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 Power System
Operation, Utilization,
and Control

This book presents power system analysis methods that cover all aspects of power
systems operation, utilization, control, and system management.
At the beginning of each chapter, an introduction is given describing the objec-
tives of the chapter. The authors present power system parameters in a lucid, logical,
step-by-step approach.
In recognition of requirements by the Accreditation Board for Engineering and
Technology (ABET) on integration of engineering computer tools, the authors dem-
onstrate the use of MATLAB® programming in obtaining solutions to engineering
power problems. MATLAB is introduced in a student-friendly manner and follow up
is given in Appendix A. The use of MATLAB and power system applications are
presented throughout the book.
Practice problems immediately follow each illustrative example. Students can fol-
low the example step-by-step to solve the practice problems. These practice prob-
lems test students’ comprehension and reinforce key concepts before moving on to
the next chapter.
In each chapter, the authors discuss specific application aspects of the chapter's
concepts using computer programming. The material covered in the chapter applies
to at least one or two practical problems to students see how the concepts are used in
real-life situations.
Thoroughly worked examples are provided at the end of every section. These
examples give students a solid grasp of the solutions and the confidence to solve
similar problems themselves.
Designed for a three-hour semester course on Power System Operation,
Utilization, and Control, this book is intended as a textbook for a senior-level
undergraduate student in electrical and computer engineering. The prerequisites for
a course based on this book are knowledge of standard mathematics, including cal-
culus and complex numbers, and basic undergraduate engineering courses.
 Power System
Operation, Utilization,
and Control

John Fuller
Pamela Obiomon
and
Samir I. Abood
MATLAB® is a trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. and is used with permission. The MathWorks does not
warrant the accuracy of the text or exercises in this book. This book’s use or discussion of MATLAB®
software or related products does not constitute endorsement or sponsorship by The MathWorks of a
particular pedagogical approach or particular use of the MATLAB® software.

First edition published 2023

by CRC Press
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

and by CRC Press

4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

© 2023 John Fuller, Pamela Obiomon, and Samir Abood

Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher
cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors
and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication
and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any
copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any
future reprint.

Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced,
transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter
invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval
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For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, access www.copyright.com
or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-
750-8400. For works that are not available on CCC please contact mpkbookspermissions@tandf.co.uk

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks and are used
only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

ISBN: 978-1-032-27745-5 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-032-27764-6 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-29396-5 (ebk)

DOI: 10.1201/9781003293965

Typeset in Times
by SPi Technologies India Pvt Ltd (Straive)
 Dedicated to

Dedication is given to my family that has been beside me in reaching

this point in life and especially to my mother, Bernice Fuller, who sacrificed
so that this period in time is a reality.
John Fuller
To my husband and children with all my love. I owe you an unbiased world.
To all my family, the symbol of love and giving.
Pamela Obiomon
To great parents, who never stop giving of themselves in countless ways.
To my beloved brothers and sisters.
To my dearest wife, who leads me through the valley of darkness with the light of
hope and support.
To beloved kids are Daniah and Mustafa, whom I can't force myself to stop loving.
Samir I. Abood
Contents
Preface......................................................................................................................xiii
Acknowledgments..................................................................................................... xv
Authors....................................................................................................................xvii

Chapter 1 Synchronous Machines.........................................................................1

1.1 Simplified Models of Cylindrical Rotor (Non-Salient)
Synchronous Machines for the Steady-State Condition............. 1
1.2 Power Angle Characteristics....................................................... 7
1.3 Power Angle Characteristics for Salient-Pole Synchronous
Machines for the Steady-State Condition................................... 8
1.4 Per Unit Quantity...................................................................... 12
1.5 Parallel Operation of Synchronous Generators........................ 18
1.5.1 Conditions Required for Paralleling............................ 18
Problems.............................................................................................. 19

Chapter 2 Modeling of Synchronous Generator.................................................. 21

