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 Table of Content:
Physical Geography

I. Factors controlling landform development; endogenetic and exogenetic forces; origin and
evolution of the earth’s crust; physical conditions of the earth’s interior; geosynclines;
continental drift; isostasy; sea-floor spreading; plate tectonics; mountain building; volcanicity;
earthquakes; concepts of geomorphic cycles; landforms associated with fluvial, arid, glacial, coastal
and Karst cycle; groundwater.

II. Elements and Factors of climate, structure and composition of atmosphere, insulation, temperature,
Pressure belts of the world; Heat budget of the earth; Atmospheric circulation:
planetary,monsoon and local winds; Air masses and Fronts; Hydrological cycle; Types of
condensation and precipitation; Factors of global distribution of precipitation.

III. Origin of oceans and seas, Characteristic features of the ocean basins, temperature, salinity
distribution cause and effects, Ocean floor deposits, their characteristics and classification,
Ocean circulation, Waves, currents and tides, their nature, causes and effects.

IV. Factors of climate and Environmental change. Transformation of nature by man;

environmental degradation and conservation; Nature and Types of pollution. Problems caused by
pollution, Global Warming, Global Environment Patterns, Environmental Hazards and Risk
Management.

Human Geography:

V. Origin and Diffusion of Culture, Geographic patterns of culture, Classification of

Languages, World Distribution of Languages, Indo-European Languages, Origins of Religions,
Diffusion of Religions, Global Distribution, Regional conflicts, Ethnicities and Nationalities, Ethnic
Conflicts, Ethnic Diversity in the World, Factors of Ethnic Cleansing, Ethnic Cleansing in the
World, Development Indicators, Economic Indicators, Social Indicators, Health Indicators,
Development through Trade, Impacts of development Indicators.

VI. Factors effecting Agriculture, Subsistence Agriculture and population growth, Commercial
Agriculture and Market Forces, Sustainable Agriculture, Types and Distribution of Agriculture,
Factors of Industrial locations, The Industrial Revolution, Industrial Theories, Distribution of
Industries and Industrial Estates, Renewable Resources, Recycling Resources, Sustainable
resources.

VII. Factors of Population Growth, Components of Change, Population Structure, The

Demographic Transition, World distribution of Population, Over and under Population threats and
their consequences, Models of Internal Structure of Cities, World Urban Patterns, Settlement
Theories, Patterns and Problems within urban areas.

VIII. Politics, Geography and Political Geography, State as a Politico-Territorial Phenomenon,

State, Nation and the Nation-State, World Politics and International Relations, Geopolitics of
uneven Development and Globalization of Capital, Geography of Tourism and Recreation, The
demand for tourism and recreation, The supply for tourism and recreation, The impact of

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tourism and recreation: (Socio-economic impacts, Physical-environmental impacts), Global
patterns in health and diseases, Models in medical geography, Recent issues and developments.

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Physical Geography
Factors Controlling Landform Development:
Many factors determine the rate and type of weathering that will occur in a given location on Earth's
surface. These factors include variations in the location, composition, and size of rocks, as well as in
local weather conditions.

Exposure Involved in Landform development

Both the rate and type of weathering are dependent on the exposure of rocks to air, water, and the
actions of living things. Generally, the closer a rock is to Earth's surface, the faster it will weather. The
difference in the amount of solar energy on the north and south sides of mountains affects the
temperature and amount of moisture available for weathering. This often results in different soil
characteristics on opposite sides of mountains.

Particle Size - Landform development

Weathering results in the formation of rock particles of different sizes. When the rock particles are
smaller, the total surface area per unit volume exposed to weathering is greater. Therefore, the rate of
weathering is faster. To understand the effect of increased surface area, consider what happens when
you add sugar to a drink. Granulated sugar dissolves more quickly than an equal mass of sugar cubes
because the granulated sugar has a greater surface area exposed to the liquid around it.

Mineral Composition

A rock's mineral com position affects the rate of weathering because different minerals have different
physical and chemical properties. Some minerals, such as cal-cite in limestone and marble, weather
rapidly because they dissolve in slightly acidic water. In contrast, the mineral quartz does not react
chemically with most substances in the environment. Thus, quartz is largely unaffected by chemical
weathering and is commonly found as sand in many environments.

Climate

The rate and type of weathering in a given location are greatly influenced by climate. Chemical
weathering is most pronounced in warm, moist climates. Generally, the higher the average temperature
and humidity, the more rapid the chemical weathering. In cold climates, frost action is the most common
form of weathering. Frost action is especially intense in moist climates with temperature variations that
lead to repeated cycles of freezing and thawing.

The sun radiates, or gives off, and Earth receives a wide range of electromagnetic energy of various
wavelengths. This solar electromagnetic spectrum includes X-rays, ultraviolet rays, visible light, and
infrared rays. Of all the types of electromagnetic radiation from the sun, the one with the greatest
intensity is visible light

We at Transtutors.com are aware of the complexities of this topic, and therefore our online Landform
Development tutors are available round the clock to help you. We offer a range of services which

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includes online homework help and assignment help, to help students with the homework and
assignments related to earth science.

