Environment

 Surroundings in which living and non-living things live.

 It has two components: abiotic and biotic
Abiotic components
1-water (hydrosphere)
2-air (atmosphere)
3-land (lithosphere)
Biotic components
1-plant
2-animal
3-micro-organisms
 For survival and comfort of these organisms there are resources
 Renewable & non-renewable resources
 Renewable resources (soil, air, sunlight, water)
 Non-renewable resources (oil, coal, gas, radioactive materials)

Biosphere (Biggest life supporting zone)

The life supporting zone of earth where lithosphere, hydrosphere and
atmosphere interact to make life possible is called biosphere.
 It is dynamic and stable system.
 Constant interaction between biotic and abiotic components of the
biosphere results in the transfer of food and energy.
 Smallest life sustaining structural and functional unit of biosphere
is Ecosystem.
 There are several ecosystems: large & small
 Terrestrial ecosystem (forests, grassland, deserts, hillsides)
 Aquatic ecosystem (ponds,rivers,sea-coasts, oceans)

Levels of organization
 Individual: refers to individual complete organism
 Specie: individuals that can breed
 Population: group of individuals of given specie, living in a
specific area at a given period of time.
 Community: populations of different species or all the populations
living in a specific area at a given period of time.
 Ecosystem: a biological community of interacting organisms and
their physical environment.
 Biome: a set of ecosystems sharing similar properties with their
abiotic factors adapted to their environment.
 Biosphere: sum of all ecosystems established on earth.
Hydrosphere
 Liquid water component of the earth is called hydrosphere.
 It covers 70% of the earth.
 Hydrosphere like atmosphere is always in motion.

Importance
Important constituents of living organisms.
 60% humans
 80% fish
 80%-90% plants
 It can make possible many chemical reactions in living organisms.
 It helps in food production.

Global distribution of water

 97% saline
 3% fresh water

79% ice caps and glaciers

29% ground water
1% accessible surface fresh water

52% lakes
38% soil moister
8% water vapours
1% water within living organisms
1% rivers

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 WATER CYCLE/ HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE

 Circulation of water between different compartments of

hydrosphere, involving changes in physical states of water
between solid, liquid and gaseous state.
 Hydrological cycle is powered by sun light + Earth’s gravity.

Water Cycle

1-Evaporation 2-Evapotranspiration 3-Condensation

4-Precipitation 5-Surface runoff 6-Infiltarion

7-Groundwaterflow 8-Absorption/ Drinking water

1-Evaporation
It is a conversion of surface water into water vapours. Solar energy
contributes in 90% of atmospheric water.
2-Evapotranspiration
Water evaporated from body of organisms by metabolism and solar
radiations and constitutes 10% of atmospheric water.
3-Condensation
Vapours reach at high altitudes (cold places) and condense to convert
into liquid state from gaseous state.
4-Precipitation
When products of condensation fall under the force of gravity is known
as precipitation.
5-Surface runoff
Water moves down the slope of mountains to the oceans.
6-Infiltration
Infiltration is absorption of surface water to the ground and this
absorption depends on soil & rock permeabaility
7-Ground water flow
Movement of ground water in aquifers (an aquifer is an underground
layer of water-bearing permeable rock and rock fractures from which
ground water can be extracted using water well.
8-Absorption or drinking
In which soil moister or surface water is taken by living organisms.
 Montreal protocol
 It was a treaty signed to reduce the production and consumption
of ozone depleting substances.
 It was agreed on 16th September, 1987 and entered into force on
2nd January 1989.
 It was widely considered as the most successful environmental
protection agreement.
 A mandatory timetable for phase out of ozone depleting
substances was set.
 Timetable is reviewed regularly.
 Phase out dates accelerated with more scientific understanding
and technological advances

Ozone depleting substances

 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
 Hydrochloroflourocarbons (HFCs)
 Halons (Unreactive gaseous compounds of carbon and
halogens, used as fire extinguishers but deplete ozone layer)

Multilateral fund
First financial mechanism was designed to help developing countries to
help them to phase out ozone depleting substances.

Targeted chemicals
96 chemicals were targeted used across 240 industrial sectors of the
world and multilateral fund helped them.

Universal ratification
196 countries ratified it so it is said that Montreal protocol get universal
ratification.

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Kyoto protocol
 It was an agreement linked to United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate (UNFCCC) by setting international binding
emission reduction targets.
 150 years of industrial growth, made developed countries
responsible for high emission of greenhouse gases
 It was adopted in 11 December, 1997 in Kyoto (Japan) and
entered into force on 16 February, 2005.
 It was an international environmental treaty for stabilisation of
greenhouse gases concentration in the atmosphere, at a level that
would prevent dangerous interference with the climate system.
Anthropogenic greenhouse gases
 Carbon dioxide
 Methane
 Nitrogen dioxide
 Perflourocarbons (PFCs)
 Hydroflourocarbons (HFCs)
 Sulphur hexaflouride (SF6)

Overview
 Industrialized nations agreed to cut out their green house gas
(GHG) emission below certain %age of 1990 level
 1990 was set as a baseline for reduction targets
 Total cuts in emission would have to be accomplished from 2005
to 2008.
Ratification status
 84 countries ratified kyoto protocol.
Reduction targets
 European union agreed to cut by 8%
 Japan by 7%
 U.S by 7%
 Canada by 6%
 Russia was agreed to stay at 1990 level and it achieved this target
and reached below 1990 level.
Checks on developing nations
 There were no checks on developing countires as China & India
because per capita emission of (GHG) were lower than developed
nations.
55/55 target
 Kyoto protocol itself will come into effect if 55 countries, together
producing 55% of the world’s 1990 CO2 will ratify it.
Major players
 Japan and EU both heavy industrialized countries of the world took
this problem of global warming seriously and played affective role
in it.
Penalities for non-compliance
 There is no harsh penality for non-compliance and countries can
withdraw easily with one year withdrawl notice.
 In future there would be trade sanctions, financial sanctions and
emission penalities.
Emission reduction criteria
 Reduction criteria depend on many factors. As if forests are
present in any country over large distances then these forests can
easily absorb green house gases and they are known as carbon
sink. Russia and canada have large forests so they demanded
relaxation in their emission targets.
The Kyoto mechanism
 In Kyoto mechanism one can buy, generate and trade emission
credits.
1-International emission trading
International emission trading is about buying credits from other
countries which have exceeded their reduction targets.
2-Joint implementation
Joint implementation is about investing in emission reduction projects in
other industrialized countries.

3-Clean development
Investing in clean energy and other emission reduction projects in
developing countries.
Criticism
1- Exclusion of developing countries.
2- Cost and economic implications.
3- Achieved too little and too late.

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Atmosphere
The envelope of gases surrounding the earth or another planet, It is a mixture of gases which is
held by gravity, is called atmosphere.

Gases in atmosphere
Without our atmosphere, there would be no life on earth. Two gases make up the bulk of the
earth's atmosphere: nitrogen (78%), and oxygen (21%). Argon, carbon dioxide and various
trace gases make up the remainder like 0.93% argon, 0.04% carbon dioxide, and small
amounts of other gases. Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor, on average
around 1% at sea level, and 0.4% over the entire atmosphere

Composition of Atmosphere

Atmosphere of earth broadly speaking consist of five major layers unlisted as

1. Troposphere
2. Stratosphere
3. Mesosphere
 4. Thermosphere
5. Exosphere (Upper atmosphere)

Troposphere

The troposphere is the first layer above the surface and contains half of the Earth's
atmosphere. Weather occurs in this layer. Known as the lower atmosphere almost all weather
occurs in this region. The troposphere begins at the Earth's surface and extends from 4 to 12
miles (6 to 20 km) high.
The height of the troposphere varies from the equator to the poles. At the equator it is around
11-12 miles (18-20 km) high, at 50°Nand 50°S, 5½ miles and at the poles just under four miles
high.
As the density of the gases in this layer decrease with height, the air becomes thinner.
Therefore, the temperature in the troposphere also decreases with height in response. As one
climbs higher, the temperature drops from an average around (17°C) to (-50°C) at the

Tropopause: it is the region which has mixing characteristics of both Stratosphere and
mesosphere, it exist where the one layer end and other starts.
Stratosphere

Many jet aircrafts fly in the stratosphere because it is very stable. Also, the ozone layer absorbs
harmful rays from the Sun. The Stratosphere extends around 31 miles (50 km) down to
anywhere from 4 to 12 miles (6 to 20 km) above the Earth's surface. This layer holds 19 percent
of the atmosphere's gases but very little water vapour. In this region the temperature increases
with height. Heat is produced in the process of the formation of Ozone and this heat is
responsible for temperature increases from an average (-50°C) at Tropopause to a maximum of
about (-15°C) at the top of the stratosphere.
This increase in temperature with height means warmer air is located above cooler air. This
prevents "convection" as there is no upward vertical movement of the gases. As such the
location of the bottom of this layer is readily seen by the 'anvil-shaped' tops of cumulonimbus
clouds.