2.1 Importance of Modeling........................................................... 21
2.2 Turbogenerator Identification................................................... 22
2.3 Thermal Station........................................................................ 22
2.4 Turbine Model.......................................................................... 24
2.5 System Identification................................................................ 26
2.6 Station Description................................................................... 28
2.7 Inertia Constant and Swing Equation....................................... 35
2.8 Synchronous Generator Modeling Concept in the Power
System...................................................................................... 36
2.9 Excitation System Control........................................................ 37
2.10 Turbine Governor Control........................................................ 38
2.10.1 Prime Mover and Governing System Controls...........39
2.10.2 Governor/Turbine/Generator Relationship.................. 40
2.11 Division of Load Between Generators..................................... 40
2.12 Amplitude and Frequency Estimation of Power System.......... 47
2.12.1 Adaptive Hopf Oscillator............................................ 47
2.12.2 Power System Signal Modeling.................................. 49
2.13 Power System Stabilizer........................................................... 49
Problems.............................................................................................. 52

vii
viiiContents

Chapter 3 Load Frequency Control...................................................................... 55

3.1 Structures of Interconnection System....................................... 55
3.2 The Turbine Governor.............................................................. 57
3.3 Control Loops........................................................................... 59
3.4 System Behavior/Single Area................................................... 60
3.5 The Power-Frequency Characteristic of an Interconnected
System...................................................................................... 63
3.6 System Connected by Lines of Relatively Small
Capacity.................................................................................... 65
3.6.1 Effect of Governor Characteristics.............................. 67
3.6.2 Frequency-Bias-Tie-Line Control............................... 76
3.7 Load Shedding.......................................................................... 81
Problems.............................................................................................. 83

Chapter 4 Voltage and Reactive Power Control................................................... 87

4.1 Types of Voltage Variation........................................................ 87
4.2 Reactive Power Generation and Absorption............................. 90
4.2.1 Synchronous Reactance of Synchronous
Generators................................................................... 90
4.2.2 Transformers and Overhead Lines.............................. 90
4.2.3 Cables.......................................................................... 91
4.2.4 Loads........................................................................... 91
4.3 Relation Between Voltage, Power, and Reactive Power at a
Node......................................................................................... 92
4.4 Methods of Voltage Control...................................................... 95
4.4.1 Injection of Reactive Power........................................ 95
4.4.1.1 Reactors and Shunt Capacitors.................... 96
4.4.1.2 Series Capacitors......................................... 96
4.4.1.3 Synchronous Compensators......................... 97
4.4.1.4 Static Reactive Compensators and Static
Synchronous Compensators......................... 98
4.4.2 Tap-Modifying Transformers.................................... 100
4.5 VAR Compensator.................................................................. 104
4.6 Objectives of Load Compensation.........................................105
4.6.1 Correcting Power Factor............................................ 105
4.6.2 Controlling Voltage.................................................... 106
4.6.3 Balancing the Load.................................................... 107
4.7 Reactive Power Compensation Types..................................... 107
4.7.1 Series Capacitor......................................................... 107
4.7.2 Synchronous Capacitors............................................ 108
4.7.3 Shunt Capacitors....................................................... 108
4.7.4 Shunt Reactors........................................................... 108
4.8 Controls of Switched Shunt Capacitors.................................. 109
Contents ix

4.9 In Power System Harmonic Distortion................................... 109

4.10 Sources of Harmonics............................................................. 109
4.11 Harmonic Measurement......................................................... 110
4.11.1 Distortion Factor........................................................ 110
4.11.2 Telephone Interference Factor................................... 110
4.12 Harmonic Reduction Methods................................................ 111
4.12.1 Shunt Filters.............................................................. 111
4.12.2 Filter Sequence.......................................................... 112
4.13 Operation of Thyristor-Controlled SVCs............................... 112
4.14 SVC Parameters Calculation.................................................. 115
4.14.1 Static VAR Compensator Configurations.................. 115
4.14.2 Calculation of the TCR Firing Angle........................ 116
4.15 Harmonics Due to SVC Operation......................................... 119
Problems............................................................................................ 122

