks
• All types, classes, functions, and constants of the C++ Standard Library
are defined in the std namespace (short for standard).
• All C++ Standard Library headers must be included using #include
<header> (note: no .h suffix!).
• All C Standard Library headers are available to C++ programmers in a
slightly modified form by including <cheader> (note the c prefix).1 The
most notable difference between the C++ headers and their original C
counterparts is that all functionality is defined in the std namespace.
Whether it is also provided in the global namespace is up to the
implementation: portable code should therefore use the std namespace
at all times.
• This book generally only covers the C headers if there are no more
modern, C++-style alternatives provided by the C++ Standard Library.
• More advanced, rarely used topics such as custom memory allocators are
not covered.

Code Examples
To compile and execute the code examples given throughout the book, all you need is
a sufficiently recent C++ compiler. We leave the choice of compiler entirely up to you,
and we further assume you can compile and execute basic C++ programs. All examples
contain standard, portable C++ code only and should compile with any C++ compiler
that is compliant with the C++14 version of the Standard. We occasionaly indicate known
limitations of major compilers, but this is not a real goal of this book. In case of problems,
please consult your implementation’s documentation.
Unless otherwise noted, code examples can be copied as is and put inside the main()
function of a basic command-line application. Generally, only two headers have to be
included to make a code snippet compile: the one being discussed in the context where
the example is given, and <iostream> for the command-line output statements (explained
shortly). If any other header is required, we try to indicate so in the text. Should we
forget, the appendix provides a brief overview of all headers of the Standard Library and
their contents. Additionally, you can download compilable source code files for all code
snippets from this book from the Apress website (www.apress.com/9781484218754).

1
The original C headers may still be included with <header.h>, but their use is deprectated.

xxi
■ INTRODUCTION

Following is the obligatory first example (for once, we show the full program):

#include <iostream>
int main() {
std::cout << "Hello world!" << std::endl;
}

Many code samples, including those in earlier chapters, write to the standard output
console using std::cout and the << stream operator, even though these facilities of the
C++ I/O library are only discussed in detail in Chapter 5. The stream operator can be
used to output virtually all fundamental C++ types, and multiple values can be written
on a single line. The I/O manipulator std::endl outputs the newline character (\n) and
flushes the output for std::cout to the standard console. Straightforward usage of the
std::string class defined in <string> may occur in earlier examples as well. For instance:

More details regarding streams and strings are found in Chapters 5 and 6,
respectively, but this should suffice to get you through the examples in earlier chapters.

Common Class
The following Person class is used in code examples throughout the book to illustrate the
use of user-defined classes together with the Standard Library:

#include <string>
#include <ostream>

class Person {
public:
Person() = default;
explicit Person(const std::string& first,
const std::string& last = "", bool isVIP = false)
: m_first(first), m_last(last), m_isVIP(isVIP) {}

const std::string& GetFirstName() const { return m_first; }

void SetFirstName(const std::string& first) { m_first = first; }

const std::string& GetLastName() const { return m_last; }

void SetLastName(const std::string& last) { m_last = last; }

bool IsVIP() const { return m_isVIP; }

xxii
■ INTRODUCTION

xxiii
Chapter 1

Numerics and Math

Common Mathematical Functions  <cmath>

The <cmath> header defines an extensive collection of common math functions in the
std namespace. Unless otherwise specified, all functions are overloaded to accept all
standard numerical types, with the following rules for determining the return type:
• If all arguments are float, the return type is float as well.
Analogous for double and long double inputs.
• If mixed types or integers are passed, these numbers are
converted to double, and a double is returned as well. If one of the
inputs is a long double, long double is used instead.

Basic Functions
Function Description
abs(x) Returns the absolute value of x. <cstdlib> defines abs(),
fabs(x) labs(), and llabs() for int types; that abs() has return type
int, which is different from the abs() in <cmath> (double).
fmod(x, y) Returns the remainder of x . For fmod(), the result always has
y
remainder(x, y) the same sign as x; for remainder(), that is not necessarily true.
E.g.: mod(1,4) = rem(1,4) = 1, but mod(3,4) = 3 and
rem(3,4) = -1.
remquo(x, y, *q) Returns the same value as remainder(). q is a pointer to an int
and receives a value with the sign of x y and at least the last
three bits of the integral quotient itself (rounded to the nearest).
(continued)

Electronic supplementary material The online version of this chapter

(doi:10.1007/978-1-4842-1876-1_1) contains supplementary material, which is
available to authorized users.

© Peter Van Weert and Marc Gregoire 2016 1

P. Van Weert and M. Gregoire, C++ Standard Library Quick Reference,
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4842-1876-1_1
Chapter 1 ■ Numerics and Math

Function Description
fma(x, y, z) Computes ( x * y ) + z in an accurate (better precision and
rounding properties than a naive implementation) and efficient
(uses a single hardware instruction if possible) manner.
fmin(x, y) Returns the minimum or maximum of x and y.
fmax(x, y)
ì x - y if x > y
fdim(x, y) Returns the positive difference, i.e. í .
î + 0 if x £ y
nan(string) Returns a quiet (non-signaling) NaN (not a number) of type
nanf(string) double, float, respectively long double, if available (0
nanl(string) otherwise). The string parameter is an implementation-
dependent tag that can be used to differentiate between
different NaN values. Both "" and nullptr are valid and result
in a generic quiet NaN.

Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Function Formula Function Formula Function Formula
exp(x) e x
exp2(x) 2x expm1(x) e x -1
log(x) ln x = log e x log10(x) log10x log2(x) log2x
log1p(x) ln (1 + x )

Power Functions
Function Formula Function Formula
pow(x, y) xy sqrt(x) x

hypot(x, y) x2 + y2 cbrt(x) 3
x

Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions

All basic trigonometric (sin(), cos(), tan(), asin(), acos(), atan()) and hyperbolic
functions (sinh(), cosh(), tanh(), asinh(), acosh(), atanh()) are provided. The lesser-
known trigonometric function atan2() is provided as well. It is used to compute the angle
between a vector (x,y) and the positive X axis, with atan2(y,x) similar to atan(y/x)
except that its result correctly reflects the quadrant the vector is in (and that it also works
if x is 0). Essentially, by dividing y by x in atan(y/x), you lose information regarding the
sign of x and y.

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