Stratopause: . The transition boundary which separates the mesosphere from the stratosphere
is called the stratopause
Mesosphere

Meteors or rock fragments burn up in the mesosphere. This layer extends from around 31 miles
(50 km) above the Earth's surface to 53 miles (85 km). The gases, including the oxygen
molecules, continue to become denser as one descends. As such, temperatures increase as
one descends rising to about 5°F (-15°C) near the bottom of this layer.
The gases in the mesosphere are now thick enough to slow down meteors hurtling into the
atmosphere, where they burn up, leaving fiery trails in the night sky. Both the stratosphere (next
layer down) and the mesosphere are considered the middle atmosphere
Thermosphere

The thermosphere is a layer with auroras. It is also where the space shuttle orbits. Between
about (80 km) and (500-1000 km) lies the thermosphere. This layer is known as the upper
atmosphere. While still extremely thin, the gases of the thermosphere become increasingly
denser as one descends toward the earth.
As such, incoming high energy ultraviolet and x-ray radiation from the sun begins to be
absorbed by the molecules in this layer and causes a large temperature increase.
Because of this absorption, the temperature increases with height. From as low as (-120°C) at
the bottom of this layer, temperatures can reach as high as (2,000°C) near the top. However,
despite the high temperature, this layer of the atmosphere would still feel very cold to our skin
due to the very thin atmosphere. The high temperature indicates the amount of the energy
absorbed by the molecules but with so few in this layer, the total number of molecules is not
enough to heat our skin.

Northern Lights
The bright dancing lights of the aurora are actually collisions between electrically charged
particles from the sun that enter the earth's atmosphere. The lights are seen above the
magnetic poles of the northern and southern hemispheres. They are known as 'Aurora borealis'
in the north and 'Aurora australis' in the south.. The lights of the Aurora generally extend from
80 kilometers (50 miles) to as high as 640 kilometers (400 miles) above the earth's surface.

Exosphere (Upper atmosphere)

The atmosphere merges into space in the extremely thin exosphere. This is the upper limit of
our atmosphere. This is the outermost layer of the atmosphere. It extends from the top of the
thermosphere to (10,000 km) above the earth. In this layer, atoms and molecules escape into
space and satellites orbit the earth. At the bottom of the exosphere is the thermopause located
around (600 km) above the earth.
Hydrosphere
Water is everywhere. Approximately 71% of earth is covered in water. Water is found in rivers,
lakes, streams, and oceans. Water is stored underground as groundwater. Some water is
trapped in ice. Water can even be found in our atmosphere in the form of water vapor. All of the
water found on earth is called a hydrosphere it includes oceans, seas, lakes, ponds, rivers and
streams. It is estimated that 97% of earth surface is covered by the water.

The hydrosphere, like the atmosphere, is always in motion. The motion of rivers and streams
can be easily seen, while the motion of the water within lakes and ponds is less obvious. Some
of the motion of the oceans and seas can be easily seen while the large scale motions that
move water great distances such as between the tropics and poles or between continents are
more difficult to see. These types of motions are in the form of currents that move the warm
waters in the tropics toward the poles, and colder water from the polar regions toward the
tropics. These currents exist on the surface of the ocean and at great depths in the ocean (up to
about 4km)

Global Distribution of water

Total water

97% is Saline water 3% fresh water

Fresh water is further divided into permanent ice and glaciers, 30% ground water present under
the earth and 1% water that is absorbed by plants and animals.

Minute amount of water is also stored in the atmosphere as vapours. It also includes lakes,
streams and marshes

.
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30% Ground
water
1% in
69% in glaciers absorption
and polar ice form in animal
and plants

3%
Fresh
water
.

Water Cycle/ Hydrological Cycle

The hydrologic cycle is a conceptual model that describes the storage and movement of water
between the biosphere, atmosphere, lithosphere, and the hydrosphere.

Physical changes involve during Hydrological cycle

 Liquid
 Gaseous/ Vaporization
 Solidification

This process is powered by

A. sun

B. gravity

The water cycle consists of the following steps:

Evaporation:

Sun energy is the main source of evaporation as the kinetic energy of molecule increase due to the heat
energy. The molecules which have higher Kinetic Energy leave the surface. Here, 90% of atmosphere
water comes from evaporation.
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Evapo-transpiration:

It is the 10% of atmosphere water that comes from living organisms, Powered by sun and heat
released from metabolism.

Condensation:

As air rise upward its cool down and the water vapour present in the air starts to condense.
Moist starts to together around dust particle which forms droplets

Precipitation:

When droplets become heavy air falls to hold them than under the action of gravity fall down to
the Earth in the form of fog, rain or hail.

Surface run off:

Includes the variety of ways through which its run off to the oceans and rivers etc.

During flow of water on the ground it is absorbed by plants and meets with water reservoirs from
where the evaporation occurred.

Infiltration:

It is the Movement of water from the surface to ground. It is depending upon the type of soil and
rock permeability, where water combines with the ground water. Ground receives the water
which was absorbed by animal and plants and it was released in the form of transpiration and
sweating.

Absorption or drinking

These are the ways in which ground water is used by living organisms (plants and animals).

Biosphere
The life supporting zone of the earth where atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere meet,
interact and make life possible.

Earth is the only planet which has life, because it has unique combination of these three
spheres.

Abiotic Components
The hydrosphere, atmosphere and lithosphere are the non-living component of environment and
are known as abiotic components. But the unique combination of these three gives birth to life
on earth.
Biotic Components:
It involves living components like animals, plants and microbes. A constant interaction between
the biotic and abiotic makes the life possible and result in the transfer of energy and food. The
biosphere is the biggest biological system its small unit is called the Ecosystem.

Ecosystem
‗An ecosystem is a self-sustaining structural and functional unit of the biosphere.‘

Biosphere consists of several ecosystem they exchange material and energy among
themselves.

Biomes
Biomes are very large ecological areas on the earth‘s surface, with fauna and flora (animals and
plants) adapting to their environment. Biomes are often defined by abiotic factors such as
climate, relief, geology, soils and vegetation. A biome is NOT an ecosystem, although in a way it
can look like a massive ecosystem. If you take a closer look, you will notice that plants or
animals in any of the biomes have special adaptations that make it possible for them to exist in
that area. You may find many units of ecosystems within one biome.

There are five major categories of biomes on earth. In these five, there are many sub-biomes,
under which are many more well defined ecosystems.

The Desert Biome

Deserts makeup about 20% of total land cover on earth and are characterized by little (less than
50cm/yr) or no rainfall. Desert biomes come in four major kinds— each of these having their
unique features but have similarities in their biotic and abiotic makeup. They are the Hot and
Dry Deserts, Semi Arid Deserts, Coastal Deserts and Cold Deserts, and within these are many
deserts located in many places of the world.

Desert biomes have very high temperatures

because of the little vegetative cover, less cloud
cover, low atmospheric moisture and the land‘s
exposure to the sun. Humidity is very low, with a
few events of very little rain in a year. Soil cover is
shallow and rocky; as a result of very little
weathering (breakdown) and supports only a few
plant types. Soils have very little or no organic
matter, and very low in salt content. Plants that
survive here are short shrubs and cacti, which have
the ability to conserve water. Plants are also less
leafy, using their stems for photosynthesis.
Examples of plants are the yuccas and the sotol.
Animals here tend to burrow, or stay in hideaways till dusk to avoid the heat. They are mainly
small carnivores, birds, insects, snakes and lizards, and are adapted to survive with very little
water. Examples of the Hot and Dry Desert biomes include the Sahara of North Africa and the
Chihuahuan of Southern USA and parts of Mexico.

Semiarid Desert biomes include the sagebrush of Utah, Montana and Great Basin. Atacama
Desert of Chile and Peru are examples of Coastal Desert biomes.

The Aquatic Biome

This includes all water bodies on the earth‘s surface. Aquatic biomes are grouped into two,
Freshwater Biomes (lakes and ponds, rivers and streams, wetlands) and Marine Biomes
(oceans, coral reefs and estuaries). These biomes make up about 73% of the total earth‘s
surface. Life forms in these waters depend on the abiotic factors such as sunlight entering the
waters, temperature, pressure, salt content and so on. Water biomes with lots of light tend to
have more flora (plant) diversity and the growth of algae and plankton is more. Small water
bodies that freeze during the cold seasons, or dry out in the dry and hot seasons tend to have
less diversity.
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Examples of animals
found in marine biomes
include star fishes, sharks
and tuna and sea birds.
Examples of animals in
freshwater biomes include
salmon, tilapia worms,
water-surface insects and
crabs. Aquatic biomes are
very important because
apart from being home to
millions of water animals,
they also form the basis of
the water cycle and help with atmospheric moisture, cloud formation and precipitation. One
example of a marine biome is the Great Barrier Reef (a coral reef system) of Australia. An
example of a fresh water biome is the Amazon River in Brazil.
 The Forest Biome
Forests makeup about 30% of the total land cover on
earth and are of incredible value to life on earth. They
are a store of carbon and play a very important role in
climate control. They have a

Watershed role and are a source of many raw

materials that humans depend on. It is believed that
forests have the most biodiversity. A small portion of
the Rainforests, for example, may be home to millions
of insects, birds, animals and plants. There are three
main biomes that make up Forest Biomes. These are
the Tropical Rainforest, Temperate and Boreal Forests (also called the Taiga) Temperatures of
forests biomes (especially the tropical rainforest) are generally high all year though, but a lot
cooler at the surface. This is because there is very little sunlight reaching the forest floors as a
result of the heavy vegetative cover.