So if you are you in need of Homework Help/ Assignment Help? Our competent pools of earth science
professionals are available 24*7 to give you a solution to your problem!

Endogenetic and Exogenetic forces:

Endogenic forces and Exogenetic forces differ from each other in term of their origination amd
movement as described below:

Endogenetic Forces Exogenetic Forces

Originate in the interior of the earth Originate in the atmosphere or on the surface
of the earth

Causes sudden or slow movements Causes slow movements

Eg: Earthquke, Building Mountains Eg: Erosional and Depositional

It is difficult to directly measure absolute humidity or determine the air's capacity to hold water vapor.
Relative humidity is therefore measured by indirect methods. An instrument used to measure relative
humidity is called a psychrometer. One indirect method of measuring relative humidity uses an
instrument called a sling psychrometer, as shown in Figure 7-11. This instrument contains an ordinary
thermometer called a dry-bulb thermometer. and another thermometer with a wick around its bulb,
called the wet-bulb thermometer. When the wick is moistened and the thermometers are whirled in the
air, the temperature of the wet bulb drops because of the cooling effect of the evaporation of the water.
The amount of cooling depends on the rate of evaporation, and is therefore related to the relative
humidity.

Determining Dew Point Endogenetic and Exogentic Forces

To determine the dew point, you need the dry-bulb and wet-bulb readings from a sling psychrometer
and the Dewpoint Temperatures chart in the Earth Science Reference Tables. Use the following
procedure which is very similar to the procedure used to determine the relative humidity:

• Locate the dry-bulb reading on the left-hand side of the chart.

• Subtract the wet-bulb reading from the dry-bulb reading.
• Locate the difference between the wet-bulb and dry-bulb readings across the top of the chart.

Follow the horizontal row for the dry-bulb reading to the right until it meets the vertical column running
down from the difference between the wet-bulb and dry-bulb readings. This number is the dew point
temperature.

For example, suppose the dry-bulb reading is 8C, and the wet-bulb reading is 6C. The difference is 2C.
Reading across from 8C and down from 2C, you find a dew point temperature of 3C.

Calculating Cloud Base Altitude

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Since temperature and dewpoint temperature both decrease with elevation or altitude in the troposphere,
the altitude where temperature and dew-point are the same can be calculated to obtain the altitude of
the base of the clouds. On this graph the dashed lines represent the decrease in dew-point with increasing
altitude (about 2C/km). The solid diagonal lines represent the decrease in temperature with increasing
altitude (about 10C/km) above the Earth's surface. If you know the temperature and dewpoint at the
Earth's surface, you can determine the altitude of condensation (or sublimation) and therefore the
altitude of the bottom of the clouds above a location.

Origin and Evolution of the Earth’s Crust:

The origin of the earth is linked to the origin of the solar system which islinked to the evolution of stars,
which, in turn, is linked to the origin of theuniverse itself. Therefore, the origin and evolution of earth’s
crust should beunderstood in a broad context.The Hindus considered the earth to be half of a golden
egg balanced on theback of a turtle with the help of four elephants. The ancient Egyptians visualisedthe
earth as a floating sphere in a sea, while the Polynesians though the earth to bean egg floating in the
sea.It was only around the eighteenth century and with advancements in science,especially in phusics
and mathematics, that theories with some scientific basisbegan to be put forward to explain the origin
of the earth.

Some theories on origin of the earth:

1. GEORGES DE BUFFONS THEOTY.

Buffon, a French scientist, proposed that a huge comet must have collidedwith the sun, resulting in the
release of a lot of matter. This matter, so freed, gotcondensed and transformed into planets, while
smaller masses turned into sub-plants. Some matter disappeared into the space.Although this theory has
some scientific basis and the collision between thesun and the comet seems probable. Some questions
remain unanswered. Comparedto the sun, the comet is composed of small particles and has a very low
density,which makes it unsuitable to cause a collision of such a magnitude which willcause large masses
of material to be released from the sun. Moreover, the sun has alower angular momentum (a measure
of the swirling motion) than the planets. Howcan a body with low angular momentum create fragments
with a higher angularmomentum? Finally, Buffon’s theory fails to explain the peculiar position of
planets around the sun which are arranged in such a manner that the largest onesoccupy the middle
orbits while the smaller ones occupy the marginal orbits.

2. EMANUEL KANT’S THEORY OF GASEOUS MASS (1755)

Kant proposed that the primordial matter was in the form of small and cold primordial matter was in
the form of small and cold particles which got attracted towards each other as a result of the gravitational
pull. In the process, the angular velocity and the temperature of these particles rose to such a level that
they got transformed to a gaseous state. A high centrifugal force was generated due to high angular
velocity which caused concentric rings of material to separate from the hot gaseous mass. On cooling
down, these rings became the present-day planets, while a similar process caused the sub-planets to
emerge from these planets. The remaining mass of the gaseous matter became the sun.Although Kant’s
theory appeared to be simple and reasonable, he failed to explain the sudden coming into play of the
gravitational pull and the source of angular motion for the particles.