Chapter 5 Power System Optimization.............................................................. 125

5.1 Optimization Problem............................................................ 125
5.2 Form Changing of Optimization Problem.............................. 127
5.2.1 Conventional Form.................................................... 127
5.2.2 Standard Form........................................................... 129
5.3 Economic Load Dispatch....................................................... 130
5.4 The Subject of Economic Load Dispatch............................... 131
5.5 Thermal Units Characteristics................................................ 131
5.5.1 Input–Output Characteristic...................................... 132
5.5.2 Incremental Cost Incremental Cost........................... 132
5.6 Economic Load Dispatch Problem Formulation.................... 137
5.7 Non-Linear Optimization Problem Using Lagrange
Method................................................................................ 137
5.8 ELD Problem Solution Regardless of Inequality
Constraints.......................................................................... 139
5.9 Memorize Kuhn–Tucker Conditions for ELD Problems........ 143
5.10 The Lambda-Iteration Method............................................... 144
5.11 First-Order Gradient Search................................................... 146
5.12 Second-Order Search.............................................................. 149
5.12.1 Second-Order Search Formulation............................ 149
5.12.2 Second-Order Search Algorithm............................... 152
5.13 Basepoint and Participation Factors Method.......................... 154
Problems............................................................................................ 157

Chapter 6 Economic Dispatch...........................................................................159

6.1 Economic Dispatch in Power System Networks.................... 159
6.2 Fuel Types and Cost...............................................................163
xContents

6.3 Incremental Fuel Cost............................................................. 164

6.4 Optimization Techniques........................................................ 164
6.4.1 Economic Dispatch Neglecting Losses and
Generator Limits....................................................... 165
6.4.2 Economic Dispatch Neglecting Losses and
Including Generator Limits....................................... 167
6.4.3 Economic Dispatch Including Losses....................... 167
6.4.4 The B-Coefficient and Algorithms............................ 169
6.5 Mathematic Formulation........................................................ 170
6.6 Optimum Power Flow............................................................. 185
6.7 Voltage Stability and Reactive Power Flow Problem............. 187
6.8 Power Loss and Power Flow Control..................................... 187
6.9 The Optimization Problem..................................................... 188
6.10 Mathematical Formulation of the Optimization Problem......188
6.11 Optimization Techniques........................................................ 189
6.11.1 Quadratic Programming............................................ 189
6.11.2 Linear Programming................................................. 189
6.11.3 fmincon Function....................................................... 190
6.12 Optimal Power Flow............................................................... 190
6.12.1 Mathematical Formulation of the OPF Problem....... 191
6.12.2 Classification of the OPF Algorithms Solution......... 192
6.12.3 Comparison of the OPF Algorithms Solution
Classes....................................................................... 192
6.13 Non-Linear Function Optimization........................................ 194
6.14 Hydrothermal Coordination.................................................... 203
6.15 Different Types of Hydro-Scheduling.................................... 204
6.16 Scheduling Energy.................................................................. 204
Problems............................................................................................ 209

Chapter 7 Unit Commitment.............................................................................. 213

7.1 UC Problem Formulation....................................................... 213
7.2 Dynamic Programming Method............................................. 220
7.3 Unit Commitment Problem Method....................................... 227
7.3.1 Feasibility of Load Supply and Generation Limits......227
7.3.2 Spinning Reserve....................................................... 227
7.4 Unit Commitment Time Consideration.................................. 228
7.4.1 Minimum Up Time.................................................... 228
7.4.2 Crew Constraints....................................................... 228
7.4.3 Starting Cost.............................................................. 228
7.5 Unit Commitment Solution Methods..................................... 229
7.6 Economic Dispatch vs. Unit Commitment............................. 231
Problems............................................................................................ 231
Contents xi

