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 MANAGEMENT AND
ORGANISATIONAL
BEHAVIOUR

F01 Management and Organisational Behaviour 22381.indd 1 20/02/2023 13:49

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F01 Management and Organisational Behaviour 22381.indd 2 20/02/2023 13:49

 MANAGEMENT AND
ORGANISATIONAL
BEHAVIOUR
LAURIE J. MULLINS AND GARY REES

THIRTEENTH EDITION
Harlow, England • London • New York • Boston • San Francisco • Toronto • Sydney • Dubai • Singapore • Hong Kong
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F01 Management and Organisational Behaviour 22381.indd 3 20/02/2023 13:49

 PEARSON EDUCATION LIMITED
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Tel: +44 (0)1279 623623
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First published in 1985 in Great Britain under the Pitman imprint (print)
Fifth edition published in 1999 by Financial Times Pitman Publishing (print)
Seventh edition published 2005 (print)
Eighth edition published 2007 (print)
Ninth edition published 2010 (print)
Tenth edition published 2013 (print and electronic)
Eleventh edition published 2016 (print and electronic)
Twelfth edition published 2019 (print and electronic)
Thirteenth edition published 2023 (print and electronic)

© Laurie J. Mullins 1985, 2010 (print)

© Laurie J. Mullins 2012, 2016, 2019 (print and electronic)
Chapters 4, 6 © Linda Carter and Laurie J. Mullins 1993, 2007
Chapter 5 © Linda Carter 1993, 2007
Chapter 12 © Peter Scott 2016
Chapter 13 © Peter Scott 2019
Chapter 15 © Peter Scott 2010, 2013
Chapter 16 © David Preece 1999, 2007
CTZ © Pearson 2019 (print and electronic)
© Laurie J. Mullins 2023 (print and electronic)

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ISBN: 978-1-292-42238-1 (print)

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F01 Management and Organisational Behaviour 22381.indd 4 20/02/2023 13:49

 From Laurie:
To Pamela and for our families.
From Gary:
To Mary, Lydia and George.

F01 Management and Organisational Behaviour 22381.indd 5 20/02/2023 13:49

F01 Management and Organisational Behaviour 22381.indd 6 20/02/2023 13:49
 Contents in brief

In acknowledgement and appreciation xviii

About the authors xx

0 Your study of management and organisational behaviour 1

Part 1
Organisational behaviour
and work 21
1 The people–organisation relationship 22
2 The work environment 56
3 Organisational conflict and stress 90

Part 2
Focus on the individual 121
4 Personality and diversity 122
5 Learning and development 157
6 Perception and communication 190
7 Work motivation and satisfaction 227

Part 3
o us on grou s nd le dershi 269
8 Working in groups and teams 270
9 Leadership in work organisations 307
10 Managing people at work 343

F01 Management and Organisational Behaviour 22381.indd 7 20/02/2023 13:49

 viii Contents in brief

Part 4
Focus on the workplace 379
11 Organisational theory and structure 380
12 Patterns of structure and workplace
design 412
13 Organisational control and power 451

Part 5
Focus on organisational
environment 485
14 Organisational culture and change 486
15 Strategy, corporate responsibility and
ethics 522
16 Organisational performance and
effectiveness 558

Appendix Review of developing your personal skills and employability 593

Index 597
Publisher’s acknowledgements 618

F01 Management and Organisational Behaviour 22381.indd 8 20/02/2023 13:49

 Contents in detail

In acknowledgement and appreciation xviii

Integrating the individual and the
About the authors xx
organisation 24
Organisational analysis 26
0 Your study of management and
A multidisciplinary perspective 28
organisational behaviour 1
Positive organisational behaviour
Overview topic map: Chapter 0 – Your study of (POB) 29
organisational behaviour 2 Interrelated influences on behaviour 30
About this book: Management and organisational A framework of study 31
behaviour 3 Social exchange theory 32
What is organisational behaviour (OB)? 4 Organisational theory 33
Underlying features of your study 5 The organisation as an open system 35
Topics in OB are not entirely free-standing 6 Organisation and management systems 37
What is the relevance of theory? 7 Contribution of Human Resource
Organisational metaphors 8 Management (HRM) 39
The importance of organisational behaviour 10 The psychological contract 41
OB, personal skills and employability 10 Nature and extent of expectations 41
The ‘SCARF’ model 12 Globalisation and the international
People management and social skills 13 context 43
Making yourself more employable 15 The cultural environment 44
Personal skills and employability exercise 15 Is organisational behaviour
Structure of the book 17 culture-bound? 47
Notes and references 18 Summary – Chapter 1 ‘The people–
organisation relationship’ 50
Group discussion activities 50
Organisational behaviour in action case
study 52
Chapter 1 – Personal skills and employability
exercise 54
Notes and references 54

2 The work environment 56

Overview topic map: Chapter 2 – the work
Part 1 environment 57
Work as a central life issue 58
Organisational behaviour Orientations to work and work ethic 61
and work 21 Emotional labour 62
Work and the organisational setting 64
1 The people–organisation
Private and public sector organisations 66
relationship 22
Social enterprise organisations 68
Overview topic map: Chapter 1 – Common features of organisations 69
The people–organisation relationship 23

F01 Management and Organisational Behaviour 22381.indd 9 20/02/2023 13:49

 x Contents in detail

Formal and informal organisations 71

Friendships and relationships at work 73
Work/life balance 74
Changing nature of work
organisations 77
Different generations and age groups 79
The future of the workplace 81
Summary – Chapter 2 ‘The work
environment’ 84 Part 2
Group discussion activities 85
Organisational behaviour in action case
Focus on the individual 121
study 86
4 Personality and diversity 122
Chapter 2 – Personal skills and employability
exercise 88 Overview topic map: Chapter 4 – Personality
and diversity 123
Notes and references 88
Recognition of individuality 124
3 Organisational conflict Understanding personality 125
and stress 90 Personality traits and types 127
Uniqueness and similarities 129
Overview topic map: Chapter 3 –
Sigmund Freud – a psychodynamic
organisational conflict and stress 91
perspective 130
Work, health and well-being 92
Nomothetic approaches 132
What is organisational conflict? 93
Idiographic approaches 135
Potential sources of conflict 95
Personality and stress at work 138
Broader interpretations of conflict 98
The Big Five personality factors 139
The management of conflict 100
Personality ‘tests’ and assessments 141
Conflict resolution in the
Applications in the workplace 141
workplace 101
Emotional intelligence (EI) 143
What is organisational stress? 103
Recognition of diversity 145
Potential causes of work stress 105
Diversity in the workplace 146
Is stress necessarily to be avoided? 106
Diversity and stereotyping 150
Coping with stress 108
Criticisms and limitations 151
HSE Management Standards 111
Summary – Chapter 4 ‘Personality and
Bullying and harassment 112
diversity’ 152
Frustration-induced behaviour 114
Group discussion activities 153
Summary – Chapter 3 ‘Organisational conflict
Chapter 4 – Personal skills and employability
and stress’ 115
exercise 154
Group discussion activities 115
Notes and references 155
Organisational behaviour in action
case study 116
5 Learning and development 157
Chapter 3 – Personal skills and
employability exercise 117 Overview topic map: Chapter 5 – Learning and
Notes and references 118 development 158
The nature and importance of learning 159

F01 Management and Organisational Behaviour 22381.indd 10 20/02/2023 13:49

 Contents in detail xi

Behaviourist and cognitive views of learning 162 Group discussion activities 222
Behaviourist theories of learning 163 Organisational behaviour in action case
Cognitive perspective of learning 166 study 224
Socialisation 167 Chapter 6 – Personal skills and employability
How do we learn? 168 exercise 225
Action learning 171 Notes and references 226
Learning preferences 173
7 Work motivation and
E-learning 174
Knowledge management 175
satisfaction 227
Creativity 178 Overview topic map: Chapter 7 – ‘work
Mentoring and coaching 180 motivation and satisfaction’ 228
Applications of learning theory 184 The significance of motivation 229
Summary – Chapter 5 ‘Learning and Needs and expectations at work 230
development’ 185 Money as a motivator 231
Group discussion activities 186 Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation 232
Organisational behaviour in action case Three-fold classification for review of
study 187 motivation 234
Chapter 5 – Personal skills and employability Competing theories of motivation 236
exercise 187 Content theories of motivation 237
Notes and references 188 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory 237
Alderfer’s modified need hierarchy
6 Perception and model 241
communication 190 Nohria’s four drives model of motivation 242
Overview topic map: Chapter 6 – perception Herzberg’s two-factor theory 242
and communication 191 McClelland’s achievement motivation
theory 244
The importance of the study of perception 192
Process theories of motivation 245
The perceptual process 193
Vroom’s expectancy theory 247
Internal characteristics 197
Implications of expectancy theory 248
External influences 198
Equity theory of motivation 249
Perceptual illusions 203
Goal theory 251
Making judgements about other people 204
Relevance today of motivation
Difficulties in perceiving other people 206
theories 254
Perceptual distortions and errors 209
Organisational behaviour modification 255
Attribution theory 212
Motivation of knowledge workers 256
The importance of language and
Job satisfaction 258
communication 214
Comprehensive model of job enrichment 260
Non-verbal communication and body
language 215 Summary – Chapter 7 ‘Work motivation and
satisfaction’ 262
Impression management 219
Group discussion activities 263
Perception and interpersonal
communications 220 Organisational behaviour in action case
study 264
Understanding the organisational process 221
Chapter 7 – Personal skills and employability
Summary – Chapter 6 ‘Perception and
exercise 264
communication’ 222
Notes and references 266

