ATOMIC STRUCTURE ATOMIC STRUCTURE CHEMICAL BONDING ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATIONS Aedul Slam Khetran CSP 40” Comman (ome) ATOMIC STRUCTURE Atomic Structure Mod Fundamentals of Atom CLASSICAL THEORIES > Greek Philosopher, Democritus (460 8C) sees Zinere are fret type of some John Dalton’sAtomie Theory (1803) ~Allmater made of tome atoms of one element ae all the same 2 aes anna be broken ow i small pets > Compounds frm by coming stone iad oa" mode he entoned atoms i, hard phere ‘wooden bolt to modal her 7? he blind (goo) balls, so he wie Modern Atomic Theory All matter is composed of atoms ‘Atoms cannot be subdivided, created, or destroyed in ordinary chemical reactions However, these changes CAN occur in nuclear reactions! ‘Atoms of an element have a characteristic average mass which is unique to that element. “Atoms of any one element differ in properties from atoms of another element——eancietons Feat ta Discovery of the Electron Study of the Electron sang 3 omer cata Beare ee area rene eat en. ete ret te a a nen et oe eee oe ere See a ell reeset paris peta re , wae nantes dine Fea C1 acrane ho 20 te mam that eons aoe mn a etc rere ‘Thomson's Atomic Mode! | DISCOVERY OF PROTON & NUCLEUS |fepnsottincasoazan Using cathode ray tbe, he discovered canal rays wich are beams of ; | petty charged pares > Hes creited with the discovery of protons in an atom. 7 ieee Hy mest Rutherford - 1913 jomson believed that the electrons were lke * Rutherford discovered the nucleus of gol atom with his “god fo” pms embedded ina positively charges aera oom ie ung,” Ys it was called the “pum pudding” experimentRutherford’s Gold Foil Experiment 2 pha parties oe helo rc alia ae O The nucleus is Atomic Particles Ata ae Atomic number (Z) of an element is the number of protons in the Particle |Charge | Mass L nucleus of each atom of that Eectrn 1 Electron element coud Element # of protons | Atomic # oo i Eee Neutron 0 on é Phesphonue 6‘Mass Number is the number of protons ond he nucleus of an isotope Moss neutrons Mass # =p? + nl Nuclide pe ‘Oxygen - 18 8 10 7% 33 42 Isotopes sotopes are atoms of the some element differer mosses doe to varying memes 2 ‘oem “le ingore ead ELECTRON SHELLS 2) Atomic number = number of Protons /Electrons bb). Electrons vary in the amount of energy they possess, and they occur at certain energy levels or electron shells. ©) Electron shells determine how an atom behaves joms when it encounters other ‘Atomic Masses [- Atomic mass is the averege of al the naturally occuring isotopes of That element Carbon = 12.011 |© & & Why are electrons important? 1) Elements have different electron cor ‘different electron configurations mean different levels of bondin *] Periodic Chart Is “l€] of the Elementsyo Mg tar CHEMICAL BONDS CHEMICAL BONDS VS ELE¢ 74 bond between two. atoms. depends Chemical bonds are forces that hold the atoms together in 3 “ference between the atoms molecule. They are a resuit of strong intramolecular Interactions valence (outermost) electrons of the atoms participate in bonds. When two atoms approach each other, these cons start to interact & results in the formation of bonds stween the atoms types of chemical bonds are ionic bond, covalent bond, and metalic bondumber of protons ) 1 metals —> ‘metals —> Formation of ons from Metals ‘compounds result when metals react with nonmetals ose electrons to match the number of valence ‘of their nearest noble gas ons form when the number of electrons are less jon Formation of + Between atoms of metals electrons from metal ion ion) and so ionie bond is + Produce charged ions and have high melting + Examples; NaCl,COVALENT BOND bond formed by the sharing of electrons NONPOLAR COVALENT BONDS when viectrons are shared equally i, or Cl,Covalent bonds- Oxygen Atom Oxygen Atom Y Oxygen Molecule (0,) POLAR COVALENT BONDS when electrons are shared but shared unequally H,0 = water is a polar molecule electronegative than hydro, are pulled closer to oxygen. 1d therefore electrons, METALLIC BOND bond found in metals which holds metal atoms together very stronglyMetallic Bond > Formed between like atoms of (@ force that holds atoms together in a metallic substance) > Such solid consists of tightly packed atoms, where the outermost electron shell of each metal atom overlaps with a large number of neighboring atoms. As a consequence, the valence electrons move freely from one atom to another > Examples; Na, Fe, Al, Au, Co Hydrogen Bond >A hydrogen bond is a chemical bond between a hydrogen atom and an electronegative atom. However, it is not an ionic or covalent bond but is a particular type of dipole-dipole attraction between molecules > First, the hydrogen atom is covalently bonded to a axety electronegative atom resulting in a positive charge, which is then attracted towards an electronegative atom resulting