Chapter 8 Power Systems State Estimation....................................................... 235

8.1 General State Estimation Definition and Functions............... 235
8.2 Energy Management System.................................................. 235
8.3 Importance of State Estimators in Power Systems................. 237
8.4 Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition, and Phasor
Measurement Units................................................................. 239
8.5 Estimators of State in Practical Implementation.................... 241
8.6 Methods of State Estimation.................................................. 241
8.6.1 Maximum Likelihood Method.................................. 242
8.6.2 Weighted Least Squares Method............................... 243
8.6.3 Minimum Variation................................................... 254
8.7 Detection and Identification of Erroneous Data..................... 255
8.7.1 Identifying Bad Data................................................. 255
8.7.2 Bad Data Detection in the Weighted Least Square
Approach................................................................... 257
8.7.3 Identification and Removal of Bad Data................... 257
8.8 Techniques of State Estimation for Non-Linear Systems....... 259
8.8.1 Classical Kalman Filter............................................. 259
8.8.2 Non-Linear Kalman Filter Methods.......................... 262
8.8.3 The Extended Kalman Filter Method........................ 262
8.8.4 The Unscented Kalman Filter Method...................... 263
Problems............................................................................................ 270

Chapter 9 Load Forecasting............................................................................... 275

9.1 Load Forecasting Solution Techniques................................... 275
9.2 Load Curves and Factors........................................................ 276
9.2.1 Important Terms and Factors..................................... 277
9.3 Load Duration Curve.............................................................. 280
9.4 Load Curves and Selection of the Number and Sizes of
the Generation Units............................................................... 280
9.5 Prediction of Load and Energy Requirements........................ 285
9.6 Additive Seasonal................................................................... 285
9.7 The Additive Seasonal Architecture....................................... 285
9.8 Forecasting Modeling............................................................. 288
9.8.1 The Regression Models............................................. 288
9.8.2 Brown's Smoothing Method...................................... 291
9.8.3 Load Forecasting Using the Additive Seasonal
Model........................................................................ 292
9.8.4 Trend Model.............................................................. 293
9.8.5 Load Forecasting Using Quadratic Regression......... 295
Problems............................................................................................ 300
xiiContents

Appendix A����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 305

Bibliography.......................................................................................................... 319
Index���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 325
Preface
Power system operation, utilization, and control present a detailed analysis of ways
to control electrical power systems and clarify severe outages due to the sustained
growth of signal oscillations in modern interconnected power systems. The identifi-
cation branch for controlling the electrical power system is called power system con-
trol and operation. This book aims to better understand the control of power systems,
their applications, and optimization.
The book begins with the study of the concept of basic power generation. It then
presents these applications in different configurations with detailed diagrams. It opti-
mizes the stability scheme's location in power and the application of power electronic
devices and control on the power system. This book is intended for college students,
community colleges, and universities. The book is also intended for researchers,
technicians, technologists, and skilled specialists in power generation and control of
power systems. It presents the relationship between the power system's quantities of
control and management. The book's major goal is to give a concise introduction to
controlling power systems covered in two semesters. The book is appropriate for
Juniors, Senior Undergraduate Students, Graduate Students, Industry Professionals,
Researchers, and Academics.
This book focuses on modeling power system components with attention to con-
trol equipment. The one possible exception reflects the concern of the time the book
came into being, namely analysis of the linear system model for detection and miti-
gation of possible poorly damped operating conditions.
Typical topics in the electric power field and allied areas such as hydro and ther-
mal power plants are treated in this book using a system approach to apply the most
modern theories and methods.
The ultimate product of the steam plant is electricity that is exported to the grid or
steam or hot water sent to a nearby process plant, industry, or housing complex, but
the control systems will be relatively similar in both cases. Nonetheless, designing
these systems is a specialized effort, as much an art as a science, and the goal in this
introduction is to highlight the breadth and depth of knowledge that it necessitates.
Power system operators are facing greater challenges than in the past. Such chal-
lenges as scheduling and handling generation resources due to the electricity market
operation of transmission networks being close to their technical limits due to diffi-
culties in building new transmission facilities. Also there are generation uncertainties
due to renewable energy sources' intermittency and less accurate forecasts, or even
natural forces such as earthquakes.
This book is organized into nine chapters, with a short review of the basic electric
power systems concept in Chapter 1, it discusses synchronous machines and simpli-
fied cylindrical rotor (non-salient) synchronous machines for the steady-state condi-
tion. A power angle characteristic for salient-pole synchronous machines condition is
explained in this chapter. Modeling of synchronous generators is included in Chapter
2. The chapter also introduces system modeling types, introduces the basic operating