F01 Management and Organisational Behaviour 22381.indd 11 20/02/2023 13:49

 xii Contents in detail

9 Leadership in work
organisations 307
Overview topic map: Chapter 9 – Leadership in
work organisations 308
The significance of leadership 309
Approaches to the study of leadership 311
Qualities or traits approach 311
Functional (or group) approach 314
Part 3 Styles of leadership 315
Focus on groups Continuum of leadership behaviour 316
nd le dershi 269 Contingency theories of leadership 318
Fiedler’s contingency model 319
8 Working in groups and Vroom and Yetton contingency model 320
teams 270 Path–goal theory 321
Overview topic map: Chapter 8 – ‘working in Readiness of the followers or group 322
groups and teams’ 271 Transformational leadership 324
Importance and significance of Inspirational or visionary leadership 325
groups 272 Servant leadership 327
Formal and informal groups 274 Alternative views of leadership 328
Group values and norms 276 The leadership relationship 331
Expectations and benefits of group Culture: A contingent factor? 331
membership 278 Leadership effectiveness 332
Group cohesiveness and performance 279 Leadership development 336
Membership 280 Summary – Chapter 9 ‘Leadership in
Work environment 280 organisations’ 338
Organisational 281 Group discussion activities 338
Group development and maturity 281 Organisational behaviour in action case
Social identity theory 283 study 339
Characteristics of effective work Chapter 9 – Personal skills and employability
groups 285 exercise 340
Virtual teams 287 Notes and references 341
Interactions among group members 289
Analysis of individual behaviour 291
10 Managing people at work 343
Individual and group performance 294 Overview topic map: Chapter 10 – Managing
Building successful teams 297 people at work 344
Autonomous working groups 300 The management of people 345
Summary – Chapter 8 ‘Working in groups and What is management? 347
teams’ 302 Management in public sector
Group discussion activities 303 organisations 350
Organisational behaviour in action case Responsibility for the work of other
study 304 people 351
Chapter 8 – Personal skills and employability Managing with and through people 352
exercise 304 A looser approach to managing 355
Notes and references 305 Importance of managerial style 356
Theory X and Theory Y management 357

F01 Management and Organisational Behaviour 22381.indd 12 20/02/2023 13:49

 Contents in detail xiii

The Managerial/Leadership grid® 359

Human resource management 361
Partnership with line managers 363
Investors in People 366
Performance management (PM) 368
Managerial effectiveness 370
Measures of effectiveness 371
Summary – Chapter 10 ‘Managing people at
work’ 375 Part 4
Group discussion activities 375 Focus on the workplace 379
Organisational behaviour in action case
study 376 11 Organisational theory and
Chapter 10 – Personal skills and employability structure 380
exercise 376
Overview topic map: Chapter 11 – Organisation
Notes and references 378
theory and structure 381
Developments in organisational
behaviour 382
The classical approach 384
Administrative theory 385
Scientific management 386
Bureaucracy 389
Evaluation of bureaucracy 391
Human relations approach 393
Evaluation 395
Socio-technical approach 397
Contingency approach 398
Other approaches to the study of
organisations 400
Decision theory 400
Social action 401
Action theory 402
Postmodernism (Post bureaucratic) 403
Relevance to study of organisational
behaviour 404
Summary – Chapter 11 ‘Organisational theory
and structure’ 407
Group discussion activities 407
Organisational behaviour in action case
study 409
Notes and references 410

F01 Management and Organisational Behaviour 22381.indd 13 20/02/2023 13:49

 xiv Contents in detail

12 Patterns of structure and 13 Organisational control and

workplace design 412 power 451
Overview topic map: Chapter 12 – Patterns of Overview topic map: Chapter 13 –
structure and workplace design 413 Organisational control and power 452
Purpose and importance of structure 414 The essence of control 453
Levels of organisation 415 Improvement in performance 454
Underlying dimensions of structure 417 Elements of organisational control 456
Task and element functions 418 Other forms of control 457
Division of work and grouping of people 418 Strategies of control in organisations 458
Centralisation and decentralisation 421 Power and management control 461
Design principles of organisation 423 Power and leadership influence 464
Formal organisational relationships 426 Pluralistic approaches to power 465
Project teams and matrix organisation 427 Financial and accounting systems of
Role structure of the organisation 430 control 468
Role conflict 432 Behavioural factors of organisational
Boundaryless organisation 434 control 469
Organisation charts 435 The concept of empowerment and
Contingency approach 435 delegation 472
Technology and structure 437 The manager–subordinate relationship 473
Woodward – structure and production Systematic approach to delegation 476
technology 437 Control versus autonomy 479
Perrow – major dimensions of Summary – Chapter 13 ‘Organisational control
technology 438 and power’ 479
Uncertain external environment 439 Group discussion activities 479
Burns and Stalker – mechanistic and organic Organisational behaviour in action case
structures 440 study 481
Lawrence and Lorsch – differentiation and Chapter 13 – Personal skills and employability
integration 441 exercise 482
Organisation structure and culture 442 Notes and references 483
Changing face of the workplace 443
Outsourcing 444
Demand for flexibility 444
Structure and organisational
behaviour 445
Summary – Chapter 12 ‘Patterns of structure
and workplace design’ 446
Group discussion activities 446
Organisational behaviour in action
case study 447
Chapter 12 – Personal skills and employability
exercise 448
Notes and references 449

F01 Management and Organisational Behaviour 22381.indd 14 20/02/2023 13:49

 Contents in detail xv

The importance of strategy 524

Organisational ideologies and principles 527
Vision and mission statements 528
Management of opportunities and risks 529
Organisational goals 532
Corporate social responsibilities (CSR) 535
Organisational stakeholders 538
The UN global compact 539
Part 5 Values and ethics 540
Focus on organisational Ethics and corporate social
responsibility 541
environment 485 Business ethics 543
14 Organisational culture and Codes of business conduct (or ethics) 547
change 486 An integrated approach 548
Human rights in business 549
Overview topic map: Chapter 14 –
Summary – Chapter 15 ‘Strategy, corporate
Organisational culture and change 487
responsibility and ethics’ 551
Adapting to change 488
Group discussion activities 551
What is organisational culture? 489
Organisational behaviour in action case
Types of organisation culture 491
study 552
Levels of culture 493
Chapter 15 – Personal skills and employability
Influences on development of culture 494 exercise 554
Culture and organisation control 497 Notes and references 556
Importance of culture 498
National and international culture 500 16 Organisational performance
Case study – Brazil 501 and effectiveness 558
Organisational climate 503
Overview topic map: Chapter 16 –
Organisational change 505 Organisational performance and
Resistance to change 508 effectiveness 559
Do people welcome change? 512 Organisational performance and
Managing change 512 management 560
Getting people to accept change 514 Employee engagement and
Summary – Chapter 14 ‘Organisational culture commitment 563
and change’ 516 The nature of organisational
Group discussion activities 516 effectiveness 567
Organisational behaviour in action case The learning organisation 567
study 517 Total quality management (TQM) 570
Chapter 14 – Personal skills and employability The balanced scorecard 572
exercise 519 The EFQM Excellence Model 572
Notes and references 520 Attributes and qualities of a manager 574
Effective use of time 578
15 Strategy, corporate responsibility
Management development 579
and ethics 522
Building productivity in the UK 581
Overview topic map: Chapter 15 – Strategy, Organisational capabilities 583
social responsibility and ethics 523

F01 Management and Organisational Behaviour 22381.indd 15 20/02/2023 13:49

 xvi Contents in detail

Appendix Review of developing your

Successful organisations and personal skills and employability 593
people 583
Index 597
Summary – Chapter 16 ‘Organisational
performance and effectiveness’ 586 Publisher’s acknowledgements 618
Group discussion activities 587
Organisational behaviour in action case
study 588
Chapter 16 – Personal skills and employability
exercise 590
Notes and references 591

F01 Management and Organisational Behaviour 22381.indd 16 20/02/2023 13:49

 Pearson’s Commitment to
Diversity, Equity and Inclusion
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F01 Management and Organisational Behaviour 22381.indd 17 20/02/2023 13:49

 In acknowledgement
and appreciation

From Laurie: A special tribute to my wife Pamela and families for their constant
warmth, support and encouragement with this latest edition.
Francesca Mullins, Rebekah Darvill, Abigail Voller
Di and Mike Blyth, Lynn and Wayne Miller, Christine Paterson

From Laurie and Gary: Special thanks and gratitude also to:

Mike Crabbe and Mike Timmins

Hugo Misselhorn
Anne Riches
Jane Southall
Those managers who kindly gave permission to reproduce material from their own
organisations and work environments.
The team at Pearson Education including Victoria Tubb, Avijit Sengupta, Archana
Makhija and Chithra Rajasekaran.

F01 Management and Organisational Behaviour 22381.indd 18 20/02/2023 13:49

 In acknowledgement and appreciation xix

External reviewers
The following reviewers were approached by the publishers for their constructive
comments that have helped shape this revised new edition.
1. Stuart Wall: Cambridge International Education Centre
2. Mustafa Ozturk: Queen Mary University of London
3. Tamas Lestar: University of Winchester
4. Dr Stefano Cirella: University of Essex

F01 Management and Organisational Behaviour 22381.indd 19 20/02/2023 13:49

 About the authors

Laurie Mullins has experience of business, local government, university

administration and human resource management; an instructor in the
Territorial Army; worked with the United Nations Association International
Service, Voluntary Service Overseas; and professional and educational
bodies including UNISON. Formerly a principal lecturer at Portsmouth
Business School Laurie led the behavioural and human resource
management group and was senior examiner for a range of university
courses and professional organisations. Laurie has undertaken a visiting
professorship at University of Wisconsin, USA; visiting fellowship at Royal
Melbourne Institute of Technology University, Australia; guest speaker
in South Africa; and frequent visiting lecturer in the Netherlands. Laurie
is also author of Essentials of Organisational Behaviour and Hospitality
Management and Organisational Behaviour both published by Pearson
Education. His books have been translated into Russian, Chinese,
Portuguese, Dutch, Greek and Macedonian. There has also been an edition
in Braille. Laurie has the rare distinction for an academic author with an
edition of Management and Organisational Behaviour featuring in both
The Guardian and The Times bestseller lists of all paperbacks, both fiction
and non-fiction.
In June 2021 Harvard Business School named University of Portsmouth as
the 3rd most influential business school in the world. Laurie’s book was the
5th most highly cited text in business, marketing, accounting and economic
courses.

Professor Gary Rees has been Head of Organisational Studies and HRM
at Portsmouth Business School since 2016. He has written three other
leading textbooks, with Paul Smith on Strategic HRM (Sage Publications),
Ray French on Strategic People Management and Development and
Organisational Behaviour with Rayner, Rumbles and French. In 2021 Gary
was awarded Chartered Companionship of the CIPD for his significant
contribution to HR Education. He is also a member of the British
Psychological Society and a Fellow of the Higher Education Academy.

F01 Management and Organisational Behaviour 22381.indd 20 20/02/2023 13:49

 Chapter 0
Your study of management
and organisational
behaviour
If you do not know where you are going how will you know if you
have arrived?