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3. THE NEBULAR THEORY OF LAPLACE (1796)

Laplace, a French scientist, proposed that the primordial matter existed in the formof a gaseous mass
called ‘nebula’, which was hot and rotating. This mass startedcooling down and in the process lost some
of its volume. Because of a reducedsize, the rotational speed of the nebula increased. This had a
cascading effect as thecentrifugal force of its mass also increased. As a result, the mass of the
nebulastarted concentrating along its equator. This mass was, on the other hand, beingpulled inwards
by a gravitational pull. But, as the centrifugal force increased further, some of the mass from the equator
separated from the main nebula in the form of a ring which was also rotating. This ring, when cooled
down and condensed, gave rise to planets and sub-planets, as it got broken into many smaller rings. The
remaining mass became the sun.Laplace’s proposition seemed probable to the extent that all the planets
of the sun revolve around proposition seemed probable to the extent that all the planets of the sun
revolve around the sun in the same plane and are composed of the same elements which makes the “ring
breaking into planets” thesis seem probable. But then the angular momentum of the initial nebula should
be equal to the angular momentum of the entire solar system. Although the sun’s mass accounts for
99.9% of the entire solar system, the angular momentum of the sun is only 2% that of the solar system.
Moreover, for a ring of such a magnitude to separate from the nebula, the nebula should have contracted
to the size of the planet Mercury, which does not seem probable. Also, this theory fails to explain the
revolution in the opposite direction by some of he sub-planets of Saturn and Uranus. Finally, going by
the processes involved in this theory, more rings should have separated from the nebula and not just
one such ring. The theory does not explain this factor.Roche modified Laplace’s theory by arguing that
a huge gaseous mass with low density could not have given rise to a huge, thick ting. He proposes that
many small rings would have separated from the nebula forming planets and sub-planets.

4.CHAMBERLAIN-MOULTON’S PLANETESIMALHYPOTHESIS (1904)

According to this theory, the planets have a biparental origin, i.e planets were born out of two nebulae.
The sun, with it very high temperatures, projects hot material called the ‘prominences’, thousands of
kilometres away from it. Another nebula, passing by the sun, attracted some of this projected material
through its gravitational pull, which now started revolving around it instead of around the sun.The
particles of this material got coalesced to from the planets. A lot of heat was generated in the process.
Partly out of the gas particles attracted from the material floating around and partly acquired from the
volcanic eruptions, the atmosphere around the earth was formed.This theory sounds probable on
account of the fact that the total mass of the planets is about 1/700 of the solar system which points to
the formation of the planets from the sun. However, the theory fails to explain why, on collision, the
particles grew in size instead of turning into a gaseous form. The theory also fails to explain the low
angular momentum of the sun compared to that of the planets.

5. THE TIDAL HYPOTHESIS OF JEANS AND JEFFREYS

According to this theory, the sun was originally, a gaseous mass. A huge star came so close to the sun
that its gravitational pull created “tides” on the surface of the sun and a part of the sun’s material got
ejected. This material, so separated,began revolving around the sun and acquired an inflated, cigar shape
because of the bipolar force being exerted on it-from the sun and the star. This force was in the form of
the gravitational pull. The gaseous material in the cigar-shaped mass-swollen in the middle and thinner
towards the end-cooled down and got condensed into solid spheres which became the planets in our
solar system, the larger ones in the middle and the smaller ones towards the ends. A similar process
involving the gravitational pull of the sun created sub-planets out of these planets. In this case too, the
large sub-planets occupy the middle positions.Although the peculiar arrangement of the planets and the

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sub-plants in the solar system is in accordance with the tidal principle of Jeans and Jefferys, apart from
the fact that all the planets are made up of the same elements some doubts remain. The low angular
momentum of the sun, for instance, cannot produce the high angular momentum of the planets.
Secondly, the distance between stars in the universe is so great that ejection of material from the sun
does not seem probable.Thirdly, the ejected material had a very high temperature- not conducive to the
formation of such large planets.

6. INTER-STELLAR HYPOTHESIS OF OTTO SCHMIDST

A Russian scientist, Schmidst, opined that space was originally filled with dust particles. Then dust
particles were attracted by the sun and began revolving around it. These particles underwent collisions
and their speed decreased. They united to from large planets. The matter, which remained
unconsolidated, took the form of sub-planets.

According to Schmidst, the heavier particles remained closer to the sun dueto a stronger gravitational
pull there, while the lighter ones drifted away. This isborne out by the fact that “inner planets” of the
solar system – Mercury, Venus,Earth and Mars are composed of heavy elements and the “outer” ones-
Jupiter,Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto are composed of lighter elements like hydrogen, helium
nitrogen and simple compounds like methane. And since the planets were not carved out of the sun’s
material, there remains no ambiguity about the angular momentum of the solar system. But Schmist
failed to explain the primordial existence of dust clouds, and their attraction towards the sun considering
the great distances between stars in the universe.

7. FASENKOV’S HYPOTHESIS (1951)

According to Fasenkov, originally there existed clouds of dust and gas which got consolidated into the
sun, the planets and the sub-planets. This theory explains the different angular momentums of the sun
and the planets, but fails to explain the varying composition of different planets-some with heavy
elements and some with light ones.