Humidity is extremely high with lots of rainfall, exceeding 200cm all year though.

Soils are loose and very airy, with high acidity and decaying organic matter. Plant types of the
Tropical Rainforests are usually huge trees with buttress roots, lots of large green leaves and
shallow roots. Ferns and palms are also common. Plants in the temperate forests are less

dense with a bit of sunlight reaching the floors. Tree types include the willow, basswood and
elm. Plants of the Boreal are mostly conifers with needle-like leaves. There is very little
understory and lots of light at the floors. Trees like fir and spruce are common. Small mammals,
birds, insects and bats are common in the tropical rainforests, as they either can fly up for
sunlight or do not need sunlight. However all the forest biomes have lots of skunks, deer,
squirrels, foxes, birds and reptiles. An example of the Tropical Rainforest is the Amazon. Other
examples are the Scandinavian forest (boreal) and those in the North East of America.

The grassland biome

As the name suggests, these are massive areas dominated by one or a few species of grass,
with a few sparsely distributed trees. There are two main types of grassland biomes: the
Savanna Grasslands and the Temperate Grasslands. One major savanna is located in Africa
and takes up more than a third of the continent's land area. Others can be found in India, South
America and Australia. Temperate grasslands can be found in South Africa, Argentina, and
some plains in Central North America. If the grassland is prevented from developing into a
forest by climatic conditions such as rainfall, it is termed as ‗climatic savannas‘. If their
characteristics are kept by soils, they are termed as ‗edaphic savannas‘.
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Sometimes, large animals such as

elephants can constantly disturb young
trees from taking over grasslands.
Human activities such as farming or
bush fires can also prevent grasslands
from developing into forests. Such
grasslands are termed ‗derived
savannas‘.Soils in savanna are thin-
layered and do not hold water. The soils contain some organic matter from dead grass, which is
the main source of nutrients for plants.

Rainfall is moderate, and not enough to cause major floods. Animals in the savannas include
large mammals such as lions, hyenas, snakes, giraffes and buffaloes with lots of insects.

Temperatures in the temperate grasslands are extreme, with high summer and freezing winter
temperatures. Animals here include hawks, owls, deer, mice, foxes, rabbits and spiders.
Temperate grasslands with short grasses are called ‗steppes‘ and those with tall grasses are

Called ‗prairies‘

The Tundra Biome

This is known to be the coldest of all the terrestrial (land) biomes, with the least bio-diversity
capacity. Tundra got its name from ‗Tunturia‘ a Finnish word that means ‗barren land‘. This
biome has very little rain with freezing temperatures, and covers about a fifth of the earth‘s land
surface. There are two major tundra biomes: The Artic Tundra and the Alpine Tundra. The Artic
tundra is located around the north-pole in the northern hemisphere. This biome has
temperatures of about 2-3 in the summer and about -35 in the winter. Bogs and ponds are
common as a result of constantly frozen surface moisture and melted permafrost.

Plants in the Artic Tundra are short and grow closely to each other. Examples include mosses,
heaths and lichen. They are adapted to perform photosynthesis even in the freezing conditions.
Animals here include herbivores like hares and squirrels. Carnivores include polar bears and
artic foxes. It also has lots of birds, insets and fish like cod and salmon.

The Alpine Tundra is very cold, located on top of high mountains, often with very few trees and
very little vegetative cover. They are icy for a larger part of the year. Animals in this biome
include some birds, mountains goats and marmots. There are also beetles and butterflies.
Various Ecosystems
Land Ecosystem

A land, or terrestrial, ecosystem is all the living organisms and their physical environment on a
particular piece of land. Terrestrial ecosystems may interact and overlap with marine (salt-
water) and limnological (fresh-water) ecosystems. A number of terrestrial biomes can be used to
classify smaller ecosystems.

Aquatic Ecosystem

It includes the ponds, rivers, lakes, sea and oceans. An aquatic ecosystem is a group of
interacting organisms dependent on one another and their water environment for nutrients (e.g.,
nitrogen and phosphorus) and shelter. Familiar examples are ponds, lakes and rivers, but
aquatic ecosystems also include areas such as floodplains and wetlands, which are flooded with
water for all or only parts of the year. Seemingly inhospitable aquatic ecosystems can sustain
life. Thermal springs, for instance, support algae and some insect species at water
temperatures near the boiling point; tiny worms live year-round on the Yukon ice fields; and
some highly polluted waters can support large populations of bacteria.

Even a drop of water is an aquatic ecosystem, since it contains or can support living organisms.

Artificial Ecosystem

Artificial ecosystems are those that are created by human beings and are often referred to as
urban ecosystems by sites offering projects and information on the subject, such as Science.
These include cities, towns, villages and any area that has been wholly constructed by humans.
These large communities, strung together, may collectively be referred to as the human
ecosystem. Beside these Parks, Aquariums and manmade forests are also the part of artificial
ecosystem.

The Forest Ecosystems

They are the ecosystems in which an abundance of flora, or plants, is seen so they have a big
number of organisms which live in relatively small space. Therefore, in forest ecosystems the
density of living organisms is quite high. A small change in this ecosystem could affect the
whole balance, effectively bringing down the whole ecosystem.

Level of Organization in the Ecosystem:

Individualspecies/population community (it includes population of different species in certain
areas).

Hence, biosphere deals with all the activities performed and exchange of energy and matter in
difference ecosystems.
 “The lithosphere”

Lithosphere the combination of two Greek words ―Litho‖ mean "rocky" and ―sphaira‖ means
sphere.

Definition:
―It is the solid outer most layer of Earth, which includes Earth's crust, and the underlying cool,
dense, and rigid upper part of the upper mantle‖.

 It extends from the surface of Earth to a depth of about 70–100 km.

 It is the solid, outermost shell of earth.
 It contains a rich variety of minerals.
 It continually interacts with the atmosphere and hydrosphere.

Types of lithosphere:
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Oceanic lithosphere, or oceanic crust:

 It is a part of Earth's lithosphere that is present in the ocean basins.

 It is generally less than 10 kilometers (km) thick,
 Its mean density is about 3.3 grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm3).

Composition of oceanic crust:

 The oceanic crust is composed mainly of ―mafic‖ rocks.

 The word "mafic" is derived by combining letters from magnesium and ferrum (the Latin
word for iron).
 Mafic minerals are usually dark in color.
 Common mafic minerals include olivine, pyroxene, amphibole, biotite and other micas,
augite and calcium-rich feldspars.
 Common mafic rocks include basalt and gabbro.

Continental lithosphere or continental crust:

 The continental crust is the layer of rocks that form the continents and areas of shallow
seabed close to their shores.
 The thickness of the continental crust ranges from 70 to 100 km.
 Its density is less than 3 g/cm3.
 The oldest continental rock is the Acasta Gneiss, with an estimated age of 4.01 billion
years.
Composition of continental crust:

 The continental crust consists predominantly of felsic rocks.

 The word "felsic" combines letters from the words feldspar and silica.
 Felsic minerals are usually light in color.
 Common felsic minerals include quartz, biotite, muscovite, hornblende, orthoclase, and
sodium-rich plagioclase feldspars.
 The most common felsic rock is granite.

Plate Tectonics
“The lithosphere is broken up into what are called tectonic plates”

The lithosphere is divided into 15 major tectonic plates:

The North American, Caribbean, South American, Scotia, Antarctic, Eurasian, Arabian, African, Indian,
Philippine, Australian, Pacific, Juan de Fuca, Cocos, and Nazca.

Most tectonic activity takes place at the boundaries of these plates, where they may collide, tear apart, or
slide against each other. The movement of tectonic plates is made possible by thermal energy (heat) from
the mantle part of the lithosphere. Thermal energy makes the rocks of the lithosphere more elastic.

Tectonic activity is responsible for some of Earth's most dramatic geologic events: earthquakes,
volcanoes, orogeny (mountain-building), and deep ocean trenches can all be formed by tectonic activity in
the lithosphere.

Tectonic activity can shape the lithosphere itself. Both oceanic and continental lithospheres are thinnest at
rift valleys and mid-ocean ridges, where tectonic plates are shifting apart from one another. At these
zones, the lithosphere is only as thick as the crust.

Types of plate boundaries:

There are three types of plate boundaries exist, characterized by the way the plates move relative to each
other.

A) Transform boundaries.

 When two plates sliding past each other forms a

transform plate boundary.
 Rocks that line the boundary are pulverized as the
plates grind along.
 As the plates alternately jam and jump against each
other, earthquakes rattle through a wide boundary
zone.
  No magma is formed.
 Crust is not created or destroyed.

B) Divergent boundaries

 Divergent boundaries occur where two

plates slide apart from each other.
 Mid-ocean ridges and active zones are
formed.
 Along these boundaries, lava spews from
long fissures and geysers spurt superheated
water.
 Frequent earthquakes strike along the rift.
 Beneath the rift, magma—molten rock—
rises from the mantle.
 It oozes up into the gap and hardens into
solid rock, forming new crust on the torn
edges of the plates.
 Magma from the mantle solidifies into basalt, a dark, dense rock that underlies the ocean floor.
 At divergent boundaries, oceanic crust, made of basalt, is created.