Learning outcomes
After reading this chapter you should be more aware of:
• the meaning, nature and scope of • the structure, main features and contents of
organisational behaviour; the book.
• the importance of social skills and
employability;

Outline chapter contents

✱ About this book 3 ✱ OB, personal skills and employability 10
✱ What is organisational behaviour (OB)? 4 ✱ The ‘SCARF’ model 12
✱ Underlying features of your study 5 ✱ People management and social skills 13
✱ Topics in OB are not entirely free-standing 6 ✱ Making yourself more employable 15
✱ What is the relevance of theory? 7 ✱ Personal skills and employability exercise 15
✱ Organisational metaphors 8 ✱ Structure of the book 17
✱ The importance of organisational behaviour 10

M00 Management and Organisational Behaviour 22381.indd 1 17/02/2023 10:53

 2 Chapter 0 Your study of management and organisational behaviour

Overview topic map: Chapter 0 – Your study of

organisational behaviour

About this book:

organisational behaviour in the workplace

Aims of this book

What is organisational behaviour (OB)?

OB and organisational success

Underlying features of your study

Topics not entirely free-standing Adopting a critical perspective

What is the relevance of theory?

Organisational metaphors

The importance of organisational behaviour

OB, personal skills and employability

University education and employability Reactive or proactive thinking and behaviour

The ‘SCARF’ model

People management and social skills

Developing employability skills Study an aid to practice Monitor and assess development

Making yourself more employable

Structure of the book

Distinctive format

M00 Management and Organisational Behaviour 22381.indd 2 17/02/2023 10:53

 Chapter 0 Your study of management and organisational behaviour 3

The hidden depth of an iceberg with up to 90 per cent of total mass below the surface

About this book: Management and organisational behaviour

This is an introductory text for those readers of management and organisational
behaviour or related subjects interested in improving organisational performance
through the behaviour and actions of people at work.
The activities of an organisation are directed towards the attainment of certain
goals and also have social implications. Organisational behaviour is a wide and
essentially multidisciplinary field of inquiry and should not be considered in a
vacuum but related to the broader organisational context and external environment.
The concepts and ideas presented in this book provide a basis for contrasting
perspectives on the structure, operation and management of organisations, and
interactions among people who work in them. A multiplicity of interrelated factors
influence the decisions and actions of people at work, and scope for the examination
of organisational behaviour is therefore very wide. While the responsibilities and
actions of managers may be subject to debate, in today’s increasingly dynamic,
global and competitive environment, understanding human behaviour at work and
management of the people resource is essential for organisational survival and
success. There is a close relationship between organisational behaviour and
management theory and practice. A central theme of the book is the nature of the
people–organisation relationship.

Aims of this book

The aims of this book are to:

• indicate ways in which organisational performance may be improved through

better understanding of the behaviour and actions of people at work;
• increase awareness of, and sensitivity to, personal skills and employability.

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 4 Chapter 0 Your study of management and organisational behaviour

What is organisational behaviour (OB)?

Organisational behaviour (OB) is concerned with the study of human behaviour. It
involves the understanding, prediction and control of behaviour of people within an
organisational setting. The meaning of the term is not always clear and there are a
number of closely related study areas with often similar descriptions such as
organisational analysis, work psychology or organisation development, but common
definitions of organisational behaviour are generally along the lines of:
the study and understanding of individual and group behaviour and patterns of
structure and management in order to help improve organisational
performance and effectiveness.
Study of organisational behaviour is usually interpreted more about the people
within the work situation, but it is difficult to divorce completely from broader social
situations.
Clearly there is a multiplicity of interrelated factors that influence the decisions
and actions of people as members of a work organisation. The scope for the
examination of organisational behaviour is therefore very wide. There is also debate
over the relationship between organisational behaviour, the human resource
function, and management theory and practice.

Organisational behaviour is one of the most complex and perhaps least understood
academic elements of modern general management, but since it concerns the behav-
iour of people within organisations it is also one of the most central . . . its concern with
individual and group patterns of behaviour makes it an essential element in dealing
with the complex behavioural issues thrown up in the modern business world.
Source: Introduction to Module 6, Organisational Behaviour, Financial Times Mastering Management, FT Pitman
Publishing (1997), p. 216.

However much of a cliché, it is still an inescapable fact that people are the main
resource of any organisation. Without its members, an organisation is nothing; an
organisation is only as good as the people who work within it. In today’s increasingly
dynamic, global and competitive environment, understanding human behaviour at
work and effective management of the people resource is even more important for
organisational survival and success.
Vecchio (2005) suggests three reasons for studying organisational behaviour:

• Important practical applications that follow from an understanding and

knowledge of OB and the ability to deal effectively with others in an
organisational setting.
• Personal growth and the fulfilment gained from understanding our fellow
humans. Understanding others may also lead to greater self-knowledge and
self-insight.
• Increased knowledge about people in work settings, for example identification of
major dimensions of leadership leading to the design leadership training
programmes in organisations.1
Watson (2006) reminds us that the biggest challenge and most fascinating aspect
that we face when trying to analyse organisations is its essential ambiguity.

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 Chapter 0 Your study of management and organisational behaviour 5

Organisations do not actually exist. The organisation in which you work or study is
not something you can see, hear, touch, smell, kick, kiss or throw up in the air.2

OB and organisational success

Sooner or later every organisation has to perform successfully if it is to survive. An
understanding of organisational behaviour is essential for organisational
performance and effectiveness. In order to study the behaviour of people at work it
is necessary to understand interrelationships with other variables that together
comprise the total organisation.
The study of organisational behaviour embraces therefore an understanding of
the interactions among:

• the nature and purpose of the organisation;

• formal structure and role relationships;
• the tasks to be undertaken and technology employed;
• organisational processes and the execution of work;
• the human element, informal organisation and behaviour of people;
• the process of management as an integrating and co-ordinating activity;
• social responsibilities and business ethics;
• the external environment of which the organisation is part; and
• the need for organisation success and survival.

How would YOU attempt to explain the meaning, significance and scope of
organisational behaviour to a fellow student studying engineering? Why is the
understanding of the links between organisational behaviour and management
practices so important?

Underlying features of your study

It is important always to remember that it is people who are being managed and
people should be considered in human terms. Unlike physical resources, the people
resource is not owned by the organisation. People bring their own perceptions,
feelings and attitudes towards the organisation, systems and styles of management,
their duties and responsibilities, and the conditions under which they are working.
Human behaviour is capricious and scientific methods or principles of behaviour
cannot be applied with reliability. It is also widely observed that you cannot study the
behaviour of people without changing it.
A noticeable feature of organisational behaviour is the invariable difficulty in
identifying a definitive solution to a particular situation. The absence of one single,
‘right’ answer can make study of the subject complex and frustrating and even may
bring into question value in studying the subject at all. Consider however the
attraction of study for your personal development and confidence; the opportunity
to test your thoughts and ideas with fellow students in a non-threatening
environment; and to help prepare yourself for the realities of the work situation and
progression in your future career.

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 6 Chapter 0 Your study of management and organisational behaviour

Topics in OB are not entirely free-standing

The use of separate topic areas is a recognised academic means of aiding study and
explanation of the subject. In practice, however, the activities of an organisation
cannot be isolated neatly into discrete areas of study. Topics studied in OB should not
be regarded, therefore, as entirely free-standing. Any study inevitably covers several
aspects and used to a greater or lesser extent to confirm generalisations made about
particular topic areas. Reference to the same studies to illustrate different aspects of
management and organisational behaviour serves as useful revision and
reinforcement and provides a more integrated approach to your study.
The majority of actions are likely to involve a number of simultaneous functions
that relate to the total processes within an organisation. In order to study the
behaviour of people at work it is necessary to understand interrelationships with
other variables that together comprise the total organisation.

Consider, for example:

A manager briefing departmental staff on a major unexpected, important and urgent
task. Such a briefing is likely to include consideration of organisational culture, organ-
isation and role structures, management of change, levels of hierarchy and authority,
forms of communications, previous experience, delegation and empowerment, team-
work, leadership style, motivation and control systems. The behaviour of the staff will
be influenced by a combination of individual, group, organisational and environmental
factors.

Explain fully what other possible considerations YOU see as important. What do
you see as the priorities for decision or action?

Adopting a critical perspective

You are encouraged to adopt a critical perspective towards your studies. Be prepared
to analyse, question and challenge what you read in the text. What do YOU think
and believe? Be prepared to change any preconceived beliefs. Consider also whose
interests are best served by the preferred ‘best’ answer: for example senior managers,
the general workforce, shareholders, trade unions, community.
At the end of each chapter you will find group discussion activities to help provoke
personal responses to what you have just read. You are of course entitled to your
own views but be conscious of your own bias or prejudices. The extent to which your
point of view persuades other people will be influenced by clear, logical reasoning
and supported by academic evidence.
Draw upon the views of your colleagues to share experiences and test not only
your assumptions and ideas but also your skills of group interaction and influencing

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 Chapter 0 Your study of management and organisational behaviour 7

other people. References to the importance of skills throughout the text, together
with the exhibits, case studies and assignments should serve to stimulate your
awareness of the importance of underlying personal and employability skills
necessary for effective performance.
You are encouraged to complement your reading by drawing upon your own
observations and practical experiences. This can, of course, be from your university.
You may also have work experience, even part-time or casual employment, in other
organisations to draw upon. In addition, you will have contact with a range of other
organisations such as supermarkets, local pubs and shops, bank or building societies,
fast-food restaurants, service stations, doctors or dentist surgeries. An analytical
approach to contemporary examples from your own observations should help
further both a critical perspective and your interest in the subject area.
Bear in mind that opportunities to develop personal skills are not always
immediately apparent but embedded into your course of study. Adopt an inquisitive
and enquiring mind. Search for both good and bad examples of organisational
behaviour and people management, and the manner in which concepts and ideas
presented in this book are applied in practice. Make a point of continually observing
and thinking about the interpersonal and work-based skills exhibited. Use this
awareness and knowledge to enhance development of your own employability skills
and aid career progression.

W1A – A British comedy television series aired on BBC 2 in

September 2017
This entertaining programme follows the life of Ian Fletcher, who works at the BBC
as the ‘Head of values’ – a role that requires him to redefine the entire BBC brand,
clarifying and defining the core purpose of the BBC across all its activities. The series
of half-hour programmes makes fun of ludicrous jargon and political correctness; and
is a spoof about such subjects as structure, open-plan, hot-desking, communications,
meetings, social interactions, stereotypical behaviour, inclusivity and other aspects of
organisational behaviour.
The programmes provide an amusing and stimulating way of thinking about the
subject area. Despite the implausibility of the programmes, it is easy to relate to what
can actually happen in organisations.
There are a number of references to the programme on the internet and it is avail-
able to buy on DVD.

What is the relevance of theory?