ina hydrogen bond Hydrogen Bond: Examples + Hydrogen atom from one molecule of water bonds with the oxygen atom from another molecule. This bonding is quite significant in ice + In chloroform (CH,CI) and ammonia (NH) hydrogen bonding occurs between the hydrogen of ‘one molecule and carbon/nitrogen of another, + Nitrogen bases present in DNA are held together by a hydrogen bond OTHER TYPES OF CHEMICAL BONDING Van der Waals Bond + Neutral molecules are held together by weak electric forces known as Van der Waals frees. Van der Waals, force isa general term used to define the attraction of intermolecular forces between molecules. This type of chemical bond is the weakest ofall bonds + Examples include hydrogen bond, dipole-dipole forcesOTHER TYPE; Peptide Bond peneeiaad Nuclear decay or radioactivity, isthe process by which Nitin a peti, muipe amine aids are inked gether 2 nucleus of an unstable atom loses energy by by peptide bonds, thereby forming along chain, emitting ionizing radiation, + Peptide bonds are formed by a bioc! 80 ‘tide bonds are formed by a biochemical reaction thal ‘Amaterial that spontaneously emits this kind of radiation which includes the emission of aloha particles, beta particles, gamma rays and conversion electrons OF CHEMICAL BONDING What is radioactivity? extracts a water molecule as it joins the amino group of fone amino acid to the carboxyl group of neighbor amino acids | Examples include polypeptides like insulin and growth hormone. Why are elements radioactive? Radiation Types, Unstable nucleus: apenas 4 + Has excess energy. Beta Particles (e- or # B OFR\ + Wants to go to “ground state.” Photons (hv) + Becomes stable by emitting ionizing radiation. (rorgammareys) psa, ConcreteThree Common Types of Radioactive Emissions Half life and mean life r half of the atoms of Holfyjfe isthe time required for ndtv material to decay to another miler frm Mean life is average of all half lives esse 0 Sources of radioactivity (0) Primordial Rasionucldes That radionuces that are present since the creation of earth and having ong hafsves, eg Pb, Ra, x0 (it Cosmogeni Radionuclides That radlonucties that are produced inthe upper atmosphere as 2 result of cosmic rays interaction with ight particles carbon, Nirogen ‘and Orygen) eg. C*, Be, 2a, 25 (anthropogenic Radionuclides ‘That radionuclides that ae produced as result of man-made activities Such as nuclear fuel fabrication, enrichment, nlear power eneration, nuclear accents et, eg. 7s, cy I, gear Units of Radioactivity + The Becquere!(8q): Disintegration per second, dps * The curie (Ci) 1.Ci= 37,000,000,000 8g S01 mCi=37 MBq and 1 yci= 37 kBq * fam: Remis the term used to describe equivalent or effective radiation dose. Seen * Inthe International System of Units, the Sievert Sv) describes equivalent or effective radiation dee Sule Sievert is equal to 100 rem. eosNatural background radiation + The natural radiation eneray from primordial radionuclides are called background radiation + Background radiation is of terrestrial and extra-terresrial origin Lo ee 1. Terrestrial radiation components, + The terrestrial component ori yPOnE originates from primordial radionuclides in the earth’ crust, presenti varying Components of three chains of natura radioactive elements i. the uranium series, the thorium and actinium series, 2, B6Ra, Th, Ra, 2b, 2Po, and °K, contribute significantly to natural background radiation. 4. Terrestrial radiation components contd + Among the singly occurring radionuclides tritium and carbon-14 (produced by cosmic ray interactions) and (terrestrial origin) are prominent. + Radionuclides from these sources are transferred to man through food chains or inhalation. 2. Extra terrestrial radiation + The extraterrestrial radiation originates in outer space as primary cosmic rays. > + The primary cosmic rays mainly comprise charged particle, ionised pnuclei of heavy metals and intense electTomagnetic radiation. 3. Artificial Radionuclides * Over the last few decades man has artificially produced hundreds of radionuclides Artificial radioisotopes to the atmosphere during the course ‘of operation ofthe nuclear fuel cycle, nuclear tests (mainly atmospheric) and nuclear accidents “Most ofthe artificial radioisotopes decay -short half tves, Therefore only a few of them are significant from the point of human exposure.Radon «+ Radon is 2 radioactive gas decay product of radium, created Gurng the natural breakcown of uranium in rocks and sol + teisone ofthe heaviest substa ns and ts considered to be a health hazard Radioactivity — is it a health problem? + The Alpha, Beta and G sma patices all add energy to the body's tissues, The effect called the lonizing Energy. It ‘an alter DNA. + Even though Alpha particles are not very penetrative if the decaying atom is already inthe body (inhalat they can cause