C) Convergent boundaries. FB Page: @CSSExamPoint
 These occur where two plates come towards each other.
 It either forms a continental collision (if the two plates contain
continental crust) or a sub-duction zone (if one plate moves
underneath the other).
 The impact of the two colliding continental plates buckles the edge
of one or both plates up into a rugged mountain range.
 Powerful earthquakes shake a wide area on both sides of the
boundary.
 If one of the colliding plates is topped with oceanic crust, it is
forced down into the mantle where it begins to melt.
 Magma rises into and through the other plate, solidifying into new
crust.
 Magma formed from melting plates solidifies into granite, a light colored, low-density rock that
makes up the continents.
 Thus at convergent boundaries, continental crust, made of granite, is created, and oceanic crust is
destroyed.
 Air Pollution
When air contain gases, dust or odor in harmful amount then it is called polluted air and the
phenomenon through which air polluted is called air pollution

The substance that causes air pollution is called Pollutants.

Pollutants can be of two types.

Primary Pollutants
It include all pollutants which directly get into air from source without any chemical reaction
which can alter their chemical characteristic and consequences

CO (carbon monoxide) from car exhaust

SO2 (Sulphur dioxide) from the burning of coal

Secondary Pollutants:
When Primary pollutants undergo chemical reaction in the atmosphere It produces secondary
pollutants such as

1. Sulphuric acid (H2SO4)from sulphur dioxides

2. Carbonic acid from (H3COOH)carbon monoxide (CO)
3. (O3)Ozone from oxygen(O2)

Sources and Effects of Pollutants

1. Carbon Monoxide
Natural
CO emits from volcanic eruption
Natural gas emission and oxidation of methane in the atmosphere
Human Activities
i. Fuel burning in various types of vehicles. Motor vehicle, railway and aircraft is
the major source of pollution and its contribution is 75%
 ii. Forest fire and combustion of agricultural products also contribute to amount
of carbon monoxide in the atmosphere.
iii. Iron, steel, petroleum and cement industries and brick kilns also emit carbon
monoxide during burning processes
iv. Incomplete combustion and dissociation of CO2 at high temperature also give
carbon monoxide.

Effects

 CO highly poisonous gas and causes suffocation if inhaled

 It binds blood hemoglobin more strongly than oxygen thus excluding oxygen from
normal respiration
 Exposure to co results in headache, fatigue, unconsciousness and eventually death.

2. Nitrogen oxides
The oxide of nitrogen gas; NO and NO2 are represented as NOx
Sources:
Natural: Bacterial activities (nitrogen fixing bacteria) produce nitrogen oxides.
Human Activities: Produced by the burning of coal, oil, natural gas and gasoline,.
The burning of fuel in internal combustion engine also produces NO2
N2 + O2 ------> 2NO
2NO + O2 ------>2NO2

Effects:
i. Residence time of NO and NO2 are respectively 2 and 4 days.
ii. In atmosphere it converted into HNO3 as
NO2 + H2O -------->HNO3
Which form acid rain and produces harmful effect on human, animals and plants
and aquatic life
iii. High exposure can make people cough and feel short of breath.

3. Sulphuric oxides
SO2 and SO3 are represented as SOx

Sources
Natural:
 Volcanoes produce 67%
 Oxidation of sulphur containing gases produced by decomposition of matter
Human Activities:
Combustion of fuel i.e. coal, crude oil and petroleum industry etc.
S+O -------> SO2
2SO2 + O2 -------> 2SO3
 Effects
i. Dangerous for people especially who have asthma.
ii. Pungent odour is very irritating and suffocating
iii. Sulphur dioxide is the major source of acid deposition in the atmosphere.

4. Volatile Organic Compounds

Those organic compounds that easily become vapors or gases. They contain element
along with carbon, nitrogen, Hydrogen.
Sources of Organic Compounds
i. Paints, wood preservatives, emits organic compounds like formaldehyde,
benzene and methyl chloride
ii. Some important organic compound and their sources are discussed below.
Benzene (C6H6)
Natural source is volcanoes and forest fire, it is used in production of synthetic
fiber plastic, resins and scents
Effects:
 It evaporates faster
 Its molecules are heavier than air which causes them to settle in the lower
strata of the atmosphere
 Its acute exposure causes dizziness, vomiting, sleeping, rapid heart beat
 Its high exposures may cause death

Formaldehyde
Formaldehyde evaporates from Paints, wall board, and ceiling tiles emit it slowly
Effects:
It causes person mucus membrane to irritated in turn one feels uncomfortable.
Methyl Chloride:
It is found in adhesive removers and aerosol spray
Effects:
Toxic can cause death, red eyes, tears, and Tongue throat and stomach
problems

5. Particulate Matter
It is complex mixture of liquid drops and solid particles
Particle pollution includes metal, acids, organic chemical, dust particles and soil.
Coarse Material
(2.5 < cm < 10 um)
These materials are formed from rod dust, sea, spray and during construction
Fine Particle:
Particle (diameter < 2.5um)
 It is formed when fuel is burnt in automobiles.
Effects:
Small particles less than 10um in diameter pose the greatest problem
As it penetrate deep into lungs and get into your blood steam
 Difficulty in breathing
 Irregular heartbeat
 Aggravated asthma
 Irritation of air ways

6. Tropospheric Ozone
Ozone is formed in both stratosphere and troposphere. Tropospheric ozone should not
be mixed with stratospheric ozone
Ozone to troposphere ------ harmful
Ozone in stratosphere ------ protect from harmful radiations i.e. UV radiations
Sources:
Burning of coal, gasoline, fossil fuel produce in atmosphere nitrogen oxides
Home and industries emits volatile organic compound (VOC‘s)
(Sunlight)
Nitrogen oxides + VOC’s Ozone

Effects:
As ozone is the derivative of nitrogen oxides and organic compounds so its effect
depends on them
 Asthma attack can become more frequent
 breathing difficulty
 cough
 sore throat
 ozone even hurts blood cells

7. Dioxin
Dioxin is a general form that describes a group of hundred of chemicals that are highly
persisted in the environment
The most dangerous compound of this class is 2, 3, 5 8 – Tetrachlodizibenzo or TCDD
Sources
 Formed y burning chlorine based substances with hydrocarbon
 Chemical and pesticide manufacturing give dioxin as by product
 Paper mills emit dioxin which use chlorine bleaching in their processes

Effects
 Dioxins are Carcinogens (which cause cancer) according to the report of (IARC)
International Agency Research of Cancer
 Small quantity if inhaled causes problem in reproductive system
  Dioxin is well known for its ability to damage immune system
 Causes birth defects,
 Inability to maintain pregnancy
 Decreases fertility and sperm count

Regional issues
Acid Rain

Definition: “The rainfall that has a pH level of less than 5.6”.

How does it form?

Acid rain is formed when oxides of nitrogen and sulfite combine with moisture in the atmosphere to make
nitric and sulfuric acids. These acids can be carried away far from its origin. Now lets see what are the
causes, effects, and solutions to acid rain.

Causes:
The two primary sources of acid rain are sulfur dioxide (SO2), and oxides of nitrogen (NOx).

A) Sulfur dioxide:
 It is a colourless, prudent gas released as a by-product of combusted fossil fuels containing
sulfur.
 It is also be emitted into the atmosphere by natural disasters or means. This ten percent of all
sulfur dioxide emission comes from volcanoes, sea spray, plankton, and rotting vegetation.
 Overall, 69.4 percent of sulfur dioxide is produced by industrial combustion. Only 3.7 percent is
caused by transportation
 Sulfur dioxide oxidation is most common in clouds and especially in heavily polluted air where
compounds such as ammonia and ozone are in abundance. These catalysts help convert more
sulfur dioxide into sulfuric acid.

SO2 (g)+O2(g) -> SO3(g)

SO3(g)+H2O(l) -> H2SO4(aq).

B) Oxides of Nitrogen
 Oxides of nitrogen is a term used to describe any compound of nitrogen with any amount of
 oxygen atoms, Nitrogen monoxide and nitrogen dioxide.
 These gases are by-products of firing processes of extreme high temperatures (automobiles,
utility plants),
 In chemical industries (fertilizer production).
 Natural processes such as bacterial action in soil, forest fires, volcanic action, and lightning make
up five percent of nitrogen oxide emission.
 Transportation makes up 43 percent, and 32 percent belongs to industrial combustion.

Like sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides rise into the atmosphere and are oxidized in clouds to form nitric
or nitrous acid. These reactions are catalyzed in heavily polluted clouds where traces of iron, manganese,
ammonia, and hydrogen peroxide are present. Nitrogen oxides rise into the atmosphere mainly from
automobile exhaust. In the atmosphere it reacts with water to form nitric or nitrous acid.