You should not be put off by the use of the word ‘theory’ in your studies. Most
rational decisions are based on some form of theory. Theory provides a sound basis
for action and contains a message on how people might behave. This may influence
attitudes towards actual practice and lead to changes in patterns of behaviour.
Theory further provides a conceptual framework and gives a perspective for the
practical study of the subject. Together they lead to a better understanding of factors

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 8 Chapter 0 Your study of management and organisational behaviour

influencing patterns of behaviour in work organisations and applications of the

process of management.3 McGregor (1987) maintains that theory and practice are
inseparable. Every managerial act rests on assumptions, generalisations and
hypotheses – that is to say, on theory. Our assumptions are frequently implicit,
sometimes quite unconscious, often conflicting; nevertheless, they determine our
predictions that if we do a, b will occur.4
Patching suggests that all managers who think about what they do are practical
students of organisational theory.
Theory is not something unique to academics, but something we all work with
in arriving at our attitudes, beliefs and decisions as managers. It seems obvious
to most of us that some theories are better than others. Many managerial
discussions which we undertake in meetings focus upon trying to agree upon
which theory will be best for a particular decision.5

Organisational metaphors
Organisations are complex social systems that can be defined and studied in a
number of ways. However one looks at the nature or disciplines of OB it is important
to remember as Morgan (1989) points out:
the reality of organisational life usually comprises numerous different realities.
Through the use of metaphors, Morgan (1989) provides a broad perspective on the
nature of organisations and organisational behaviour and identifies eight different
ways of viewing organisations – as machines, organisms, brains, cultures, political
systems, psychic prisons, flux and transformation, and instruments of domination.
These contrasting metaphors aid the understanding of the complex nature of
organisational life and the critical evaluation of organisational phenomena.6
Metaphors offer an interesting perspective on how to view organisations. They
provide a broader view of the dynamics of organisational behaviour and how to
manage and design organisations. However, Morgan points out that these
metaphors are not fixed categories and are not mutually exclusive. An organisation
can be a mix of each and predominantly a combination of two or three metaphors.
Furthermore, these combinations may change over a period of time.
A number of writers use metaphors to help describe organisations. For example, in
discussing the role and logic of viewing the organisation in terms of metaphors,
Drummond (2000) raises questions such as what an organisation is like and the
power of metaphors in shaping our thinking, but also points out that all metaphors
are partial and no metaphor can explain fully a particular phenomenon.7

The metaphor of an iceberg

A convenient way of perceiving the organisation is an iceberg. For example, Hellriegel,
Slocum and Woodman (1998) suggest: ‘One way to recognise why people behave as
they do at work is to view an organisation as an iceberg. What sinks ships isn’t always
what sailors can see, but what they can’t see.’8

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 Chapter 0 Your study of management and organisational behaviour 9

Figure 1 The organisational iceberg

Source: From Chavapong Prateep Na Thalang / Alamy Stock Vector

The overt, formal aspects focus only on the tip of the iceberg (organisation). It is
just as important to focus on what you can’t see – the covert, behavioural aspects
(see Figure 1).

The shadow side of organisations

Egan (1993) refers to the importance of the shadow side of the organisation: that
is, those things not found on organisation charts or in company manuals – the
covert, and often undiscussed, activities of people which affect both the
productivity and quality of the working life of an organisation.9 As Howes (2014)
points out, the fiercest battles of the workplace may seem trivial, yet they are
nothing of the sort. ‘Forget disagreements over strategies or policy – many of the
bitterest workplace battles are fought over the prosaic matters of air conditioning
and in-office music.’ Underlying and unresolved disputes can brew animosity and
resentment, and halt production.10

What metaphor would YOU use to help describe your university and/or any
other organisation with which you are familiar?

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 10 Chapter 0 Your study of management and organisational behaviour

The importance of organisational behaviour

As part of the Financial Times Mastering Management series, Wood (1997), in his
discussion of the nature of organisational behaviour, suggests that in its concern for
the way people behave in an organisational context, organisational behaviour can
be regarded as the key to the whole area of management. The study of behaviour in
organisations is not just important, it is vital. It is the one area that can bring the
collective wisdom of human history into the decision-making calculus of developing
managers. The more technical a manager’s training, the more important
organisational behaviour becomes.11

Opportunities and challenges for managers

Robbins and Judge (2009) remind us there are few, if any, simple and universal
principles that explain organisational behaviour, but that understanding
organisational behaviour has never been more important for managers than it is
today. In short, there are a lot of challenges and opportunities today for managers to
use OB concepts. For instance:

• increasing age of typical employees in more developed countries;

• greater number of women in the workplace;
• broader ethnicity of people at work;
• more temporary workers reducing organisational loyalty;
• demands for increased flexibility and coping with rapid change; and
• working with and managing people in uncertain times.12

OB, personal skills and employability

An increasingly important feature of OB is the relationship with enhancing personal
skills and employability within the workplace. The Confederation for British Industry
(CBI) points out that in an increasingly competitive employment market, employers
are looking beyond simple academic achievement when considering applicants for a
job or internship. Many now expect to see evidence of other skills and achievements
that boost someone’s attractiveness as a potential employee.
Businesses want graduates who not only add value but who have the skills to
help transform their organisation in the face of continuous and rapid economic
and technological change. All graduates – whatever their degree disciple – need
to be equipped with employability skills.13
A summary of factors bearing on the increased importance of interpersonal skills
at ork is given in Figure 2.
Recent years have seen attention given by the government and other employment
and professional bodies to the importance of the supply and application of skills
attainment for the prosperity of the UK economy. The Chartered Institute of
Personnel and Development (CIPD) point out that in today’s competitive and

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 Chapter 0 Your study of management and organisational behaviour 11

Need to
overcome
cultural
barriers
Need to end
prejudice,
discrimination
and harassment Tribalism

Globalisation
Diversified workforces

Technology Customer
(Information care becomes
Technology and everyone’s
Communication concern
High-speed
global Technology)
communications
The triumph
of the market
Global competition
The knowledge
society

Small is powerful
Learning
Organisational organisations
changes

Decline of bureaucracy
Teams Networks

Co-ordination by
More communication,
autonomy persuasion and
less authority trust

Figure 2 Factors bearing on the increased importance being placed on interpersonal skills
at work
Source: Maureen Guirdham, Interactive Behavior at Work, 3rd edition, Financial Times Prentice Hall (2002), p. 8.
Reprinted and electronically reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc.

fast-changing world, the skills and capabilities of the workforce are vital to economic
sustainability and growth. Workplace skills include the ability to:

• communicate with others;

• write and understand reports;
• perform numerical and analytical tasks;
• use computers to help solve problems.
Skills are important or both economic gro th and prosperit , and or individuals
and organisations. For the individual, skills determine their employment and earning
potential. For organisations, skills are vital to meeting both current and future
business demands. To be successful and competitive, businesses must ensure their
talent and succession planning takes into consideration what skills need to be
sourced, nurtured, developed and retained now, in order to create successful and
productive workforces of the future.14

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 12 Chapter 0 Your study of management and organisational behaviour

University education and employability

(The former) UKCES reports that higher education is well placed to play its part in
helping to overcome the well-documented skills challenge. ‘Collaborations between
employers and universities have a significant role to play in providing the supply of
highly skilled people to meet demand from businesses now and in the future.’15 GOV.UK
(2014) refer to the need for a better connection to bridge the gap between education
and work.16 The Prince’s Trust (2014) also point out the human cost of skills shortages
that could affect levels of productivity and morale among existing workforces.17

Reactive or proactive thinking and behaviour

Increasing competition, the pace of change and greater demands upon people at work
has arguably led to more reactive thinking and behaviour. Many work situations of
course require the ability to provide a quick and spontaneous response. There is however
a danger of being caught too much by surprise and moving towards management by
crisis. When you need to ‘react’ then this suggests you have lost the initiative.
By contrast, a proactive approach requires planned thought and anticipation of
future events. Edward de Bono refers to proactive thinking as ‘deliberate thinking’ –
this is not when we are driving or looking at documents sat at a desk or taking part in
a discussion. Deliberate thinking means setting aside some time to do nothing other
than thinking about a defined focus.18 To be proactive you need to see the bigger
picture, think about what is likely to happen and react in advance. Developing the
ability of proactive thinking takes time and is energy consuming. Misselhorn (2017)
suggests the difficulty with being proactive is that most of our behaviour from habit,
familiarity, established routines and procedures does not require us to be proactive.
The quickest and easiest routine works most of the time.19

Do YOU see yourself as a proactive thinker? How important is it if colleagues are

reactive or proactive thinkers so long as they contribute fully to the activities of
the team?

The ‘SCARF’ model

David Rock (2009) suggests that ‘more people than ever are being paid to think,
instead of just doing routine tasks’. Based on neuroscience studies, Rock has
proposed a model of five domains of human social experience. In the same way as
the brain reacts to primary threats and rewards, the same happens also to social
situations.
The five social concerns that drive human behaviour are, our:

• status – relative importance to others

• certainty – ability to predict the future
• autonomy – sense of control over events
• relatedness – sense of safety with others
• fairness – perception of fair exchanges between people.20

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 Chapter 0 Your study of management and organisational behaviour 13

The aim of the model is interaction with other people in a way that minimises threats
and maximises rewards. The five domains have clear relevance to the work situation
discussed in later chapters, for example:

• position within the hierarchical structure and role relationships;

• clarity with expectations about your work and avoidance of stress;
• opportunities for autonomy and flexibility;
• interpersonal relationships and group working;
• the psychological contract.
You may find the SCARF model a useful framework of analysis and discussion as you
proceed through your studies.

People management and social skills

Unlike technical or practical skills, social skills are more intangible. They are difficult
to get a firm hold of, or to define and measure clearly. Social skills are often
associated as ‘soft skills’ and regarded as a natural part of human behaviour. As a
result, a common concern with attention to the skills shortage is lack of focus on
people management, social skills and interpersonal behaviour. For example, an
important aspect of working with other people and leadership skills is an awareness
and acceptance of individual differences and diversity.

Developing your employability skills

Increasingly, graduate recruiters are placing greater emphasis on key interpersonal
and social skills and attitudes. A first step in working harmoniously and effectively
with other people is to know and understand yourself and the skill of self-
management. Reflecting honestly on your personal strengths and weaknesses should
help develop your level of competence. You cannot expect to influence the
behaviour or actions of other people until you can effectively manage yourself. The
continual development of employability skills as part of your university education
and lifelong learning is important for:

• progressing your personal confidence and self-awareness;

• developing harmonious interpersonal relationships with colleagues and external
contacts;
• initial attractiveness for appointment with a potential employer;
• maintaining a competent level of work performance;
• enhancing work motivation and job satisfaction; and
• helping to safeguard your career progression.
Many employers have structured programmes for the continued development of
their staff. Your longer-term employment prospects will be enhanced when you are
able to demonstrate a genuine and enthusiastic commitment to your own personal
development.