xiii
xivPreface

principles of the generator, turbine, system identification, and describes the mathe-
matical model of these devices. Chapter 3 deals with power and frequency control
and system behavior in a single area and multi areas. It also presents the power-fre-
quency characteristic of an interconnected system and the effect of governor
characteristics.
Chapter 4 presents the concept of voltage and reactive power control. The voltage
control methods and the relation between voltage, power, and reactive power at a
node are presented in this chapter. Also, the reactive power compensation and har-
monic effect on load balancing are presented in this chapter.
Chapter 5 presents some aspects of power system optimization and familiariza-
tion with principles of power system utilization, especially from the commercial
viewpoint. This chapter introduces optimization fundamentals, linear programming,
and optimization problem formulation.
The description of economic dispatch in power systems, types, and specifications
is discussed in Chapter 6 under the title of economic dispatch. Also, it includes math-
ematic formulation analysis procedures of electric power system optimization tech-
niques. Besides, it identifies strategies that can be applied to evaluate power loss and
power flow control.
Chapter 7 deals with unit commitment, concept, operation, and Problem
Formulation. The description of the Dynamic Programming Method and Unit com-
mitment time consideration is discussed in this chapter.
Chapter 8 presents the state estimation of the power system. The chapter includes
the Weighted Least Square algorithms, error characteristics, Newton iteration, bad
data detection, Supervisory Control, and Data Acquisition, and Phasor Measurement
Units.
Finally, Chapter 9 focuses on load management and forecasting. This chapter
introduces load forecasting solution techniques, load curves and factors, and fore-
casting modeling.
In recognition of requirements by the Accreditation Board for Engineering and
Technology (ABET) on integrating computer tools, the use of MATLAB® is encour-
aged in a student-friendly manner. The reader does not need to have previous knowl-
edge of MATLAB. The material of this text can be learned without MATLAB.
However, the authors highly recommend that the reader studies this material in con-
junction with the MATLAB Student Version. Appendix A of this text provides a prac-
tical introduction to MATLAB.
MATLAB® is a registered trademark of The Math Works, Inc. For product infor-
mation, please contact:
The Math Works, Inc.
3 Apple Hill Drive
Natick, MA 01760-2098
Tel: 508-647-7000
Fax: 508-647-7001
E-mail: info@mathworks.com
Web: www.mathworks.com
Acknowledgments
Acknowledgment has to be given to Prairie View A&M University for providing a
platform where Faculty, administrators, Ph.D. students, private, and governmental
entities can contribute to a book that will be used in the education of future power
engineers, and also for providing a resource to contribute to advancing the knowl-
edge of power systems and continuing the technical foundation building for the pro-
duction of future engineers.
It is our pleasure to acknowledge the outstanding help and support of the team at
CRC Press in preparing this book, especially from Nora Konopka and Prachi Mishra,
The authors appreciate the suggestions and comments from several reviewers,
including prof. Zainab Ibrahim/ University of Baghdad/Electrical Engineering
Department, and Dr. Muna Fayyadh / American InterContinental University, their
frank and positive criticisms improved this work considerably.
Finally, we express our profound gratitude to our families, without whose coop-
eration this project would have been difficult, if not impossible. We appreciate feed-
back from professors and other users of this book. We can be reached at jhfuller@
pvamu.edu, phobiomon@pvamu.edu, and siabood@pvamu.edu.