NO2(g) + H2O(l) -> HNO3(aq)+HNO2(aq) [gas phase]

Effects of Acid Rain:

 High pH levels in the soil help accelerate soil weathering and remove nutrients.
 It also makes some toxic elements, for example aluminum, more soluble (High aluminum
concentrations in soil can prevent the use of nutrients by plants).
 When acid rain falls, dissolves the nutrients and helpful minerals from the soil.
 When acid rain is frequent, leaves tend to lose their protective waxy coating (plant diseases).
 Acid rain also effect organisms in aquatic biomes. For example, frogs may tolerate relatively high
levels of acidity, while snails are more sensitive to pH changes.
 Sulfuric acid in polluted precipitation interferes with the fish's proficiency to take in oxygen, salt,
and nutrients.
 Problems in reproduction: the eggs are too brittle or weak.
 Marble, limestone, and sandstone can easily be dissolved by acid rain.
 Metals, paints, textiles, and ceramic can effortlessly be corroded.
 Acid rain can downgrade leather and rubber.
 Most importantly, acid rain can affect health of a human being.
 These foods that are consumed could cause nerve damage to children or severe brain damage or
death.
 One of the serious side effects of acid rain on human is respiratory problems.
 Polluted rainfall is especially harmful to those who suffer from asthma or those who have a hard
time breathing.
 But even healthy people can have their lungs damaged by acid air pollutants.
Solutions:
What humans can do, as citizens, to reduce sulfur and nitrogen dioxide emission is to reduce the use of
fossil fuels. Car pools, public transportation, or walking can reduce tons of nitrogen oxide emissions.
Using less energy benefits the environment because the energy used comes from fossil fuels which can
lead to acid rain. For example, turning off lights not being used, and reduce air conditioning and heat
usage. Replacing old appliances and electronics with newer energy efficient products is also an excellent
idea. Sulfur dioxide emission can be reduced by adding scrubbers to utility plants. An alternative power
source can also be used in power plants to reduce emissions. These alternatives are: geothermal energy,
solar power energy, wind energy, and water energy.

Ozone Depletion
The ozone layer forms a thick layer in stratosphere, encircling the earth that has large amount
of ozone in it. It protects our planet i.e. Earth from the harmful radiations that comes from the
sun. The ozone layer was discovered in 1913 by the French physicists Charles Fabry and Henri
Buisson. The ozone layer has the capability to absorb almost 97-99% of the harmful ultraviolet
radiations that sun emit and which can produce
long term devastating effects on humans beings
as well as plants and animals.
The ozone layer is a belt of naturally occurring
ozone gas that sits 9.3 to 18.6 miles (15 to 30
kilometers) above Earth and serves as a shield
from the harmful ultraviolet B radiation emitted
by the sun.
Ozone is a highly reactive molecule that contains
three oxygen atoms. It is constantly being
formed and broken down in the high
atmosphere, 6.2 to 31 miles (10 to 50
kilometers) above Earth, in the region called the
stratosphere levels.
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Natural causes of depletion of ozone layer: Ozone layer has been found to be affected

by certain natural phenomena such as Sun-spots and stratospheric winds. But this has been

found to cause not more than 1-2% depletion of the ozone layer and the effects are also

thought to be only temporary. It is also believed that the major volcanic eruptions (mainly El

Chichon in 1983 and and Mt. Pinatubo in 1991) has also contributed towards ozone depletion.

Man-made causes of depletion of ozone layer

The Main Ozone-Depleting Substances (ODS)

Mechanism involved in ozone- depletion due to chlorofluorocarbons.

 FB Page: @CSSExamPoint

 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
 The most widely used ODS, accounting for over 80% of total stratospheric ozone
depletion.
 Used as coolants in refrigerators, freezers and air conditioners in buildings and
cars manufactured before 1995.
 Found in industrial solvents, dry-cleaning agents and hospital sterilants.
 Also used in foam products — such as soft-foam padding (e.g. cushions and
mattresses) and rigid foam (e.g. home insulation).
 Halons
Used in some fire extinguishers, in cases where materials and equipment would
be destroyed by water or other fire extinguisher chemicals. In B.C., halons cause
greater damage to the ozone layer than do CFCs from automobile air conditioners.
 Methyl Chloroform
Used mainly in industry — for vapour degreasing, some aerosols, cold cleaning,
adhesives and chemical processing.
 Carbon Tetrachloride
It is used in solvents and some fire extinguishers.
 Hydro fluorocarbons (HCFCs)
 HCFCs have become major, “transitional” substitutes for CFCs. They are much less
harmful to stratospheric ozone than CFCs are. But HCFCs they still cause some
ozone destruction and are potent greenhouse gases.

The Impacts of Ozone Depletion

 More skin cancers, sunburns and premature aging of the skin.
 More cataracts, blindness and other eye diseases: UV radiation can damage several parts
of the eye, including the lens, cornea, retina and conjunctiva.
 Loss of biodiversity in our oceans, rivers and lakes could reduce fish yields for
commercial and sport fisheries.
 Wood, plastic, rubber, fabrics and many construction materials are degraded by UV
radiation.
 Only a few commercially important trees have been tested for UV (UV-B) sensitivity, but
early results suggest that plant growth, especially in seedlings, is harmed by more
intense UV radiation.
 Weakening of the human immune system. Early findings suggest that too much UV
radiation can suppress the human immune system, which may play a role in the
development of skin cancer.
Measures to control ozone depletion
194 nations have signed an international agreement to end the production
of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), Halons and other ozone-depleting substances (ODS). The
agreement is called the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (1987).
The protocol has been amended several times, to speed up ODS phase out dates and to include
more types of ODS. However, this agreement has achieved many successes in face of criticism
like Black trading of ODS material and misallocation of funds, which were promised to be
disbursed in developing countries. This agreement not only Phased out several tones of ODS
material but also controlled the Ozone depletion as Antarctic region hole is slowly recovering
and scientist claimed to maintain the level of ozone layer as it was before pre-industrialization
era.
 International Agreements on Air Pollution Control
Montreal Protocol
Purpose

Basically the arrangement aims to control substance that depletes the ozone layer.
In the 20th century, it was the prime concern to control Ozone depletion to protect
environment from hazardous radiation I.e. UV radiations.

Initiation of the Agreement

First time Frank Sherwood Rowland and Mario Molina identified that ozone layer is
depleting due to the harmful effects of the gases. They awarded noble prize to
identify CFCs as dangerous to ozone layer as it breakdown the Ozone molecules it
release Cl atom The single atom of ozone can destroy more than 90,000 Ozone
atoms.

In the Vienna convention for protection of the ozone layer depletion to protect human beings
and environment a framework was established under which the Montreal protocol was
negotiated in 1985. The Montreal protocol focused 96 such elements that have been used
around 240 industrial sectors

Agreed on ………………………………………16 Sep, 1987

Come into force………………………………….1 Jan, 1989

Total nations who have ratified 197, last member to ratify southern Sudan 23 July 2015

Achievement of Montreal Protocol

Kofi Annan, the former secretary of United Nations said

“Perhaps the single most successful international agreement to date has been the Montreal
protocol. “

Universal Nature of the Protocol

The agreement was of the Universal nature as USA ratified it not only in 1988 but also leading
it and took various domestic steps to control the emission of CFCs and halon.

Establishment of multilateral Fund

A huge multilateral fund of $3 billon established to assist the countries financially and technically
to make transition from ODS to NON ODS material use, especially, for developing countries

The Montreal scientist’s assessment panel

As industrialization era started, the emission of CFS,s rapidly harming the ozone layer. The
Montreal protocol has successfully controlled the ODS materials. Due to effective control on
ODS material the hole in ozone layer has started to recover slowly. The said panel estimates
that the ozone level may come to the pre industry level till 2060-2075

World Bank Role

World Bank not only verbally appreciated the Montreal Protocol but also took practically steps
for the implementation of the Montreal protocol.

Financing of the non HCFC equipment to control the emission of HCFC about 1 billion
assistance, Awareness and informing people about the climate impact on human beings and
economically losses

Depletion of the ODS material

Since 1991, this has done depletion of more than 500,000 ozone depletion substance. Huge
amount of depletion secure the recovering process of the Ozone layer

Number of revisions in Montreal Protocol

Montreal protocols according to circumstances and commitments of the countries has gone
through 8 revisions

Recovering of Antarctic hole

As a result of this agreement the ozone hole in the Antarctic region is slowly recovering

Effective compliance policy

‗Carrot and stitch combination compliance measures‘

Regardless of the benefits to humanity and planet, sometime states hesitates to become
signatory and to ratify such agreements. There was an effective threat of trade sanctions
against the countries that would not join this settlement. Also an offer of dollars from multilateral
funds for the developing countries to make transition

Criticism

Developed countries were provided funds and technical assistance for transition and
developing countries were not provided funds as promised in the protocol

Those countries that were not provided with funds and technical assistance especially
Developing countries yet. They were allowed to emit CFCs until the settlement. Resultantly,
stockpiles in the developing countries rose.