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 14 Chapter 0 Your study of management and organisational behaviour

Study as an aid to practice

Study is an aid to practice. A theme of this book is to provide an integrated view
embracing both theory and practice. The ideas and concepts discussed provide you
with opportunities to explore the underlying skills associated with the study of
organisational behaviour.
As you progress through your studies, reflect upon what you have read and about
the importance of social skills including:

• personal awareness and how you project yourself;

• openness to diversity, equality and inclusion;
• perceiving and understanding other people;
• written, verbal and non-verbal communications;
• social interactions with others and teamworking;
• personal organisation and time management;
• coping with change;
• coaching and mentoring; and
• working in a multicultural society.

Monitor and assess your development

It is recommended strongly that you maintain a portfolio of what you have learned,
your personal development and the employability skills you have attained or
enhanced during your course of study. This can provide a useful basis of discussion
with a potential employer. You may find it useful to assess progression of your
personal skills and employability by reviewing your learning and development under
the ollo ing broad headings in Figure 3.

Self-awareness and Relationships

confidence with others

Working in
Communication and groups & teams
presentation skills

Enhancing your Influencing others

Dealing with difficult personal skills
situations and leadership
and employability

Coping with and Observing ethical

managing change behaviour

Working in multicultural Displaying managerial

organisations potential

Figure 3 Broad headings for personal skills and employability

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 Chapter 0 Your study of management and organisational behaviour 15

Making yourself more employable

Furnham (2016) points out educational qualifications are only one aspect of a
person’s assets they bring to the work situation and there are a number of other
important fundamental issues considering a young person’s employability. Furnham
suggests five virtues employers want in all employees.

• Hardworking and productive, a conscientious work ethic, and to pitch up and

pitch in. Honest, reliable and dependable.
• Smart, bright, curious, fast learners and not plodders. Inquisitive, widely read,
interesting in understanding.
• Concept of rewardingness, warm and trustworthy, sensitive and well-adjusted,
sociable and sufficiently altruistic.
• Signs of being leader-like, able to make decisions for which accountable and with
good judgement. Taking initiative and the strain when it counts.
• Have the big picture and globally minded and who look ahead. Anticipate and
adapt to the future without being a victim.
Some jobs require more than others and the desirable characteristics are not
weighted equally but all five characteristics are important.21

Personal skills and employability exercise

Critical self-reflection is a positive activity that can challenge narrow preconceived
thought processes, encourage creativity and provide a valuable personal learning
and development experience.
At the end of each chapter is a ‘Personal Skills and Employability Exercise’. This is
designed to encourage you to think about further development of your social and
work-based skills.
The appendix at the end of the book provides a review of features within the
text that relate to employability skills. You are encouraged to ask yourself the
extent to which you have enhanced your personal awareness and knowledge and
are better prepared to demonstrate your employability skills and aid your career
progression.

How comfortable do YOU feel about the level of your future employability
skills? How specifically do you hope to enhance your level of skills through the
study of OB?

A summary of personal skills and employability is set out in the concept map, in
Figure 4.

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 16

Personal skills and employability Improving work performance Reactive or proactive thinking and behaviour
When you need to ‘react’ you may
Skills for ... Applying the right ... Attitude - e.g. commitment, enthusiasm have lost the initiative.
Organisations - vital to meet current Developing and using new ... Skills - both soft and hard To be proactive you need to see the bigger
and future business demands. picture, what may happen ? & react in advance
Acquiring and using new ... Knowledge
Individuals - determine their employment
and earning potential. The continual development of employability skills as part of a
Developing employability skills university education and lifelong learning is important for:
Graduate recruiters are placing greater emphasis on key progressing your personal confidence and self-awareness
Working with others interpersonal and social skills, and attitudes.
developing harmonious interpersonal relationships with
People management, Social (soft) skills and Hard skills
Know and understand yourself and the skill of self-management. colleagues and external contacts

M00 Management and Organisational Behaviour 22381.indd 16

Soft skills - a natural part of human behaviour. Reflecting honestly on your personal strengths and initial attractiveness for appointment with a potential
Hard skills - those skills relating to a specific weaknesses should help develop your level of competence. employer
task or situation. Competence may be certificated. maintaining a competent level of work performance
To influence the behaviour or actions of other people you need
enhancing work motivation and job satisfaction and
to effectively manage yourself.
helping to safeguard your career progression.

Examples of soft skills

Lifelong learning
Personal awareness & how you project yourself Examples of hard skills
Monitor and assess your development through employers’ structured programmes
Openness to diversity, equality and inclusion Writing and understanding reports
Maintain a portfolio of what you have learned and /or personal motivation
Perceiving and understanding other people Performing numerical and analytical tasks e.g. Continuing Professional Development (CPD)
- your personal development.
Written, verbal and non-verbal communications Using computers to help solve problems MBA, MA, MSc, PhD
The employability skills you have attained or
Social interactions with others and Understanding accounting & finance Enhancing your personal
enhanced during your course of study.
team working skills and employability
Chapter 0 Your study of management and organisational behaviour

Knowledge and application of the law

A useful basis for discussion with a Self-awareness and confidence
Personal organisation and time management
in the work place potential employer. Relationships with others
Coping with change
Foreign language skills Regularly assessing progression of your Communication and presentation skills
Showing patience Working in groups and teams
Project management personal skills and employability by reviewing your
Showing flexibility learning and development under the following Dealing with difficult situations
Customer knowledge Influencing others and leadership
Motivating others broad headings.
Many tasks require soft and Coping with and managing change
Able to persuade UK skills shortages
hard skills e.g., Observing ethical behaviour
* Lack focus on people management,
Coaching and mentoring; Communicating - content of the message Working in multicultural organisations
social skills and interpersonal behaviour.
and how it is presented * Need for awareness and acceptance of
Working in a multicultural society Display managerial potential
Problem solving - selecting the technique(s) Individual differences and diversity.
- involving colleagues

Figure 4 Personal skills and employability

Source: Copyright © 2011 The Virtual Learning Materials Workshop. Reproduced with permission.

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 Chapter 0 Your study of management and organisational behaviour 17

Structure of the book

For those familiar with previous editions of Management and Organisational
Behaviour the revised structure of this edition entails attention to re-ordering
throughout the text. Focus is on the overall plan of the book and sequence of
contents between and within chapters.
In response to reviewer feedback this edition provides a clearer focus on
undergraduate students of organisational behaviour. Efforts have been made to
provide a text of manageable size and enhanced readability.
There is a logical flow to the sequencing of topic areas which follow the accepted
broad pattern of individual, group, organisation and environment. In addition to this
chapter, the book is structured in five sections with sixteen chapters all within a
broadly similar word count.

Chapter 0 Your study of organisational behaviour

Part 1 Organisational behaviour and work

Chapter 1 The people–organisation relationship
Chapter 2 The work environment
Chapter 3 Organisational conflict and stress

Part 2 Focus on the individual

Chapter 4 Personality and diversity
Chapter 5 Learning and development
Chapter 6 Perception and communication
Chapter 7 Work motivation and satisfaction

Part 3 Focus on groups and leadership

Chapter 8 Working in groups and teams
Chapter 9 Leadership in work organisations
Chapter 10 Managing people at work

Part 4 Focus on the workplace

Chapter 11 Organisational theory and structure
Chapter 12 Patterns of structure and workplace design
Chapter 13 Organisational control and power

Part 5 Focus on organisational environment

Chapter 14 Organisational culture and change
Chapter 15 Strategy, corporate responsibility and ethics
Chapter 16 Organisational performance and effectiveness

Distinctive format
Each chapter of the book is self-contained with appropriate cross-referencing to
other chapters. This provides a flexible approach. Selection and ordering of chapters
can be varied to suit the demands of particular courses of study or individual
interests.

M00 Management and Organisational Behaviour 22381.indd 17 17/02/2023 10:53

 18 Chapter 0 Your study of management and organisational behaviour

The book is written with a minimum of technical terminology and the format is
clearly structured. Each chapter is supported with illustrations and practical examples
and contains:

• Learning outcomes and outline chapter contents at the start of the chapter to
help you see what you will be reading and monitor progress through the book.
• An overview topic map providing a visual representation of flow of main contents
and links with other chapters. Each map is pre-perforated for easy detachment.
The collection of maps may be helpful for study and revision purposes.
• ‘You’ critical review questions throughout the text encourage your own critical
thinking and reflection of what you have just read.
• Pictorial concept maps provide a ‘mind map’ of an important topic featured in the
chapter (you may find a similar idea helpful for your studies and revision).
• A summary of key points as a reminder of the chapter contents and an aid to
revision.
• Group discussion activities to encourage critical review and feedback, and
experience of small group discussions in an open and non-threatening
environment.
• Organisational behaviour in action case studies giving valuable insights into a
practical real-world situation, with tasks to encourage further thoughts.
• Personal skills and employability exercises with clear objectives to encourage you
to think about the personal skills you will need in your future career.
• Detailed notes and references enable you to pursue further any issues of particular
interest.

Notes and references

1. Vecchio, R. P. Organizational Behavior: Core Concepts, 7. Drummond, H. Introduction to Organisational Behaviour,
sixth edition, The Dryden Press (2005). Oxford University Press (2000).
2. Watson, T. J. Organising and Managing Work, second 8. Hellriegel, D., Slocum, J. W. and Woodman, R. W.
edition, Financial Times Prentice Hall (2006), p. 55. Organizational Behavior, eighth edition, South-Western
3. See, for example, Billsberry, J. ‘There’s Nothing So Publishing (1998), p. 5.
Practical as a Good Theory: How Can Theory Help 9. Egan, G. ‘The Shadow Side’, Management Today,
Managers Become More Effective?’, in Billsberry, J. (ed.) September 1993, pp. 33–8.
The Effective Manager: Perspectives and Illustrations, 10. Howes, L. ‘The Real Workplace Battle’, Professional
Sage Publications (1996), pp. 1–27; and Naylor, J. Manager, Winter 2014, pp. 60–3
Management, second edition, Financial Times Prentice 11. Wood, J. ‘Deep Roots and Far From a “Soft” Option’,
Hall (2004), pp. 13–15. Financial Times Mastering Management, Financial Times
4. McGregor, D. The Human Side of Enterprise, Penguin Pitman Publishing (1997), p. 217.
(1987), p. 6. 12. Robbins, S. P. and Judge, T. A. Organizational Behavior,
5. Patching, K. Management and Organisation thirteenth edition, Pearson PrenticeHall (2009) p. 50.
Development, Macmillan Business (1999), p. 11. 13. Success Stories, The Employability and Enterprise Skills
6. Morgan, G. Creative Organisation Theory, Sage Experience. Accessed at www.ubcworldwide.com/
Publications (1989), p. 26 uk-success-stories/ on 17 May 2022.