8.BINARY STAR HYPOTHESIS BY RUSSEL AND LITTLETION

According to this theory, the sun existed in “binary companionship” with a“companion star”. A third
star happened to pass by this binary arrangement. This star and the sun exerted a bipolar gravitational
pull on the companion star. A tidal situation occurred and some material got separated from the
companion star which began to revolve round the star. This revolving material gave rise to the
planets.The fact that binary stars are a common feature in the universe makes this theory sound feasible.
The vast distances between the planets and the higher value of angular momentum of the planets are
also accounted for by this theory. But this hypothesis does not explain the placement of the planets in
different orbits at varying distances from the sun.

9.NOVA HYPOTHESIS BY HOYLE AND LITILETION

Certain stars in the universe increase their brightness several times suddenly.These stars are known as
nove. A supernova contracts very rapidly; this increases its speed tremendously. Due to contraction, the
temperature of the supernova increases to a very high level and in the presence of large amounts of
energy, the lighter elements change into higher ones. Because of its small size, rotational speed of the
supernova increased and a centrifugal force came into play. The sun had such a supernova as its
companion star and it attracted the material ejected from the supernova due to the centrifugal fore. This

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material started revolving around the sun and got transformed into the planets on condensation.This
theory explains the existence of different angular momentums and planets with heavier and lighter
elements in the solar system. But the theory fails to explain satisfactorily the creation of planets and
sub-planets.

Physical Conditions of the Earth’s interior;

The interior structure of the Earth is layered in spherical shells, like an onion. These layers can be
defined by their chemical and their rheological properties. Earth has an outer silicate solid crust, a highly
viscous mantle, a liquid outer core that is much less viscous than the mantle, and a solid inner core.
Scientific understanding of the internal structure of the Earth is based on observations of topography
and bathymetry, observations of rock in outcrop, samples brought to the surface from greater depths by
volcanoes or volcanic activity, analysis of the seismic waves that pass through the Earth, measurements
of the gravitational and magnetic fields of the Earth, and experiments with crystalline solids at pressures
and temperatures characteristic of the Earth's deep interior.

Mass

The force exerted by Earth's gravity can be used to calculate its mass. Astronomers can also calculate
Earth's mass by observing the motion of orbiting satellites. Earth’s average density can be determined
through gravitometric experiments, which have historically involved pendulums.

The mass of Earth is about 6×1024 kg:

Structure:

• Earth's radial density distribution according to the preliminary reference earth model
(PREM).[2]
• Earth's gravity according to the preliminary reference earth model (PREM).[2] Comparison to
approximations using constant and linear density for Earth's interior.

Mapping the interior of Earth with earthquake waves.

Schematic view of the interior of Earth. 1. continental crust – 2. oceanic crust – 3. upper mantle – 4.
lower mantle – 5. outer core – 6. inner core – A: Mohorovičić discontinuity – B: Gutenberg
Discontinuity – C: Lehmann–Bullen discontinuity.

The structure of Earth can be defined in two ways: by mechanical properties such as rheology, or
chemically. Mechanically, it can be divided into lithosphere, asthenosphere, mesospheric mantle, outer
core, and the inner core. The interior of Earth is divided into 5 important layers. Chemically, Earth can
be divided into the crust, upper mantle, lower mantle, outer core, and inner core. The geologic
component layers of Earth[3] are at the following depths below the surface:

The layering of Earth has been inferred indirectly using the time of travel of refracted and reflected
seismic waves created by earthquakes. The core does not allow shear waves to pass through it, while
the speed of travel (seismic velocity) is different in other layers. The changes in seismic velocity
between different layers causes refraction owing to Snell's law, like light bending as it passes through
a prism. Likewise, reflections are caused by a large increase in seismic velocity and are similar to light
reflecting from a mirror.

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Crust

The crust ranges from 5–70 km (~3–44 miles) in depth and is the outermost layer. The thin parts are the
oceanic crust, which underlie the ocean basins (5–10 km) and are composed of dense (mafic) iron
magnesium silicate igneous rocks, like basalt. The thicker crust is continental crust, which is less dense
and composed of (felsic) sodium potassium aluminium silicate rocks, like granite. The rocks of the crust
fall into two major categories – sial and sima (Suess,1831–1914). It is estimated that sima starts about
11 km below the Conrad discontinuity (a second order discontinuity). The uppermost mantle together
with the crust constitutes the lithosphere. The crust-mantle boundary occurs as two physically different
events. First, there is a discontinuity in the seismic velocity, which is most commonly known as the
Mohorovičić discontinuity or Moho. The cause of the Moho is thought to be a change in rock
composition from rocks containing plagioclase feldspar (above) to rocks that contain no feldspars
(below). Second, in oceanic crust, there is a chemical discontinuity between ultramafic cumulates and
tectonized harzburgites, which has been observed from deep parts of the oceanic crust that have been
obducted onto the continental crust and preserved as ophiolite sequences.