xv
Authors
John Fuller is a professor of Electrical and Computer Engineering at Prairie View
A&M University in Prairie View, Texas. Dr. Fuller received a BSEE degree from
Prairie View A&M University and a master's and Ph.D. degree from the University
of Missouri, Columbia. He has researched several funded projects over a 44-year
teaching career in Higher Education. His research efforts' major projects are as fol-
lows: Hybrid energy systems, Stepper Motor Control, design, and building of a solar-
powered car, nuclear survivability, characterization on non-volatile memory devices,
and nuclear detection/sensor evaluation, and some other electrical and computer-
related projects. Dr. Fuller is presently the coordinator of Title III funding to the
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering in developing a solar-powered
home. He is also associate director of the Center for Big Data Management located
in the ECE Department. In addition to teaching and research duties with college-level
students, he is also active in the PVAMU summer programs for middle and high
school students. Dr. Fuller has also held administrative positions of department head
of Electrical Engineering and interim dean of the College of Engineering at Prairie
View A&M University. In 2018, he was recognized as the Texas A&M System
Regents Professor.

Pamela Obiomon is the dean of the Roy G. Perry College of Engineering at Prairie
View A&M University. She is the seventh dean of the college and the first female
to serve in this role. Pamela served as the department head of the Department of
Electrical and Computer Engineering at PVAMU. She earned a B.S. in Electrical
Engineering from the University of Texas at Arlington, an M.S. in Engineering from
Prairie View A&M University, and a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Texas
A&M University.

Samir I. Abood received his B.S. and M.S. from the University of Technology,
Baghdad, Iraq, in 1996 and 2001, respectively. He got his Ph.D. in the Electrical and
Computer Engineering Department at Prairie View A & M University. From 1997 to
2001, he worked as an engineer at the University of Technology. From 2001 to 2003,
he was a professor at the University of Baghdad and Al-Nahrain University. From
2003 to 2016, Mr. Abood was a professor at Middle Technical University / Baghdad-
Iraq. From 2018 to the present, he has worked at Prairie View A&M University/
Electrical and Computer Engineering Department. He is the author of 30 papers and
ten books. His main research interests are sustainable power and energy systems,
microgrids, power electronics and motor drives, digital PID Controllers, digital
methods for electrical measurements, digital signal processing, and control systems.

xvii
 1 Synchronous Machines

As we know that early man survived by building shelter for security from the weather
and carnivorous animals. In building this shelter, he lifted a stone to become a part of
a protective wall and realized that the larger stones were quite heavier than the smaller
stones with no knowledge that gravity created the difference. As man advanced in
technological knowledge, he discovered that the earth had a gravitational force that
made the stones heavier and allowed him to walk upright. As man progressed, he dis-
covered that the earth contained a mineral known as magnetite that could be processed
to become a permanent magnet. A naturally occurring form of magnetic known as
loadstone was constructed as a magnetite compass that used the earth’s magnetic field.
Progression of technology led to the scientific discovery that a wire carrying a
current would produce a magnetic field, and if this wire is wound on a spool, it will
produce a concentrated magnetic field. The knowledge of producing and controlling
magnetic fields leads to the creation of electrical machines.
The term Synchronous Machine is used to broadly define synchronous generators
and synchronous motors. An AC system has some advantages over a DC system.
Therefore, the AC system is exclusively used to generate, transmit, and distribute elec-
tric power. The machine which converts mechanical power into AC electrical power is
called a Synchronous Generator or Alternator. However, the same machine can be
operated as a motor and is known as a Synchronous Motor. This chapter will explain
the concept of synchronous machines, characteristics of the power angle curve, and
per unit quantity application in the power system. Synchronous machines rely on
three-­phase currents applied to a stator to produce three separate magnetic fields. The
three magnetic fields combine to produce one main rotating field, and the machine
operates as a motor. When an external source of rotational power is applied to turn a
permanent or temporary magnet within three-­phase coils, the machine operates as a
generator. This chapter explains the concept of synchronous machines, characteristics
of power angle curve, and per unit quantity applications in power systems.