M00 Management and Organisational Behaviour 22381.indd 18 17/02/2023 10:53

 Chapter 0 Your study of management and organisational behaviour 19

14. ‘Skills Development in the UK Workplace: Factsheet’, 18. De Bono, E. ‘The Power of Proactive Thinking’. Accessed
CIPD, 30 July 2021. Accessed at www.cipd.co.uk/ at www.management-issues.com/opinion/5883/the-
knowledge/work/skills/skills-factsheet on 17 May 2022. power-of-proactive-thinking/ on 17 May 2022.
15. ‘Forging Futures: Building Higher Level Skills through 19. Misselhorn, H. ‘Proactive Versus Reactive Thinking’ JPS
University and Employer Collaboration’, UKCES, Associates, www.jpsa.co.za, March 2017.
September 2014. 20. Rock, D. Your Brain at Work, Harper Business (2009).
16. ‘Growth Through People’, UKCES, 25 November 2014. 21. Furnham, A. ‘How to Make Yourself More
17. ‘The Skills Crunch’ Prince’s Trust, 2014. Accessed at www. mplo able The e mplo abilit Skills o the 201
princes-trust.org.uk/our-offices/searchresults?searchParam= Worker’ Insights, Chartered Management Institute, 6
skills+crunch on 17 May 2022. May 2016.

M00 Management and Organisational Behaviour 22381.indd 19 17/02/2023 10:53

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
cables all over the world being 2937, with a total length of 291,137
nautical miles.
Before describing the actual working of a submarine cable, a few
words on cable-laying may be of interest. Before the cable-ship
starts, another vessel is sent over the proposed course to make
soundings. Galvanized steel pianoforte wire is used for sounding,
and it is wound in lengths of 3 or 4 nautical miles on gun-metal
drums. The drums are worked by an engine, and the average speed
of working is somewhere about 100 fathoms a minute in descending,
and 70 fathoms a minute in picking up. Some idea of the time
occupied may be gained from a sounding in the Atlantic Ocean
which registered a depth of 3233 fathoms, or nearly 3½ miles. The
sinker took thirty-three minutes fifty seconds in descending, and
forty-five minutes were taken in picking up. The heavy sinker is not
brought up with the line, but is detached from the sounder by an
ingenious contrivance and left at the bottom. The sounder is fitted
with an arrangement to bring up a specimen of the bottom, and also
a sample of water; and the temperature at any depth is ascertained
by self-registering thermometers.
When the soundings are complete the cable-ship takes up her
task. The cable is coiled in tanks on board, and is kept constantly
under water to prevent injury to the gutta-percha insulation by
overheating. As each section is placed in the tank, the ends of it are
led to a test-box, and labelled so that they can be easily recognized.
Insulated wires run from the test-box to instruments in the testing-
room, so that the electrical condition of the whole cable is constantly
under observation. During the whole time the cable is being laid its
insulation is tested continuously, and at intervals of five minutes
signals are sent from the shore end to the ship, so that a fault is
instantly detected. The cable in its tank is eased out by a number of
men, and mechanics are posted at the cable drums and brakes,
while constant streams of water cool the cable and the bearings and
surfaces of the brakes. The tension, as shown by the dynamometer,
is at all times under careful observation. When it becomes necessary
to wind back the cable on account of some fault, cuts are made at
intervals of a quarter or half a mile, tests being made at each cutting
until the fault is localized in-board. As soon as the cable out-board is
found “O.K.,” the ends are spliced up and the paying-out begins
again. If the cable breaks from any cause, a mark-buoy is lowered
instantly on the spot, and the cable is grappled for. This may take a
day or two in good weather, but a delay of weeks may be caused by
bad weather, which makes grappling impossible.
The practical working of a submarine cable differs in many
respects from that of a land telegraph line. The currents used in
submarine telegraphy are extremely small, contrary to the popular
impression. An insulated cable acts like a Leyden jar, in the sense
that it accumulates electricity and does not quickly part with it, as
does a bare overhead wire. In the case of a very long cable, such as
one across the Atlantic, a current continues to flow from it for some
time after the battery is disconnected. A second signal cannot be
sent until the electricity is dissipated and the cable clear, and if a
powerful current were employed the time occupied in this clearing
would be considerable, so that the speed of signalling would be slow.
Another objection to a powerful current is that if any flaw exists in the
insulation of the cable, such a current is apt to increase the flaw, and
finally cause the breakdown of the line.
The feebleness of the currents in submarine telegraphy makes it
impossible to use the ordinary land telegraph receiver, and a more
sensitive instrument known as the “mirror receiver” is used. This
consists of a coil of very fine wire, in the centre of which a tiny
magnetic needle is suspended by a fibre of unspun silk. A magnet
placed close by keeps the needle in one position when no current is
flowing. As the deflections of the needle are extremely small, it is
necessary to magnify them in some way, and this is done by fixing to
the needle a very small mirror, upon which falls a ray of light from a
lamp. The mirror reflects this ray on to a sheet of white paper
marked with a scale, and as the mirror moves along with the needle
the point of light travels over the paper, a very small movement of
the needle causing the light to travel some inches. The receiving
operator sits in a darkened room and watches the light, which moves
to the right or to the left according to the direction of the current. The
signals employed are the same as those for the single-needle
instrument, a movement to the left indicating a dot, and one to the
right a dash. In many instruments the total weight of magnet and
mirror is only two or three grains, and the sensitiveness is such that
the current from a voltaic cell consisting of a lady’s silver thimble with
a few drops of acidulated water and a diminutive rod of zinc, is
sufficient to transmit a message across the Atlantic.
The mirror receiver cannot write down its messages, and for
recording purposes an instrument invented by Lord Kelvin, and
called the “siphon recorder,” is used. In this instrument a coil of wire
is suspended between the poles of an electro-magnet, and to it is
connected by means of a silk fibre a delicate glass tube or siphon.
One end of the siphon dips into an ink-well, and capillary attraction
causes the ink to fill the siphon. The other end of the siphon almost
touches a moving paper ribbon placed beneath it. The ink and the
paper are oppositely electrified, and the attraction between the
opposite charges causes the ink to spurt out of the siphon in very
minute drops, which fall on to the paper. As long as no current is
passing the siphon remains stationary, but when a current flows from
the cable through the coil, the latter moves to one side or the other,
according to the direction of the current, and makes the siphon move
also. Consequently, instead of a straight line along the middle of the
paper ribbon, a wavy line with little peaks on each side of the centre
is produced by the minute drops of ink. This recorder sometimes
refuses to work properly in damp weather, owing to the loss of the
opposite charges on ink and paper, but a later inventor, named
Cuttriss, has removed this trouble by using a siphon kept constantly
in vibration by electro-magnetism. The ordinary single-needle code is
used for the siphon recorder.
 CHAPTER XVIII
THE TELEPHONE