Many rocks now making up Earth's crust formed less than 100 million (1×108) years ago; however, the
oldest known mineral grains are 4.4 billion (4.4×109) years old, indicating that Earth has had a solid
crust for at least that long.[4]

Mantle

Earth's mantle extends to a depth of 2,890 km, making it the thickest layer of Earth. The upper mantle
is divided into the lithospheric mantle and the asthenosphere. The upper and lower mantle are separated
by the transition zone. The lowest part of the mantle next to the core-mantle boundary is known as the
D″ (D prime prime) layer. The pressure at the bottom of the mantle is ~140 GPa (1.4 Matm). The mantle
is composed of silicate rocks that are rich in iron and magnesium relative to the overlying crust.
Although solid, the high temperatures within the mantle cause the silicate material to be sufficiently
ductile that it can flow on very long timescales. Convection of the mantle is expressed at the surface
through the motions of tectonic plates. As there is intense and increasing pressure as one travels deeper
into the mantle, the lower part of the mantle flows less easily than does the upper mantle (chemical
changes within the mantle may also be important). The viscosity of the mantle ranges between 1021
and 1024 Pa·s, depending on depth.[5] In comparison, the viscosity of water is approximately 10−3
Pa·s and that of pitch is 107 Pa·s.

Core

The average density of Earth is 5,515 kg/m3. Because the average density of surface material is only
around 3,000 kg/m3, we must conclude that denser materials exist within Earth's core. Seismic
measurements show that the core is divided into two parts, a "solid" inner core with a radius of ~1,220
km[6] and a liquid outer core extending beyond it to a radius of ~3,400 km. The densities are between
9,900 and 12,200 kg/m3 in the outer core and 12,600–13,000 kg/m3 in the inner core.[7]

The inner core was discovered in 1936 by Inge Lehmann and is generally believed to be composed
primarily of iron and some nickel. It is not necessarily a solid, but, because it is able to deflect seismic
waves, it must behave as a solid in some fashion. Experimental evidence has at times been critical of
crystal models of the core.[8] Other experimental studies show a discrepancy under high pressure:
diamond anvil (static) studies at core pressures yield melting temperatures that are approximately 2000

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K below those from shock laser (dynamic) studies.[9][10] The laser studies create plasma,[11] and the
results are suggestive that constraining inner core conditions will depend on whether the inner core is a
solid or is a plasma with the density of a solid. This is an area of active research.

In early stages of Earth's formation about four and a half billion (4.5×109) years ago, melting would
have caused denser substances to sink toward the center in a process called planetary differentiation
(see also the iron catastrophe), while less-dense materials would have migrated to the crust. The core is
thus believed to largely be composed of iron (80%), along with nickel and one or more light elements,
whereas other dense elements, such as lead and uranium, either are too rare to be significant or tend to
bind to lighter elements and thus remain in the crust (see felsic materials). Some have argued that the
inner core may be in the form of a single iron crystal.[12][13]

Under laboratory conditions a sample of iron–nickel alloy was subjected to the corelike pressures by
gripping it in a vise between 2 diamond tips (diamond anvil cell), and then heating to approximately
4000 K. The sample was observed with x-rays, and strongly supported the theory that Earth's inner core
was made of giant crystals running north to south.[14][15]

The liquid outer core surrounds the inner core and is believed to be composed of iron mixed with nickel
and trace amounts of lighter elements.

Recent speculation suggests that the innermost part of the core is enriched in gold, platinum and other
siderophile elements.

The matter that comprises Earth is connected in fundamental ways to matter of certain chondrite
meteorites, and to matter of outer portion of the Sun.[17][18] There is good reason to believe that Earth
is, in the main, like a chondrite meteorite. Beginning as early as 1940, scientists, including Francis
Birch, built geophysics upon the premise that Earth is like ordinary chondrites, the most common type
of meteorite observed impacting Earth, while totally ignoring another, albeit less abundant type, called
enstatite chondrites. The principal difference between the two meteorite types is that enstatite chondrites
formed under circumstances of extremely limited available oxygen, leading to certain normally
oxyphile elements existing either partially or wholly in the alloy portion that corresponds to the core of
Earth.

Dynamo theory suggests that convection in the outer core, combined with the Coriolis effect, gives rise
to Earth's magnetic field. The solid inner core is too hot to hold a permanent magnetic field (see Curie
temperature) but probably acts to stabilize the magnetic field generated by the liquid outer core. The
average magnetic field strength in Earth's outer core is estimated to be 25 Gauss (2.5 mT), 50 times
stronger than the magnetic field at the surface.[19][20]

Recent evidence has suggested that the inner core of Earth may rotate slightly faster than the rest of the
planet;[21] however, more recent studies in 2011[which?] found this hypothesis to be inconclusive.
Options remain for the core which may be oscillatory in nature or a chaotic system.[citation needed] In
August 2005 a team of geophysicists announced in the journal Science that, according to their estimates,
Earth's inner core rotates approximately 0.3 to 0.5 degrees per year faster relative to the rotation of the
surface.

The current scientific explanation for Earth's temperature gradient is a combination of heat left over
from the planet's initial formation, decay of radioactive elements, and freezing of the inner core.