Black Trading
The imbalanced treatment has lead to the initiation of black trading as some countries were
restricted to emit HCFC and some were allowed in the Montreal protocol. The non restricted
countries started the smuggling of HGFC with developed countries in which emission of HCFC
was banned

Koyto Protocol
Purpose

Kyoto protocol was purposed to control the emission of green house gases that lead to global
warming as increase in global temperature can throw world in miserable conditions. Kyoto
protocol was adopted in Kyoto (industrial city), JapanIt is an international agreement linked to
the UN specialized agency, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
UNFCCS which set its parties to reduce Greenhouse gases

 Negotiated on December 11 1997

 Entered into force on February 16 2005

Reason of long time span of come into force

The term of an agreement that before going to enforcement 55 nations are required to ratify and
whose emission accumulatively should be 55% of the world global emission, famously it is also
known as 55/55 condition.

Salient Features of Kyoto Protocol

 It deals with six main anthropogenic gases rather than single carbon
I. CO2 which account about 80% of Global warming
II. Methane CH4
III. Nitrous Oxide N20
IV. Perfluorocarbon
V. Hydrofluorocarbon
VI. Sulphur hexafluoride
 If participant countries continue with emissions then they are required to get engaged in
emission trading i.e. buying Credit from other countries
 The goal of Kyoto was to see participant collectively reducing emission of greenhouse
gases y 5.2% below the emission level of 1990 by 2012
 Individual countries were assigned lower and higher targets, some allowed to increase,
US has to decrease by 7%, Australia allowed to increase by 8%
 First achievement of target was ranging from 2008-2012, and second era from 2012-
2020, which is also known as Doha agreement.
 It aims to reduce change in climate by cutting average increase in temperature as 1.8
billion people and $158 trillion on risk due to climate change.
  In second period as ____ agreement 37 industrialized nations and European Community
committed to reduce 18% of Green House Gases as before the level of1990.
 It was signed by 81 countries and European ___ as of May 2014, 191 ratifying states
and Canada denounced it.

Failures of Kyoto Protocol

Non Universal Nature

The US signed the protocol but did not ratify it under the presidency of Clinton. As they thought
indifference dealing of protocol with developing countries seriously damages the UN economy
so it had become non universal nature. The US was count 36% responsible of the Green House
Gases

Withdrawal of Canada

As she has to reduce emission by 6% as earlier than 1990 but she had 17% more in 2009 so
Canada announce d her withdrawal.

Developing and Developed Countries controversy

India and China have ratified the charter of the protocol but not tending to lower their share as
they are developing nations and they have no part in global warming during industrialization.
They think that they had no role in the emission of global gases which pertaining to global
warming. As industrialization process started from French and Britain so they are responsible
for global warming and climate change.

Ineffective Compliance Policy

Kyoto protocol has no effective policy of compliance like Montreal protocol. It is on the good will
of the country and for the welfare of communities that countries compliance with them. Sates
always see for their domestic interest first than anything else. Therefore, where Montreal
protocol has the stories of success on the contrary Kyoto Protocol has tales of failure.

Water Pollution
Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies, when pollutants are directly or indirectly
discharged into water bodies without adequate treatment to remove harmful compounds.

There are several pollutants which cause water pollution after mixing directly or indirectly into
water bodies, their sources and effects depends on the physical and chemicals characteristic of
pollutants. According to syllabus of FPSC following pollutants are given here.

1. Synthetic Organic Compounds (SOC‘s)

2. Oxygen Demanding water
3. Thermal Pollution
4. Infectious Agents
 5. Plants Nutrients
6. Sediments
7. Radioactivity
8. Heavy metals and acids
1. Synthetic Organic Compounds (SOC’s)
Synthetic organic compound represent the organic compounds which are man-made.
Pesticides, detergents, chemical dyes and other industrial chemicals and their waste
constitute synthetic organic compounds. When present in water, these chemicals can
act as toxic poisons for plants, animals and humans. Such chemicals enter the
hydrosphere either by usage, by accidental or intentional disposal of wastes from
manufacturing units and by losses during their transport

Sources

 SOCs are used as pesticides

 Fuel additives and as an ingredients for other organic compounds
 SOCs examples are Dioxins, and Polychlorinated Biphenyl

Effects

 SOC‘s are generally toxic

 Both long term and acute exposure are chronic
 Many SCO‘s are known as carcinogens

2. Oxygen Demanding Water

A high standard of living involves a high demand for water and, at the same time, causes
much greater pollution of this essential element for life. The resultant interference in the
natural cycle can often overwhelm natural processes of recovery, so that, in addition to
products arising from the decomposition of natural substances (e.g., proteins, greases,
carbohydrates) there is a build-up of anthropogenous additives such as pesticides,
effluents and garbage, which contaminate drinking water supplies with their toxic or
hormonal effects. They may also consume such large quantities of oxygen that water
resources become fouled.

Sources

 Food waste dead plants and animal tissues that consume water during
degradation thus depleting oxygen required for survival of fish other
marine animals and plants
 For degradation of organic matter oxygen is also deplete oxygen level in
the water

Effects

 Organisms which require oxygen for their high metabolism rates

especially fast moving fishes are the hardest hit.
  Freely moving organisms will move out of the zones
 But sessile life including filter feeders and even high plants with little
means for transport will likely lose out forming lifeless zone
3. Thermal Pollution

The sudden increase or decrease on temperature of a natural water body by human

Activities

Sources

 Water as cooling agent in manufacturing and industrial plants

 Soil erosion consistent soil erosion causes water bodies for raise
making them exposed to light
 Deforestation of plants and trees prevent sun light falling direction to
lakes, ponds and rivers.
 Nuclear activates in the basin of rivers and oceans

Effects

 Decreases in dissolve oxygen level

 Increase in Toxins
 Change in environment may cause to some species to shift their
origin
 A sudden thermal shock can result in mass killing of fish, insects,
plants or amphibians.
 A significant holt in the reproduction of marine wildlife
4. Infectious Agents

Bacteria

Feccal pollution of drinking water may introduce a

variety of intestinal bacteria i.e. salmonella,
shigella, vibrio, etc.

Effects

These organisms may cause diseases which vary

severely from mild gastro enteritis to severe and
fatal dysentery, cholera, typhoid.

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Sources

Viruses enter the water by way of sewerage discharge. Adenovirus, Enterovirus,

Hepatitis A and retro virus

Effects
  Respiratory diseases
 Gastroenteritis
 fever and vomiting

Protozoa

The Protozoa are a diverse group of unicellular eukaryotic organisms. Intestinal protozoa are
common throughout the world, particularly in areas where food and water sources are subject to
contamination from animal and human waste

Sources

These creatures live in soil, water, and in the intestines of humans and other mammals and
contaminate water when it comes into contact with sewage and animal waste.

Effects

 Protozoa infect the blood or tissues of their hosts

 It can cause sleeping sickness
 Severe diarrhea
5. Plants Nutrients

Nutrients are essential for the growth of animals and plants. They accelerate the growth
of the plants. The primary nutrients which plants need for proper growth are N,P,K.Nutrients
accelerate the growth N P K are fundamental nutrients

When these nutrients flow to water resources it causes serious problems for aquatic life. Water
becomes polluted

Sources

 Flow from fertilizers of plants to water

 Weathering of rocks and soil
 They can also come from oceans due to mixing of currents
 Run off from land and urban area during rain
 groundwater contamination

Effects

o Excessive amount of nutrients accelerate the algal growth

o Which block light for plants,
o When algae and sea grasses grow, they use oxygen so oxygen level runs out,
which is dangerous to aquatic life
6. Sediments

Sediments is a naturally occurring material that is broken down by the processes of

weathering and erosion and it is subsequently transported by the action of wind, water or
ice. When these sediments reach to water resources cause water pollution

Sources

Top soil loss and land degradation by soil erosion and flows to water bodies,

To silt and clay fraction is a top carrier of absorbed chemical, especially phosphorous
and most metals which are transported by sediments into aquatic life.

Effects

 Water bed rises due to deposition of sediments,

 It can effect navigation channels
 Can cause flooding
 Penetration of sunlight can harm aquatic life

7. Radioactivity

It is the deposition of radioactive substances on surface or within water

In facts, radioactive materials all time emit radiation which is harmful for health

Sources

 Radioactive material is typically the result of a spill during production

 Distribution of radioactive material by exposure
  Uranium and thorium radioactive material are found in rocks and soil weathering and
erosion take it into water
 Mining and refining of uranium is also the cause of nuclear marine waste
 Waste of nuclear fuel is also used in many industries like in medical etc
 Medical use of radio isotopes.

Effects

 Marie Curie, the Noble laureates for discovery of radioactive material in 1900‘s became
the victim of radioactive radiations .
 It can cause cancer
 Nuclear radioactivity exposure can change in DNA structure that ensure cell repair.
 The losing of hair quickly and in clumps occurs with radiation exposure at 200 rems (unit
of energy absorbed by body cells)or higher.
 Intense exposure to radioactive material at 1,000 to 5,000 rems would do immediate
damage to small blood vessels and probably cause heart failure and death directly.
8. Heavy Metals and Acids

Those Metals which have high atomic mass and cause highly toxic effect on living beings like
Cadmium, Nickel, Lead,

Sources

 It exits in geological structure heavy rain can change geological structure.

 Mineral processing operation also cause
 Mercury emission from coal powered fixed general.