In our younger days most of us have amused ourselves with a toy

telephone consisting of a long piece of string having each end
passed through the bottom of a little cardboard box, and secured by
a knot. If the string is stretched tightly this arrangement enables
whispered words to be heard at a distance of 20 or 30 yards. Simple
as is this little toy, yet it is probable that many people would be rather
nonplussed if asked suddenly to explain how the sounds travel along
the string from one box to the other. If the toy had some complicated
mechanism most likely every one would want to know how it worked,
but the whole thing is so extremely simple that generally it is
dismissed without a thought.
If we strike a tuning-fork and then hold it close to the ear, we
hear that it produces a sound, and at the same time, from a slight
sensation in the hand, we become aware that the fork is in vibration.
As the fork vibrates it disturbs the tiny particles of air round it and
sets them vibrating, and these vibrations are communicated from
one particle to another until they reach the drum of the ear, when
that also begins to vibrate and we hear a sound. This is only another
way of saying that the disturbances of the air caused by the
vibrations of the tuning-fork are propagated in a series of waves,
which we call “sound waves.” Sound is transmitted better through
liquids than through the air, and better still through solids, and this is
why words spoken so softly as to be inaudible through the air at a
distance of, say, 100 feet, can be heard fairly distinctly at that
distance by means of the string telephone. The sound reaches us
along the string in exactly the same way as through the air, that is,
by means of minute impulses passed on from particle to particle.
 A more satisfactory arrangement than the string telephone
consists of two thin plates of metal connected by a wire which is
stretched very tightly. Words spoken close to one plate are heard by
a listener at the other plate up to a considerable distance. Let us try
to see exactly what takes place when this apparatus is used. In the
act of speaking, vibrations are set up in the air, and these in turn set
up vibrations in the metal plate. The vibrations are then
communicated to the wire and to the metal plate at the other end,
and finally the vibrations of this plate produce vibrations in the air
between the plate and the listener, and the sound reaches the ear.
This simple experiment shows the remarkable fact that a plate of
metal is able to reproduce faithfully all the vibrations communicated
to it by the human voice, and from this fact it follows that if we can
communicate the vibrations set up in one plate by the voice, to
another plate at a distance of 100 miles, we shall be able to speak to
a listener at the further plate just as if he were close to us. A
stretched string or wire transmits the vibrations fairly well up to a
certain distance, but beyond this distance the vibrations become
weaker and weaker until no sound at all reaches the air. By the aid of
electricity, however, we can transmit the vibrations to a tremendous
distance, the range being limited only by the imperfections of our
apparatus.
The first attempt at the construction of an electric telephone, that
is an instrument by means of which the vibrations set up by the voice
or by a musical instrument are transmitted by electricity, was made in
1860 by Johann Philipp Reis, a teacher in a school at Friedrichsdorf,
in Germany. His transmitting apparatus consisted of a box having a
hole covered by a tightly stretched membrane, to which was
attached a little strip of platinum. When the membrane was made to
vibrate by sounds produced close to the box, the strip of platinum
moved to and fro against a metal tip, which closed the circuit of a
battery. The receiver was a long needle of soft iron round which was
wound a coil of wire, and the ends of the needle rested on two little
bridges of a sounding box. The vibrations of the membrane opened
and closed the circuit at a great speed, and the rapid magnetization
of the needle produced a tone of the same pitch as the one which
set the membrane vibrating. This apparatus transmitted musical
sounds and melodies with great accuracy, but there is considerable
difference of opinion as to whether it was able to transmit speech.
Professor Sylvanus Thompson distinctly states that Reis’s telephone
could and did transmit speech, but other experts dispute the fact. We
probably shall be quite safe in concluding that this telephone did
transmit speech, but very imperfectly. In any case it is certain that
the receiver of this apparatus is not based on the same principle as
the modern telephone receiver.
Some years later Graham Bell, Professor of Vocal Physiology in
the University of Boston, turned his attention to the electric
transmission of speech, probably being led to do so from his
experiments in teaching the deaf and dumb. His apparatuses shown
at an exhibition in Philadelphia in 1876, consisted of a tube having
one end open for speaking into, and the other closed by a tightly
stretched membrane to which was attached a very light steel bar
magnet. The vibrations set up in the membrane by the voice made
the little magnet move to and fro in front of the poles of an electro-
magnet, inserted in a battery circuit, thus inducing currents of
electricity in the coils of the latter magnet. The currents produced in
this way varied in direction and strength according to the vibratory
movements of the membrane, and being transmitted along a wire
they produced similar variations in current in another electro-magnet
in the receiver. The currents produced in this manner in the receiver
set up vibrations in a metal diaphragm in front of the magnet poles,
and so the words spoken into the transmitter were reproduced.
Since the year 1876 the telephone has developed with
remarkable rapidity, and an attempt to trace its growth would involve
a series of detailed descriptions of closely similar inventions which
would be quite uninteresting to most readers. Now, therefore, that we
have introduced the instruments, and seen something of its principle
and its early forms, it will be most satisfactory to omit the
intermediate stages and to go on to the telephone as used in recent
years. The first telephone to come into general use was the invention
of Graham Bell, and was an improved form of his early instrument
just described. A case or tube of ebonite, which forms the handle of
the instrument, contains a steel bar magnet having a small coil of
insulated wire at the end nearest the mouthpiece of the tube, the
ends of the coil passing along the tube to be connected to the line
wires. Close to the coil end of the magnet, and between it and the
mouthpiece, is fixed a diaphragm of thin sheet-iron. A complete outfit
consists of two of these instruments connected by wires, and it will
be noticed that no battery is employed.
The air vibrations set up by the voice make the diaphragm
vibrate also, so that it moves backwards and forwards. These
movements are infinitesimally small, but they are sufficient to affect
the lines of force of the magnet to such an extent that rapidly
alternating currents of varying degrees of strength are set up in the
coil and sent along the line wire. On arriving at the receiver these
currents pass through the coil and produce rapid variations in the
strength of the magnet, so that instead of exerting a uniform
attraction upon the iron diaphragm, the magnet pulls it with
constantly varying force, and thus sets it vibrating. The air in front of
the diaphragm now begins to vibrate, and the listener hears a
reproduction of the words spoken into the transmitter. The way in
which the fluctuations of the current make the second diaphragm
vibrate exactly in accordance with the first is very remarkable, and it
is important to notice that the listener does not hear the actual voice
of the speaker, but a perfect reproduction of it; in fact, the second
diaphragm speaks.
The reader probably will be surprised to be told that the
transmitter and the receiver of a magneto-electric telephone are
respectively a dynamo and electric motor of minute proportions. We
provide a dynamo with mechanical motion and it gives us electric
current, and by sending this current through an electric motor we get
mechanical motion back again. In the transmitter of the telephone
just described, the mechanical motion is in the form of vibrations of
the metal diaphragm, which set up currents of electricity in the coil of
wire round the magnet, so that the transmitter is really a tiny dynamo
driven by the voice. The receiver is provided with electric current
from the transmitter, and it converts this into mechanical motion in
the diaphragm, so that the receiver is a little electric motor.
 Transmitters of the type just described work well over short
distances, but the currents they produce are too feeble for
transmission over a very long wire, and on this account they have
been superseded by transmitters on the microphone principle. A
microphone is an instrument for making extremely small sounds
plainly audible. If a current is passed through a box containing loose
bits of broken carbon, it meets with great resistance, but if the bits of
carbon are compressed their conducting power is considerably
increased. Even such slight differences in pressure as are produced
by vibrating the box will affect the amount of current passing through
the carbon. If this current is led by wires to an ordinary telephone
receiver the arrangement becomes a simple form of microphone.
The vibrations of the box vary the resistance of the carbon, and the
corresponding variations in the current set up vibrations in the
receiver, but in a magnified form. The smallest sound vibrations alter
the resistance of the carbon, and as these vibrations are magnified
in the receiver, the reproduced sound is magnified also. The
footsteps of a fly may be heard quite distinctly by means of a good
microphone, and the ticks of a watch sound like the strokes of a
hammer.
By means of this power of magnifying
vibrations a microphone transmitter can
be used on a line of tremendous length,
where an ordinary Bell transmitter would
be utterly useless. The general features
of this transmitter, Fig. 31, are a
diaphragm and a block of carbon
separated slightly from one another, the
intervening space being filled with
granules of carbon. These are enclosed
in a case of ebonite having a mouthpiece
in front and two terminals behind, one
Fig. 31.—Diagram of
terminal being connected with the carbon Microphone Transmitter.
block and the other with the diaphragm.
From these terminals wires are led to a
battery and to the receiver, which is of the Bell type. The current has
to pass through the carbon granules, and the movements of the
diaphragm when set in vibration by the voice vary the pressure upon
the granules, and in this way set up variations in the current. Carbon
dust also may be used instead of granular carbon, and then the
instrument is called a “dust transmitter.”
It is usual to have a transmitter and a receiver
on one handle for the greater convenience of the
user. The arrangement is shown in Fig. 32, and it
will be seen that when the user places the receiver
to his ear the transmitting mouthpiece is in position
for speaking. The microphone with its carbon dust
is placed at A, just below the mouthpiece, and the
earpiece or receiver B contains a little magnet and
coil with a diaphragm in front, so that it is really a
Bell instrument. A little lever will be noticed at C.
This is a switch which brings the transmitter into
circuit on being pressed with the finger.
It is now time to see something of the
arrangement and working of telephone systems.
As soon as the telephone became a commercially
Fig. 32.— practicable instrument the necessity for some
Combined means of inter-communication became evident,
Telephone and the telephone exchange was brought into
Transmitter and being. The first exchange was started in 1877, in
Receiver.
Boston, but this was a very small affair and it was
run on very crude lines. When one subscriber
wished to communicate with another he had to call up an operator,
who received the message and repeated it to the person for whom it
was intended; there was no direct communication between the
various subscribers’ instruments. As the number of users increased
it became necessary to devise some system whereby each
subscriber could call the attention of an operator at the central
station, and be put into direct communication with any other
subscriber without delay; and the exchange system of to-day, which
fulfils these requirements almost to perfection, is the result of gradual
improvements in telephone methods extending over some thirty-five
years.
 When a subscriber wishes to telephone, he first must call up the
operator at the exchange. Until comparatively recently this was done
by turning a handle placed at the side of the instrument. This handle
operated a little dynamo, and the current produced caused a shutter
at the exchange to drop and reveal a number, just as in the electric
bell indicator, so that the operator knew which instrument was
calling. As soon as the operator answered the call, the shutter
replaced itself automatically. The signal to disconnect was given in
the same way, but the indicator was of a different colour in order to
prevent confusion with a call signal. These handle-operated
telephones are still in common use, but they are being replaced by
instruments which do away with handle-turning on the part of the
subscriber, and with dropping shutters at the exchange. In this latest
system all that the subscriber has to do is to lift his telephone from its
rest, when a little electric lamp lights up at the exchange; and when
he has finished his conversation he merely replaces the telephone,
and again a little lamp glows.
We must now see what happens at the exchange when a call is
made. Each operator has control of a number of pairs of flexible
cords terminating in plugs, the two cords of each pair being
electrically connected. The plugs rest on a shelf in front of the
operator, and the cords pass through the shelf and hang down below
it. If a plug is lifted, the cord comes up through the shelf, and it is
drawn back again by a weight when the plug is not in use. Two
lamps are provided for each pair of cords, one being fixed close to
each cord. The two wires leading from each subscriber’s instrument
are connected to a little tube-shaped switch called a “jack,” and each
jack has a lamp of its own. When a subscriber lifts his telephone
from its rest a lamp glows, and the operator inserts one plug of a pair
into the jack thus indicated, and the lamp goes out automatically.
She then switches on her telephone to the caller and asks for the
number of the subscriber to whom he wishes to speak; and as soon
as she gets this she inserts the other plug of the pair into the jack
belonging to this number. By a simple movement she then rings up
the required person by switching on the current to his telephone bell.
 Here comes in the use of the two lamps connected with the
cords. As long as the subscribers’ telephones are on their rests the
lamps are lighted, but as soon as they are lifted off the lamps go out.
The caller’s telephone is of course off its rest, and so the lamp
connected with the first cord is not lit; but until the subscriber rung up
lifts his instrument to answer the call, the lamp of the second cord
remains lit, having first lighted up when the plug was inserted in the
jack of his number. When the second lamp goes out the operator
knows that the call has been responded to, and that the two
subscribers are in communication with each other. Having finished
their conversation, both subscribers replace their instruments on the
rests, whereupon both lamps light up, informing the operator that she
may disconnect by pulling out the plugs.
It is manifestly impossible for one operator to attend to the calls
of all the subscribers in the exchange, and so a number of operators
are employed, each one having to attend to the calls of a certain
number of subscribers. At the same time it is clear that each
operator may be called upon to connect one of her subscribers to
any other subscriber in the whole exchange. In order to make this
possible the switchboard is divided into sections, each having as
many jacks as there are lines in the exchange, so that in this respect
all the sections are multiples of each other, and the whole
arrangement is called a “multiple switchboard,” the repeated jacks
being called “multiple jacks.” Then there are other jacks which it is
not necessary to duplicate. We have seen that when a subscriber
calls the exchange a lamp glows, and the operator inserts a plug into
the jack beside the lamp, in order to answer the call and ascertain
what number is required. These are called “answering jacks,” and
the lamp is the line signal. It is usual to have three operators to each
section of the switchboard, and each operator has charge of so
many answering jacks, representing so many subscribers. At the
same time she has access to the whole section, so that she can
connect any of her subscribers to any other line in the exchange.
When a number is called for, the operator must be able to tell at
once whether the line is free or not. The jack in her section may be
unoccupied, but she must know also whether all the multiple jacks
belonging to that number are free, for an operator at another section
may have connected the line to one of her subscribers. To enable an
operator to ascertain this quickly an electrical test is provided. When
two lines are connected, the whole of the multiple jacks belonging to
each are charged with electricity, and if an operator at any section
touches one of these jacks with a plug, a current through her
receiver makes a click, and on hearing the click she knows that the
line is engaged. The testing takes an extremely short time, and this
is why a caller receives the reply, “Number engaged,” so promptly
that he feels inclined to doubt whether the operator has made any
attempt at all to connect him up to the number.
In order that an operator may have both hands free to
manipulate the plugs, her telephone receiver is fixed over one ear by
a fastening passing over her head, and the transmitter is hung from
her shoulders so as to be close to her mouth.
In telegraphy it is the rule to employ the earth for the return part
of the circuit, but this is not customary in telephony. The telephone is
a much more sensitive instrument than the telegraph, and a
telephone having an earth return is subject to all kinds of strange
and weird noises which greatly interfere with conversation. These
noises may be caused by natural electrical disturbances, or by the
proximity of telegraph and other wires conveying electric currents.
On this account telephone lines are made with a complete metallic
circuit. As in telegraphy, protection from lightning flashes is afforded
by lightning arresters. The current for the working of a telephone
exchange is supplied from a central battery of accumulators, and
also from dynamos.
 PLATE XII.