13
Geosynclines:
In geology, geosyncline is a term still occasionally used for a subsiding linear trough that was caused
by the accumulation of sedimentary rock strata deposited in a basin and subsequently compressed,
deformed, and uplifted into a mountain range, with attendant volcanism and plutonism. The filling of a
geosyncline with tons of sediment is accompanied in the late stages of deposition by folding, crumpling,
and faulting of the deposits. Intrusion of crystalline igneous rock and regional uplift along the axis of
the trough generally complete the history of a particular geosyncline. It is then transformed into a belt
of folded mountains. Thick volcanic sequences, together with greywackes (sandstones rich in rock
fragments with a muddy matrix), cherts, and various sediments reflecting deepwater deposition or
processes, are deposited in eugeosynclines, the outer deepwater segment of geosynclines.

Overview:

The geosyncline hypothesis is an obsolete concept[1] involving vertical crustal movement that has been
replaced by plate tectonics to explain crustal movement and geologic features.

Geosynclines are divided into miogeosynclines and eugeosynclines, depending on the types of
discernible rock strata of the mountain system.

A miogeosyncline develops along a passive margin of a continent and is composed of sediments with
limestones, sandstones and shales. The occurrences of limestones and well-sorted quartz sandstones
indicate a shallow-water formation.

A eugeosyncline consists of rocks from deep marine environments. Eugeosynclinal rocks include thick
sequences of greywackes, cherts, slates, tuffs and submarine lavas. The eugeosynclinal deposits are
typically more deformed, metamorphosed, and intruded by small to large igneous plutons.
Eugeosynclines often contain flysch typical of a continental-continental convergent boundary.

An orthogeosyncline is a linear geosynclinal belt lying between continental and oceanic terranes, and
having internal volcanic belts (eugeosynclinal) and external nonvolcanic belts (miogeosynclinal). Also
known as geosynclinal couple or primary geosyncline. A miogeosyncline is the nonvolcanic portion of
an orthogeosyncline, located adjacent a craton. A zeugogeosyncline is a geosyncline in a craton or stable
area within which is also an uplifted area, receiving clastic sediments, also known as yoked basin. A
parageosyncline is an epeirogenic geosynclinal basin located within a craton area. An exogeosyncline
is a parageosyncline that lies along the cratonal border and obtains its clastic sediments from erosion of
the adjacent orthogeosynclinal belt outside the craton. Also known as delta geosyncline; foredeep; or
transverse basin.

Several types of "mobile" geosynclinal zones have also been recognized and named. Among the more
common of these are the taphrogeosyncline, a depressed block of the Earth's crust that is bounded by
one or more high-angle faults and that serves as a site of sediment accumulation; and the
paraliageosyncline, a deep geosyncline that passes into coastal plains along continental margins.

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History of the concept

The geosyncline concept was first developed by the American geologists James Hall and James Dwight
Dana in the mid-19th century during the classic studies of the Appalachian Mountains.[2] Dana was
first to use the term geosynclinal in reference to a gradually deepening and filling basin resulting from
his concept of crustal contraction due to a cooling and contracting Earth. The geosynclinal hypothesis
was further developed in the late 19th century and early 20th century and at that time was widely
accepted as an explanation for the origin of most mountain ranges until its replacement by the
subduction zone and continental collision orogenies of plate tectonics in the 1960s. Although the usage
varied over the following 100 years, a geosyncline is still basically a large linear deepening basin along
a continental margin which becomes deformed and then uplifted in parts as a mountainous region.

Continental Drift:
Continental drift was a theory that explained how continents shift position on Earth's surface. Set forth
in 1912 by Alfred Wegener, a geophysicist and meteorologist, continental drift also explained why
look-alike animal and plant fossils, and similar rock formations, are found on different continents.

Wegener thought all the continents were once joined together in an "Urkontinent" before breaking up
and drifting to their current positions. But geologists soundly denounced Wegener's theory of
continental drift after he published the details in a 1915 book called "The Origin of Continents and
Oceans." Part of the opposition was because Wegener didn't have a good model to explain how the
continents moved apart.

Though most of Wegener's observations about fossils and rocks were correct, he was outlandishly
wrong on a couple of key points. For instance, Wegener thought the continents might have plowed
through the ocean crust like icebreakers smashing through ice.

"There's an irony that the key objection to continent drift was that there is no mechanism, and plate
tectonics was accepted without a mechanism," to move the continents, said Henry Frankel, an emeritus
professor at the University of Missouri-Kansas City and author of the four volume "The Continental
Drift Controversy" (Cambridge University Press, 2012).

Although Wegener's "continental drift" theory was discarded, it did introduce the idea of moving
continents to geoscience. And decades later, scientists would confirm some of Wegener's ideas, such as
the past existence of a supercontinent joining all the world's landmasses as one. Pangaea was a
supercontinent that formed roughly 300 million years ago, and was responsible for the fossil and rock
clues that led Wegener to his theory. [Have There Always Been Continents?]

The incredible shrinking plant

When Wegener proposed continental drift, many geologists were contractionists. They thought Earth's
incredible mountains were created because our planet was cooling and shrinking since its formation,
Frankel said. And to account for the identical fossils discovered on continents such as South America
and Africa, scientists invoked ancient land bridges, now vanished beneath the sea.

Researchers argued over the land bridges right up until the plate tectonics theory was developed, Frankel
said. For instance, as geophysicists began to realize that continental rocks were too light to sink down

15
to the ocean floor, prominent paleontologists instead suggested that the similarities between fossils had
been overestimated, Frankel said.