Effects

 All heavy metals can be toxic but three are of primary concern, lead, mercury and
cadmium
 Can damage tissues
 Regeneration mechanism of tissues is damaged due to damage of DNA
 Cd may impair lung function and increase the risk of lung cancer. All these effects have
been described in populations with relatively high expos
 Cd is primarily toxic to the kidney, especially to the proximal tubular cells, the main site
of accumulation
 In 2012, Egypt‘s Ministry of Agriculture administered liver function tests to 25 nickel-
plating workers. Results showed they overwhelmingly suffered from compromised liver
function
 Additionally, nickel has been identified as a toxin that severely damages reproductive
health and can lead to infertility, miscarriage, birth defects, and nervous system defects
 Elemental mercury is also poisonous to the nervous system. Humans are mainly
exposed by inhaling vapors. These are absorbed into the body via the lungs and move
 easily from the bloodstream into the brain. However, when elemental mercury is
ingested, little is absorbed into the body.
 Many studies show that high exposure to mercury induces changes in the central
nervous system, potentially resulting in irritability, fatigue, behavioral changes, tremors,
headaches, hearing and cognitive loss, dysarthria, incoordination, hallucinations, and
death

Land Pollution: Solid Waste Management

Land pollution is the deposition of solid or liquid waste material on land or underground in such
a manner that can contaminate the soil and ground water and cause unsightly conditions and
nuisance.

Land pollution may be of different kind on the basis of material which causing pollution. It ranges
from hazardous material to non hazardous material.

Classification of Land Pollution Materials

Municipal Solid waste material (MSW) FB Page: @CSSExamPoint
This types of solid waste is usually non-hazardous material, it include the following materials

 Rubbish (dry material such as paper, glass, textiles),

 Trash from home (including meat and vegetable),
 Pieces of furniture.
 Plastic and metals

Construction and Demolition Waste (C&D)

It includes material which is thrown as waste during construction and demolition

 It I may includes
 Wood and
 Metal objects,
 Concrete,
 Asphalt (black/ brown viscous liquid, petroleum like material that has consistency to
become solid. Used to make roads)

And other materials that are wasted during this activity may include glass and plastic.

Hazardous Waste

It includes harmful substances generated as liquid primarily but also includes solids

 Waste of chemical industries

 Petroleum refineries
  Paper mills
 Machine shops
 Dry cleaners

Solid Waste Management:

The technique to dispose solid refusal off industries and home in such a way that minimize the
risk of adverse impact on human being, plants and aquatic life.

Effect of dumping waste in sea and river waters covers more than 70% of earth‘s surface and
food and minerals. The dumping of home waste, industrial waste and radioactive material has
damaged the marine environment, and causes health hazards to the human beings. Carefully
applying following techniques, risks can be minimized.

1. Landfill:

The municipal solid waste is mainly disposed of by dumping off in a landfill

The landfill is digging a large hole in the ground after dumping off the waste material the hole
should be enveloped. However, it is easy method to dump off the waste material as it do not
require burning at high temperature or ant treatment. But, there should be a careful selection of
land for damping off the solid waste. It is mostly use for non hazardous material i.e. for
Municipal Solid Waste

Selecting area/site carefully by geological survey so that not percolation occur to contaminate
the ground water

Land Selection Criteria

 Location of the ground

 Water table
 Nature of the solid waste
 Soil and rock location
 3 meter minimum soil layer
Location of Landfill should confirmable to the following measurement
I. It should be 500 m away from the residential areas
II. Landfill site should be 20 m away from the commercial areas
III. It should not be closer than 500 m from the sensitive installations
IV. Roads: highways and motorways should be at least 450 m away from the landfill site

Advantages of carefully dumping off

Production of methane, other gases are also produced like ammonia, nitrogen etc

2. Incineration of the Solid Waste Management:

Waste treatment process in which solid waste is burned at high temperature varying at 900-
10000C degree Celsius
The Advantages of this method

 Reduced the bulk volume

 Combustible items like plastic and wood burn to produce high temperature
 Small volume is easy to dump off
 The heat of combustion may be used to run turbine to produce electricity
3. Treatment of Industrial Waste

This method is basically use for the treatment of industrial waste as it contain hazardous
compound and acid forming component which can disrupt environment. If hazardous material,
the waste of chemical, pesticides and fertilizer industries and leather industries are given
adequate treatment to minimize the harmful effects on water so that human beings, animal
plants and aquatic life can be protected.

Incineration of Industrial & Hazardous Waste

A general process of high temperature incineration system consists of a rotatory bin which
accepts all types of waste including liquid, solid, or sludge.

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In the image above the following process takes place:

Chamber A

I. In the rotatory kiln A, waste material is thrown. The temperature of the Kiln (A) is ranging
between 650-1100 degree Celsius; it accepts all types of material including liquid, solid.
It burns all combustible materials.
II. The burnt waste then travels to the pipe (B). The burnt material is expelled out of the
machine through the pipe (C).

Chamber B

III. The solid waste material which still hasn‘t been burnt then goes to another kiln (D),
which isn‘t rotatory but has a temperature of 950-1300 degree Celsius.
IV. Organic molecules are completely destroyed in (D).

Chamber C

V. The liquid waste then is expelled to a kiln (F) through (E), which eliminates the remaining
surviving particles and acid forming components.
VI. Gases are expelled out into the air through the pipe (G).

The volume is reduced, but lead mercury and oxides of N and S can produce acids causing acid
rain. Treatment has reduced the harmful effects

4. Recycling of Waste

Some materials cannot be discarded after their first use, like paper plastic, glass and aluminum,
as it save sources and energy and inexpensive to the consumers.

Recycling should be done because it reduce pollutants and the organic compounds which are
persistent in the environment like polyethene bags and plastic can be put again in use.

News paper can be recycled for five times, in news paper recycling has to adjust the size of the
paper crystals. Plastic preprocessing require following steps unlisted as

 Reprocessing
 Depolymerization
 Transformation

Drinking Water Quality and Standards

Water quality refers to the chemical, physical, biological radiological characteristic of water

Basically, it is a measure of condition of water relative to requirement of one or more biotic

species or to human need or purpose.

Terms used in Measuring Quality of Water

1. Dissolved oxygen (DO)

2. Bio Chemical oxygen demand (BOD)
3. Chemically Oxygen Demand (COD)

Dissolved Oxygen

a. Dissolve oxygen, most oxidizing agent, in water

b. In the concentration range of 4pm-8pm
c. The organic matters will be oxidized with O2
d. It will indicate quality of water
e. The dissolve oxygen value less than 4pm will indicate that water is polluted
f. As organic matter was present in the water, they have consumed the oxygen,
resultantly, the level of oxygen has decreased

Bio Chemical oxygen demand

It is another technique to check the quality of water, in this technique the difference is that it is
Bio chemical means it involve life like organism which use as catalyst to speed the reaction.

The following criteria should be adopted for the implementation of this technique to check the
quality of water.

a. Capacity of organic matter to consume oxygen in 5 days

b. Dissolved oxygen due to oxidation of organic matter
c. The oxidation reaction catalyzed by microorganism involved in natural water
d. By measuring O2 amount of beginning and end of the day
e. Sample should be maintained in dark place at 20 degree Celsius- 25 degree Celsius

Chemical Oxygen Demand

Cr2O7-2 is a powerful oxidizing agent

Organic matter will be oxidized and remaining dichromate ion is separated tetra metrically

Value of COD ∞ presence of organic matter

COD ∞water pollution

Drinking Water Quality Standards

It is described as the quality parameters set for drinking water

It may include

I. Colour
II. haziness caused by large number of individual particles
III. pH 6.5-8.5
IV. Organoleptic parameter---- taste and odour
V. Turbidity may be due to ecosystem at basin of fresh reserves i.e. phytoplankton

Australian European and US standards are different from each other

WHO Guide line

WHO has given specific guideline to regulate the quality standard of water
i.e. there are less and more 40 ingredients which have been referred by WHO for the
good quality of water. Some of them for example are unlisted here.
Arsenic ----- 10µg/l
Garium------10µg/l
(organix species)
Benzene ----10 µg/l
CCl4-------4µg/l
Etc………………..

Pakistan has the water standard like most developing countries

 The existing drinking water treatment infrastructure is not adequate to comply with WHO
guidelines. The Arsenic concentration in South Punjab and in some parts of Sindh have
been found high then Revised WHO Guidelines. It will take some time to control Arsenic
through treatment process. Lead concentration in the proposed standards is higher than
WHO Guidelines. As the piping system for supply of drinking water in urban centres are
generally old and will take significant resources and time to get them replaced. In the
recent past, Lead was completely phased out from petroleum products to cut down Lead
entering into environment. These steps will enable to achieve WHO guidelines for
Arsenic, Lead, Cadmium and Zinc. However, for bottled water, WHO limits for Arsenic,
Lead, Cadmium and Zinc will be applicable and PSQCA Standards for all the remaining
parameters.

Population Planning
Human population planning

‗It is the practice of intentionally managing the rate of growth or decline of a human
population.‘

Ever expanding population adversely impacts on the quality of human lives i.e. it
destroys economy which result into poverty, environmental degradation and it can prove
fatal to the people survival on the earth. It can be more lethal if resources are not
developed in proportion to ever expanding population.