1.1 SIMPLIFIED MODELS OF CYLINDRICAL ROTOR

(NON-SALIENT) SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES FOR
THE STEADY-STATE CONDITION
The flux linkage for an N-­turn concentrated coil (aa′) will be maximum (Nφ) at
ωt = 0 and zero at ωt = π/2. Assuming distributed winding, the flux linkage θa will
vary as the cosine of the angle ωt as shown in Figure 1.1. The current flowing from
a+ to a− produces a magnetic field θ. Also an applied magnetic field will produce a
voltage e at the terminal. Thus, the flux linkage with the coil (a) is
 a  N cos  t (1.1)

DOI: 10.1201/9781003293965-1 1
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Learning Objective 1: Study tips and learning strategies
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Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Learning Objective 5: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 6: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 7: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 7: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 8: Best practices and recommendations
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 9: Experimental procedures and results
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Methodology 2: Statistical analysis and interpretation
Important: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 11: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Experimental procedures and results
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 15: Ethical considerations and implications
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 16: Ethical considerations and implications
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 17: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 18: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Key terms and definitions
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 19: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Review 3: Best practices and recommendations
Remember: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Best practices and recommendations
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Practical applications and examples
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Study tips and learning strategies
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Practical applications and examples
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 27: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Experimental procedures and results
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Case studies and real-world applications
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 30: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Topic 4: Research findings and conclusions
Definition: Best practices and recommendations
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 31: Current trends and future directions
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Practical applications and examples
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 34: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 34: Historical development and evolution
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Literature review and discussion
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 36: Current trends and future directions
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Ethical considerations and implications
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 39: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Literature review and discussion
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Introduction 5: Key terms and definitions
Practice Problem 40: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 41: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 41: Research findings and conclusions
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 42: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 43: Experimental procedures and results
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 44: Key terms and definitions
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Research findings and conclusions
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 46: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 47: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 48: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Part 6: Practical applications and examples
Important: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 53: Best practices and recommendations
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 54: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 55: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 57: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 58: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Key terms and definitions
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 60: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Abstract 7: Critical analysis and evaluation
Note: Historical development and evolution
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 61: Practical applications and examples
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Literature review and discussion
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Best practices and recommendations
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 64: Key terms and definitions
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 66: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 66: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Current trends and future directions
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Experimental procedures and results
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Experimental procedures and results
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Discussion 8: Best practices and recommendations
Example 70: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Key terms and definitions
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Ethical considerations and implications
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Key terms and definitions
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Best practices and recommendations
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Ethical considerations and implications
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 77: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 78: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Study tips and learning strategies
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Introduction 9: Practical applications and examples
Definition: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 81: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 83: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Best practices and recommendations
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 84: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Historical development and evolution
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 86: Historical development and evolution
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 87: Experimental procedures and results
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 88: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 88: Key terms and definitions
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 89: Experimental procedures and results
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Topic 10: Research findings and conclusions
Practice Problem 90: Historical development and evolution
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Historical development and evolution
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 92: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 93: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 95: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 96: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 96: Key terms and definitions
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 98: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 99: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Abstract 11: Literature review and discussion
Example 100: Experimental procedures and results
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 101: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 103: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Literature review and discussion
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 104: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Key terms and definitions
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 109: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 109: Key terms and definitions
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Methodology 12: Ethical considerations and implications
Example 110: Research findings and conclusions
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 111: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 111: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 112: Historical development and evolution
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 114: Practical applications and examples
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Practical applications and examples
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Practical applications and examples
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 118: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 118: Experimental procedures and results
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
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