trouble n ingestion) | Sources of background radiationRadiation Dose Dose or radiation dose isa radiation exposure. In radiation protection, dose is expressed in Ragaton dose (single chest x ray eric term fora measure of mile, “ai External Dose a The radium dial painters United States Radium factory in Orange, New + Wateh-dial painters Jersey, around 1917 + The Radium Girs (4 contracted radiation poisoning from pai luminous paint. + They were used to tp (1... ri toachieve a fine point + Unfortunately this practice led to inge women died of sicknesses related to radiation poisoning The paint dust also collected on the workers, causing them to “glow in the dark ‘Some also painted their fingernails and teeth withthe glowing ing watch dials wise to the tips) their radium laden brushes 18 radium, and many of the substance, Contamination Contamination is the presence of a radioactive material, in any place where it is not desired, and especially in any place where its presence could be harmful Yer)Who's the Famous “Madame” of Radiological Fame? Marie Curie + With her husband Pierre, discovered radium and coined the term "radioactive «+ First woman to win two Nobel Prizes | + inthe organs of the body, they Medical Applications Radioisotopes with short halt: lives are used in nuciear ‘medicine because they have the same chemistry in the body a5 the nonradioactive atoms. give off radiation that exposes a Scan giving an image of an organ. aa Space Exploration Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (RTG) G Iftwo dissimilar metals were joined at two locations that were maintained at different temperatures, an electric current would flow in a loop. 1 Inan RTG, the decay of a radioisotope fuel provides heat to the “hot” junction, while the other junction uses radiation heat transfer to outer space to maintain itself a the “cold” junction. Space Exploration Jupiter Probe The fuel in: “i + Satellites + Jupiter Probe * Others ddGeneration Nuclear Medicine g clear power supplies | Diagnostic Procedures 5% of electricity + Short halflife radioactive generated in Pakistan ena + Pictures taken with special gamma camera Many different studies: Thyroid lung Cardiac White Blood Cell Currently, 6 power plants are operating Radiation Therapy eue.Scans Used for treating cancerCrop improvement by mutation techniques eax = Mlgner tng Mutation techniques - Improving crop cultivation - Enhancing biodiversity Increasing farmer's income Preservation of food and agricultural product by radiation ~ An alternate method of food preservation by radiation of Xray or gamma rays ~ Itis used to prolong the shel if of many food and agricultural products, destroy bacteria and microorganisms in food (pre packed or bulk) and grains(rice, corn.) ¥ The food exposed to controlled amount of ionizing radiatios shielded area for a specific time to achieve desirable objectives. ¥ The sources are gamma rays from Cobalt 60 or Cesium 137 ete + Uranium s added to fase teeth to provide a shine to the Dentures ‘material (about 10% of the teeth) + Concentration of uranium is quite low ~ about 300 parts peer milion Roo+ General Pubic iit + Occupational Limit 5,000) feember—We gt Electromagne Waves and \ res] Interactions _<= — Light, microwave, x-ray, TV, and cell phone transmission are all kinds of electromagnetic waves. Electromagnetic waves are a group of energy waves that ‘are mostly invisible and can travel through empty space These energies bombard our bodies all day long, but we are only aware of a very small portion of them: visible light (colors), infrared light (heat), and ultraviolet (sunburn) meni 7 Electromagnetic energy is created by vibrations that produce waves. Each electromagnetic wave emits a different level of energy. These energies travel silently atthe speed of light and produce a “signature” wave - with a unique range of length, energy, and frequency ~ that scientis can identify and measure. Wercan measure the energy of an electromagnetic wave by measuring its frequency Frequency refers to the number of waves a vibration creates during a period of time. In general, the higher the frequency, or number of waves, the greater the energy of thevadaton @)-—— When we use the te ferm “light”, referring toa grou ei IP of el waves called visible light mimo When tight ofthat particular wavcene we perceive thal specie color senaatens Mes oe 9 \ — When light interacts with objects, itis either absorbed, reflected, transmitted, or refracted. ‘Absorption — The loss of light as it passes through a material = Another popular group of waves from the electromagnetic spectrum involves infrared. Infrared radiation is a type of electromagnetic radiation that involves heat. or thermal radiation All objects emit (give out) and absorb (take in) thermal radiation, a Let's look at an example of absorption. \When you go to the