Population Changing Trends

Throughout history the rate of growth of world population averaged only slightly above
replacement levels. The recent increase in the growth rate began mainly as a result of the
decline in mortality during the past few centuries, a decline that has accelerated significantly
during recent decades. The inertia of social structures and the insufficiency of economic
progress, especially, when these exist in the absence of profound socio-cultural changes, partly
explain why in the majority of developing countries the decline in mortality has not been
accompanied by a parallel decline in fertility. Since about 1950, the world population growth rate
has risen to 2 per cent a year. If sustained, this will result in a doubling of the world‘s population
every 35 years. However, national rates of natural growth range widely, from a negative rate to
well over 3 per cent a year. Although acceleration in the rate of growth of the world's population
is mainly the result of very large declines in the mortality of developing countries, those declines
have been unevenly distributed. Thus, at present, average expectation of life eat birth is 63
years in Latin America, 57 years in Asia and only a Little over 46 years in Africa, compared with
more than 71 years in the developed regions. Furthermore, although on average less than

MATHUSIAN THEORY OF POPULATION

MATHUSIAN THEORY OF POPULATION Thomas Robert Malthus -According to his ―Essay on
the Principle of Population‖, because of the strong attraction between the two sexes, the
population could multiply rapidly and, resulted to increase of reproduction faster than food
supply. -Also, as the population grows bigger, food production would be insufficient and most
likely, famine and overcrowding would cause widespread suffering and disease and an increase
in death rate, which is nature‘s check on over population. -He suggested that an alternative is to
postpone married until a much later age so that birth rate may be decreased.
MATHUSIAN THEORY OF POPULATION
Thomas purposed two solutions for population control
1. Positive checks
Positive check to overpopulation by increasing the death rate; which include
I. War
II. Famine
III. Pestilence
IV. Disease
2. Preventive checks
It is to prevent overpopulation by limiting the number of
I. Abortion,
II. Infanticide
III. Sexual abstinence
IV. Delayed marriage
V. Contraceptive use
Processes in Population Change
Fertility - It is the ability to produce offspring. It indicates the rate at which babies are born.
According to the demographers, women have a potential for bearing age at age of 15 to 50. The
fertility rate of a community was affected by some factors such as weather, environment,
religion and societal norms about children and marriage. Life expectancy - The average number
of year‘s persons is expected to live from time of birth. It is hard to determine this accurately
because local statistics on birth and death rates are incomplete and inadequate because some
data are not registered.
Mortality
Mortality is the rate of death in population. A population with many old people will naturally have
a higher death rate than a comparatively young population. It is also assumed that because
women live longer than men, a population with many women will have lower death rate.
Migration
It is the movement of people for permanent residency to new locality. It includes immigration,
movement into an area, while emigration is movement out of an area. This can be divided into
pull and push factors.

Propagation of the Roman Catholic

Since, the church does not favour birth control. There is a high rate of population growth.
Unawareness among people
Sociological -In rural areas, they believe that all events are predetermined and inevitable and
that the happenings that come their way are the results of fate and destiny. The men and
women feel ashamed to submit in artificial methods of family planning.
POPULATION EXPLOTION on Economic basis
-In rural areas, the perception of some people that children serves as their economic assets.
They think that a big family is better than a small one because children can earn a livelihood for
the family.
Developing Human Resources
Some countries which are rich in natural resource and can provide living standard to every born
child may practice different pre-natal polices to increase human resource development.
 Remote Sensing
“Remote sensing is the acquisition of information about an object or phenomenon without
making physical contact with the object”

Remote sensing refers to the activities of recording/observing/perceiving (sensing) objects

or events at far away (remote) places. In remote sensing, the sensors are not in direct
contact with the objects or events being observed. The information needs a physical carrier
to travel from the objects/events to the sensors through an intervening medium. The
electromagnetic radiation is normally used as an information carrier in remote sensing. The

 The output of a remote sensing system is usually an image representing the scene being
observed.
 We perceive the surrounding world through our five senses. Some senses (touch and
taste) require contact of our sensing organs with the objects. However, we acquire much
information about our surrounding through the senses of sight and hearing which do not
require close contact between the sensing organs and the external objects. In another
word, we are performing Remote Sensing all the time.
 In a more restricted sense, remote sensing usually refers to the technology of acquiring
information about the earth's surface (land and ocean) and atmosphere using sensors
onboard airborne (aircraft, balloons) or space borne (satellites, space shuttles)
platforms.

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 Usually white LED act as transmitter and black LED act as receiver
 IR, infrared, is a range of colors that is not visible to humans, though some animals can
see in that range. Its wavelength is just below red. An IR transmitter has an infrared
 light source which is simply turned on and off in a code kind of like Morse code that the
corresponding IR receiver can understand.
 The invisible to human light needs to shine on subject to transmit data.
 If your receiver is a photodiode it isn't really a switch - it absorbs light and produces a
current, which is used in the circuit attached to the diode. Visible light has more energy
than IR, so it will produce a photocurrent, too.

Satellite Remote Sensing

These remote sensing satellites are equipped with sensors looking down to the earth.
They are the "eyes in the sky" constantly observing the earth as they go round in
predictable orbits.

Effects of Atmosphere
In satellite remote sensing of the earth, the sensors are looking through a layer of
atmosphere separating the sensors from the Earth's surface being observed. Hence, it is
essential to understand the effects of atmosphere on the electromagnetic radiation
travelling from the Earth to the sensor through the atmosphere. The atmospheric
constituents cause wavelength dependent absorption and scattering of radiation. These
effects degrade the quality of images. Some of the atmospheric effects can be corrected
before the images are subjected to further analysis and interpretation.

A consequence of atmospheric absorption is that certain wavelength bands in the

electromagnetic spectrum are strongly absorbed and effectively blocked by the
atmosphere. The wavelength regions in the electromagnetic spectrum usable for remote
sensing are determined by their ability to penetrate atmosphere. These regions are
known as the atmospheric transmission windows. Remote sensing systems are often
designed to operate within one or more of the atmospheric windows. These windows
exist in the microwave region, some wavelength bands in the infrared, the entire visible
region and part of the near ultraviolet regions. Although the atmosphere is practically
transparent to x-rays and gamma rays, these radiations are not normally used in remote
sensing of the earth.

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Environmental Applications of GPS Remote Sensing
The U. S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) conducts four types of satellite and
aerial remote sensing projects to support the Comprehensive Environmental Response,
Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA, also known as the Superfund Act), the
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), and in other EPA regulatory
programs and investigations. The projects are:

1. Emergency response to hazardous material release that requires rapid site assessment;

2. single-date analysis to update old data on the current conditions of the site;

3. intensive site analysis of current and historic images, to obtain an understanding of

changing conditions over time; and

4. Waste site inventories over large areas to locate possible disposal sites.

Images from these projects can standalone or be used in conjunction with topographic
maps, digital elevation data, and other features stored in GIS databases. Recently,
interest has developed in using satellites to monitor and enforce multilateral
environmental agreements (MEAs), such as the Kyoto Protocol. Remote sensing
data may be used in the future to ensure compliance with MEA requirements by both
direct enforcement and by more indirect means, such as deterring non-compliance
through high levels of transparency.

Land Use Planning and Change

These applications include estimations of primary production, biomass, crop yields,

and to chart, vegetation type, deforestation, desertification, forest boundaries, forest
harvest, soil erosion, and bush or forest fires. Landsat 7‘s EMT+ sensor is especially
useful in studying land use change because its data has been archived since the first
Landsat mission in 1972

Forestry

Forestry applications for passive remote sensors include tree species surveys,
monitoring clear cut operations, planning and observing burn areas, and studying
successional forest growth.

Agriculture

Active sensors, carried on the RADARSAT and ERS satellites, are capable of
making course scale distinctions between cover types such as late successional forests,
newly planted forests, clear cut forests, burn areas, agricultural areas, and deserts.
Active sensors are valuable tools for monitoring crop regulation compliance, forest
clearing, and for taking general inventories of world forest densities.
 Water Resources and Fisheries

SeaWiFS is designed to monitor oceans and track water indicators such as turbidity,
sediment load and transport, primary production by marine phytoplankton, algal blooms,
chlorophyll content, dissolved oxygen, and pH. Other applications include managing
coral reefs, monitoring pollution and oil spills, and characterizing and monitoring short-
term and long-term fish habitat

Climate Activity

In the past decade, various ozone-monitoring sensors have been launched to study global
climate cycles. These include the TOMS sensor and many of the sensors on Terra, Aqua, and
future EOS satellites. AVHRR data from NOAA‘s POES satellites is used in conjunction with
RADARSAT to monitor the polar ice sheets and iceberg movements

Disaster Management and Emergency Response

Remote sensing technologies can provide the government with the ability to avoid much of
the damage caused by unforeseen natural disasters. While weather satellites have monitored
hurricanes and tornados since the 1960s, other satellite sensors, such as ETM+ and MODIS,
have potential applications for disaster management and response. Scientists have used ETM+
data to monitor patterns in floods, droughts, beach erosion, and volcanic activity over time.
MODIS and ASTER data can forecast severe weather with a great degree of reliability,
potentially saving states millions of dollars in unnecessary evacuation and emergency response

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