Plate tectonics is the widely accepted theory that Earth's crust is fractured into rigid, moving plates. In
the 1950s and 1960s, scientists discovered the plate edges through magnetic surveys of the ocean floor
and through the seismic listening networks built to monitor nuclear testing. Alternating patterns of
magnetic anomalies on the ocean floor indicated seafloor spreading, where new plate material is born.
Magnetic minerals aligned in ancient rocks on continents also showed that the continents have shifted
relative to one another.

Evidence for continental drift:

A map of the continents inspired Wegener's quest to explain Earth's geologic history. Trained as a
meteorologist, he was intrigued by the interlocking fit of Africa's and South America's shorelines.
Wegener then assembled an impressive amount of evidence to show that Earth's continents were once
connected in a single supercontinent.

Wegener knew that fossil plants and animals such as mesosaurs, a freshwater reptile found only South
America and Africa during the Permian period, could be found on many continents. He also matched
up rocks on either side of the Atlantic Ocean like puzzle pieces. For example, the Appalachian
Mountains (United States) and Caledonian Mountains (Scotland) fit together, as do the Karroo strata in
South Africa and Santa Catarina rocks in Brazil.

Despite his incredible evidence for continental drift, Wegener never lived to see his theory gain wider
acceptance. He died in 1930 at age 50 of a probable heart attack while on a scientific expedition in
Greenland.

Isostasy:
Isostasy (Greek ísos "equal", stásis "standstill") is the state of gravitational equilibrium between Earth's
crust and mantle such that the crust "floats" at an elevation that depends on its thickness and density of
underlying roots of the low density of the mountain.

This concept is invoked to explain how different topographic heights can exist at Earth's surface. When
a certain area of Earth's crust reaches the state of isostasy, it is said to be in isostatic equilibrium. Isostasy
does not upset equilibrium but instead restores it (a negative feedback). It is generally accepted [1] that
Earth is a dynamic system that responds to loads in many different ways. However, isostasy provides
an important 'view' of the processes that are happening in areas that are experiencing vertical movement.
Certain areas (such as the Himalayas) are not in isostatic equilibrium, which has forced researchers to
identify other reasons to explain their topographic heights (in the case of the Himalayas, which are still
rising, by proposing that their elevation is being "propped-up" by the force of the impacting Indian
plate; the Basin and Range Province of the Western US is another example of a region not in isostatic
equilibrium.)

Although originally defined in terms of continental crust and mantle, it has subsequently been
interpreted in terms of lithosphere and asthenosphere, particularly with respect to oceanic island
volcanoes such as the Hawaiian Islands.

16
In the simplest example, isostasy is the principle of buoyancy wherein an object immersed in a fluid is
buoyed with a force equal to the weight of the displaced fluid. On a geological scale, isostasy can be
observed where Earth's strong crust or lithosphere exerts stress on the weaker mantle or asthenosphere,
which, over geological time, flows laterally such that the load is accommodated by height adjustments.

The general term 'isostasy' was coined in the year 1889 by the American geologist Clarence Dutton.

Isostatic models

Three principal models of isostasy are used:

• The Airy–Heiskanen model – where different topographic heights are accommodated by

changes in crustal thickness, in which the crust has a constant density
• The Pratt–Hayford model – where different topographic heights are accommodated by lateral
changes in rock density.
• The Vening Meinesz, or flexural isostasy model – where the lithosphere acts as an elastic plate
and its inherent rigidity distributes local topographic loads over a broad region by bending.
• Airy and Pratt isostasy are statements of buoyancy, whereas flexural isostasy is a statement of
buoyancy when deflecting a sheet of finite elastic strength.

Airy:

Airy isostasy, in which a constant-density crust floats on a higher-density mantle, and topography is
determined by the thickness of the crust.

Airy isostasy applied to a real-case basin scenario, where the total load on the mantle is composed by a
crustal basement, lower-density sediments and overlying marine water

The basis of the model is Pascal's law, and particularly its consequence that, within a fluid in static
equilibrium, the hydrostatic pressure is the same on every point at the same elevation (surface of
hydrostatic compensation). In other words:

h1⋅ρ1 = h2⋅ρ2 = h3⋅ρ3 = ... hn⋅ρn

For the simplified picture shown the depth of the mountain belt roots (b1) are:

(h_1+c+b_1)\rho_c = (c\rho_c)+(b_1\rho_m)

{b_1(\rho_m-\rho_c)} = h_1\rho_c

b_1 = \frac{h_1\rho_c}{\rho_m-\rho_c}

where \rho_m is the density of the mantle (ca. 3,300 kg m−3) and \rho_c is the density of the crust
(ca. 2,750 kg m−3). Thus, we may generally consider:

b1 ≅ 5⋅h1

In the case of negative topography (i.e., a marine basin), the balancing of lithospheric columns gives:

c\rho_c = (h_2\rho_w)+(b_2\rho_m)+[(c-h_2-b_2)\rho_c]

17
{b_2(\rho_m-\rho_c)} = {h_2(\rho_c-\rho_w)}

b_2 = (\frac{\rho_c-\rho_w}{\rho_m-\rho_c}){h_2}

where \rho_m is the density of the mantle (ca. 3,300 kg m−3), \rho_c is the density of the crust (ca.
2,750 kg m−3) and \rho_w is the density of the water (ca. 1,000 kg m−3). Thus, we may generally
consider:

b2 ≅ 3.2⋅h2

Pratt

For the simplified model shown the new density is given by: \rho_1 = \rho_c \frac{c}{h_1+c} , where
h_1 is the height of the mountain and c the thickness of the crust.