dentist, one of the first things they do is obtain an x-ray of you. Unnecessary exposure of x-ray radiation can be harmful, so doctors try to minimize the ‘area thal those electromagnetic waves interact with your body by making you wear special protective clothing, & light by a material i @ Reflection ~ The return ofWhat do these spe: I clothes do? “These protective clothes contain some amount of a dense element, lead, in them. The high density ofthis element allows x-rays to be absorbed by atoms in lead, decreasing the energy of the x-rays. Lead, in turn, ‘shields your body from unnecessary radiation by absorbing x-rays. How do microwaves heat up food? Microwaves utilize the fact that food contains water molecules. When a microwave is turned on, the eneray from microwaves is absorbed by water molecules in food, making them vibrate. These vibrations give off heat, which warms up your food oe 7 nother example of absorption of electromagnetic waves in our daily lives involve the use of a microwave. Microwaves are widely used to quickly heat up food Microwaves are also referred to as range of waves in the tlectromagnetic spectrum with a specific wavelength and frequency. a] 2 — Lef's look at an example of reflection. Reflection occurs when light is retuned by an object, ‘Aithough many objects reflect light, common examples include mirrors and smooth water surfaces. tlie,[> How di loes an obj 7 object reflect light in a mirror? Reflection involves two ra and an outgoing (rettactany on EO"IN9 nee cay When an incomin a direction, Thig nn {2Y stkes a miror, the ray changes 'y IS now reflected off the mirror, The angle of incident rays and the . angle of reflected rays are equal in all reflected light of smooth objects Reflection can also involve scattering of light. When light strikes an object that has rough surface, the light scatters everywhere instead of bouncing off at equal angles. = ommmme Let's look at an example of transmission. all ight v=" Gan) ¢ Electromagnetic waves can also change the temperature of an object, Earlier, we saw an example of how microwaves can heat tup food. Other elegtromagnetic waves can be used to ‘change temperature of an object. As mentioned before, infrared radiation isa type of electromagnetic radiation that involves heat. When infrared waves come in contact mith an object, the waves transfer heat to that object.ee Materials are chosen for specific applications due to their special Properties. Materials that conduct heat readily are called thermal Conductors hates tat mit her thermal insulators. cae Materials that allow flow of electrical current are called electrical conductors. Materials that limit the flow of electrical currents are called electrical insulators eee Conduction involves transferring heat between substances that are in direct contact with each other. Good thermal conductors include metals such as aluminum, steel, and copper. of ts a 7 Good thermal insulators include nonmetals such as uw and styrof ae - ‘Gus — ® popular example of conduction can be found in cooking ‘When a pot is on the stove, heat is transferred from the stove to the pot. The pot is made of metal, so itis a good thermal conductor. Most pots have a handle made of rubber so you don’t fee! heat when you pick up a pot from the handle. This is because rubber is a good thermal insulator and doesn't allow heat to be transferred to the handle. —— Materials can expand or contract due to presence or absence of of heat. ‘Thermometers are a great example that invoWe substances expanding and.contracing due to varying temperature. ‘Thermometers conlain @ special liquid, mercury, which is @ good thermal conductor. The mereury molecules expand and get bigger fast gels warmer and get smaller asi cools down, This results in the liquid moving up when t's warm, and deop down when i's cold, ‘The molecules expand as i gets warmer because the volume of the liquid increases 28's heated and slowy decreases as its cooledi Materials are also chosen for their electrical Summary properties. | = encom tn neta ty ean Most metals are good conductors of electrical current. + Fewmey nae aoperstine Meials allow electrons to flow easily from one atom to 1 UMD nnyecrnomapt scm te y another. Therefore, metals are commonly used in todays Lio stews devices such as computers, phones. and TVs 2 aero oo - : fone atom to another, Electrical insulators are used to protect us from dangerous effect through conduct nonmetals such as rubber. ai of electricity flowing 8. Good electrical insulators include nd wood, | Electrical insulators do not let electrons flow easily from | SOs nee aa as Type of radiation era eed irae ar essed aiid poate ere Security marking, disinfecting water, ee a Perea Cee Peed Cooking, remote controls, heat transf sieahed air er Cooking, satellite communications, mobile Pera Bedale ae eer