Vening Meinesz / flexural

Cartoon showing the isostatic vertical motions of the lithosphere (grey) in response to a vertical load
(in green)

This hypothesis was suggested to explain how large topographic loads such as seamounts (e.g. Hawaiian
Islands) could be compensated by regional rather than local displacement of the lithosphere. This is the
more general solution for lithospheric flexure, as it approaches the locally compensated models above
as the load becomes much larger than a flexural wavelength or the flexural rigidity of the lithosphere
approaches 0.

Isostatic effects of deposition and erosion

When large amounts of sediment are deposited on a particular region, the immense weight of the new
sediment may cause the crust below to sink. Similarly, when large amounts of material are eroded away
from a region, the land may rise to compensate. Therefore, as a mountain range is eroded, the (reduced)
range rebounds upwards (to a certain extent) to be eroded further. Some of the rock strata now visible
at the ground surface may have spent much of their history at great depths below the surface buried
under other strata, to be eventually exposed as those other strata eroded away and the lower layers
rebounded upwards.

An analogy may be made with an iceberg—it always floats with a certain proportion of its mass below
the surface of the water. If more ice is added to the top of the iceberg, the iceberg will sink lower in the
water. If a layer of ice is somehow sliced off the top of the iceberg, the remaining iceberg will rise.
Similarly, Earth's lithosphere "floats" in the asthenosphere.

Isostatic effects of plate tectonics

When continents collide, the continental crust may thicken at their edges in the collision. If this happens,
much of the thickened crust may move downwards rather than up as with the iceberg analogy. The idea
of continental collisions building mountains "up" is therefore rather a simplification. Instead, the crust
thickens and the upper part of the thickened crust may become a mountain range.[citation needed]

However, some continental collisions are far more complex than this, and the region may not be in
isostatic equilibrium, so this subject has to be treated with caution.[citation needed]

Isostatic effects of ice sheets

18
The formation of ice sheets can cause Earth's surface to sink. Conversely, isostatic post-glacial rebound
is observed in areas once covered by ice sheets that have now melted, such as around the Baltic Sea and
Hudson Bay. As the ice retreats, the load on the lithosphere and asthenosphere is reduced and they
rebound back towards their equilibrium levels. In this way, it is possible to find former sea cliffs and
associated wave-cut platforms hundreds of metres above present-day sea level. The rebound movements
are so slow that the uplift caused by the ending of the last glacial period is still continuing.

In addition to the vertical movement of the land and sea, isostatic adjustment of the Earth also involves
horizontal movements. It can cause changes in Earth's gravitational field and rotation rate, polar wander,
and earthquakes.

Eustasy and relative sea level change

Eustasy is another cause of relative sea level change quite different from isostatic causes. The term
eustasy or eustatic refers to changes in the amount of water in the oceans, usually due to global climate
change. When Earth's climate cools, a greater proportion of water is stored on land masses in the form
of glaciers, snow, etc. This results in falling global sea levels (relative to a stable land mass). The
refilling of ocean basins by glacial meltwater at the end of ice ages is an example of eustatic sea level
rise.

A second significant cause of eustatic sea level rise is thermal expansion of sea water when Earth's
mean temperature increases. Current estimates of global eustatic rise from tide gauge records and
satellite altimetry is about +3 mm/a (see 2007 IPCC report). Global sea level is also affected by vertical
crustal movements, changes in Earth's rotation rate, large-scale changes in continental margins and
changes in the spreading rate of the ocean floor.

When the term relative is used in context with sea level change, the implication is that both eustasy and
isostasy are at work, or that the author does not know which cause to invoke.

Post-glacial rebound can also be a cause of rising sea levels. When the sea floor rises, which it continues
to do in parts of the northern hemisphere, water is displaced and has to go elsewhere.

Sea-Floor Spreading:
Seafloor spreading is a process that occurs at mid-ocean ridges, where new oceanic crust is formed
through volcanic activity and then gradually moves away from the ridge. Seafloor spreading helps
explain continental drift in the theory of plate tectonics. When oceanic plates diverge, tensional stress
causes fractures to occur in the lithosphere. Basaltic magma rises up the fractures and cools on the ocean
floor to form new sea floor. Older rocks will be found farther away from the spreading zone while
younger rocks will be found nearer to the spreading zone.

19
Earlier theories (e.g. by Alfred Wegener and Alexander du Toit) of continental drift were that continents
"ploughed" through the sea. The idea that the seafloor itself moves (and carries the continents with it)
as it expands from a central axis was proposed by Harry Hess from Princeton University in the 1960s.[1]
The theory is well accepted now, and the phenomenon is known to be caused by convection currents in
the plastic, very weak upper mantle, or asthenosphere.

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Notes:

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For Complete CSS Gender
Studies Notes

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