By permission of Craven Brothers Ltd.

LARGE ELECTRIC TRAVELLING CRANE AT A RAILWAY WORKS.

Although the manual exchange telephone system of to-day

works with remarkable efficiency, it has certain weak points. For
instance, if an operator cares to do so, she can listen to
conversations between subscribers, so that privacy cannot be
assured. As a matter of fact, the operators have little time for this
kind of thing, at any rate during the busy hours of the day, and as a
rule they are not sufficiently interested in other people’s affairs to
make any attempt to listen to their remarks. The male operators who
work through the slack hours of the night are occasionally guilty of
listening. Some time ago the writer had to ring up a friend in the very
early morning, and during the conversation this gentleman asked
what time it was. Before the writer had time to get a word out, a deep
bass voice from the exchange replied, “Half-past two.” Little incidents
of this sort remind one that it is not wise to speak too freely by
telephone. Then again operators are liable to make wrong
connexions through faulty hearing of the number called for, and
these are equally annoying to the caller and to the person rung up in
mistake. Many other defects might be mentioned, but these are
sufficient to show that the manual system is not perfect.
For a long time inventors have been striving to do away with all
such defects by abolishing the exchange operators, and substituting
mechanism to work the exchanges automatically, and during the last
few years the system of the Automatic Electric Company, of
Chicago, has been brought to great perfection. This system is in
extensive use in the United States, and is employed in two or three
exchanges in this country. Unfortunately the mechanism of this
system is extremely complicated, so that it is impossible to describe
it fully in a book of this kind; but some idea of the method of working
may be given without entering into technical details.
Each subscriber’s telephone instrument is fitted with a dial which
turns round on a pivot at its centre. This dial has a series of holes
round its circumference, numbered consecutively from 1 to 9, and 0.
Suppose now a subscriber wishes to speak to a friend whose
telephone number is 2583. He removes the receiver from its hook,
places his finger in the hole marked 2, and turns the dial round in a
clockwise direction until his finger comes in contact with a stop. He
then removes his finger, and the dial automatically returns to its
original position. He then places his finger in the hole marked 5, and
again turns the dial as far as the stop, and when the dial has
returned to the normal position he repeats the process with his finger
placed successively in the holes marked 8 and 3. He now places the
receiver to his ear, and by the time he has done this the automatic
mechanism at the exchange has made the necessary connexions,
and has rung the bell of subscriber number 2583. On completing the
conversation each subscriber returns his receiver to its hook, and the
exchange mechanism returns to its normal position.
The turning of the dial by the finger coils up a spring, and this
spring, acting along with a speed governor, makes the dial return to
its first position at a certain definite speed as soon as the finger is
removed. During this retrograde movement a switch automatically
sends out into the line a certain number of impulses, the number
being determined by the hole in which the finger is placed. In the
case supposed, groups of two, five, eight, and three impulses
respectively would be sent out, each group separated from the next
by an interval during which the subscriber is turning the dial.
Now let us see what takes place at the exchange. The
subscriber’s instrument is connected to a mechanical arrangement
known as a “line switch.” This switch is brought into play by the act of
removing the receiver from its hook, and it then automatically
connects the subscriber’s line to what is called a “first selector”
switch. The group of two impulses sent out by the first turning of the
dial raises this first selector two steps, and it then sweeps along a
row of contacts connected to “trunks” going to the 2000 section.
Passing by occupied trunks, it finds an idle one, and so connects the
line to an idle “second selector.” This selector is operated by the
second group of impulses, five in number, and after being raised five
steps it acts like the first selector, and finds an idle trunk leading to
the 2500 section. This places the caller’s line in connexion with still
another switch called a “connector,” and this switch, operated by the
remaining groups of eight and three impulses, finds the required tens
section, and selects the third member of that section. If the number
2583 is disengaged, the connector switch now sends current from
the central battery to this instrument, thus ringing its bell, and it also
supplies speaking current to the two lines during the conversation,
restores the exchange mechanism to its original condition as soon
as the conversation is ended and the subscribers have hung up their
receivers, and registers the call on the calling subscriber’s meter. If
the connector finds the number engaged, it sends out an intermittent
buzzing sound, to inform the caller of the fact. All these operations
take time to describe, even in outline, but in practice they are carried
out with the utmost rapidity, each step in the connecting-up process
taking only a small fraction of a second.
For ordinary local calls the automatic system requires no
operators at all, but for the convenience of users there are usually
two clerks at the exchange, one to give any information required by
subscribers, and the other to record complaints regarding faulty
working. For trunk calls, the subscriber places his finger in the hole
marked 0, and gives the dial one turn. This connects him to an
operator at the trunk switchboard, who makes the required
connexion and then calls him up in the usual way.
It might be thought that the complex mechanism of an automatic
exchange would constantly be getting out of order, but it is found to
work with great smoothness. Each automatic switchboard has a
skilled electrician in attendance, and he is informed instantly of any
faulty working by means of supervisory lamps and other signals.
Even without these signals the attendant would be quickly aware of
any breakdown, for his ear becomes so accustomed to the sounds
made by the apparatus during the connecting-up, that any abnormal
sound due to faulty connecting attracts his attention at once.
However detected, the faults are put right immediately, and it often
happens that a defective line is noted and repaired before the
subscriber knows that anything is wrong.
On account of its high speed in making connexions and
disconnexions, its absolute accuracy, and its privacy, the automatic
telephone system has proved most popular wherever it has been
given a fair trial. Its advantages are most obvious in large city
exchanges where the traffic during business hours is tremendously
heavy, and it is probable that before very long the automatic system
will have replaced manual methods for all such exchanges.
The telephone system is more highly developed in the United
States than in this country, and some of the exchanges have been
made to do a great deal more than simply transmit messages. For
instance, in Chicago there is a system by which a subscriber, on
connecting himself to a special circuit, is automatically informed of
the correct time, by means of phonographs, between the hours of 8
a.m. and 10 p.m. New York goes further than this however, and has
a regular system of news circulation by telephone. According to
Electricity, the daily programme is as follows: “8 a.m., exact
astronomical time; 8 to 9 a.m., weather reports, London Stock
Exchange news, special news item; 9 to 9.30 a.m., sales,
amusements, business events; 9.45 to 10 a.m., personal news,
small notices; 10 to 10.30 a.m., New York Stock Exchange and
market news; 11.30 a.m. to 12 noon, local news, miscellaneous; 12
noon, exact astronomical time, latest telegrams, military and
parliamentary news; 2 to 2.15 p.m., European cables; 1.15 to 2.30
p.m., Washington news; 2.30 to 2.45 p.m., fashions, ladies’ news;
2.45 to 3.15 p.m., sporting and theatrical news; 3.15 to 3.30 p.m.,
closing news from Wall Street; 3.30 to 5 p.m., musical news, recitals,
etc.; 5 to 6 p.m., feuilleton sketches, literary news; 8 to 10.30 p.m.,
selected evening performance—music, opera, recitations.”
Considering the elaborate nature of this scheme one might imagine
that the subscription would be high, but as a matter of fact it is only
six shillings per month.
The telephone has proved of great value in mine rescue work, in
providing means of communication between the rescue party and
those in the rear. This end is achieved by means of a portable
telephone, but as the members of a rescue party often wear oxygen
helmets, the ordinary telephone mouthpiece is of no use. To
overcome this difficulty the transmitter is fastened round the throat.
The vibrations of the vocal cords pass through the wall of the throat,
and thus operate the transmitter. The receiver is fixed over one ear
by means of suitable head-gear, and the connecting wire is laid by
the advancing rescuers. A case containing some hundreds of feet of
wire is strapped round the waist, and as the wearer walks forward
this wire pays itself out automatically.
By the time that the telephone came to be a really practical
instrument, capable of communicating over long distances on land,
the Atlantic telegraph cable was in operation, and an attempt was
made to telephone from one continent to the other by means of it,
but without success. In speaking of submarine telegraphy in Chapter
XVII. we saw that the cable acts like a Leyden jar, and it was this fact
that made it impossible to telephone through more than about 20
miles of cable, so that transatlantic telephony was quite out of the
question. It was evident that little progress could be made in this
direction unless some means could be devised for neutralizing this
capacity effect, as it is called, of the cable, and finally it was
discovered that this could be done by inserting at intervals along the
cable a number of coils of wire. These coils are known as “loading
coils,” and a cable provided with them is called a “loaded cable.”
Such cables have been laid across various narrow seas, such as
between England and France, and England and Ireland, and these
have proved very successful for telephonic communication. The
problem of transatlantic telephony however still remains to be
solved. Experiments have been made in submarine telephony over a
bare iron cable, instead of the usual insulated cable. Conversations
have been carried on in this way without difficulty between Seattle,
Washington, U.S.A., and Vashon Island, a total distance of about 11
miles, and it is possible that uninsulated cables may play an
extremely important part in the development of submarine telephony.
 CHAPTER XIX
SOME TELEGRAPHIC AND TELEPHONIC
INVENTIONS

In telegraphy messages not only may be received, but also

recorded, by the Morse printer or one of its modifications, but in
ordinary telephony there is no mechanical method of recording
messages. This means that we can communicate by telephone only
when we can call up somebody to receive the message at the other
end, and if no one happens to be within hearing of the telephone bell
we are quite helpless. This is always annoying, and if the message is
urgent the delay may be serious. Several arrangements for
overcoming this difficulty by means of automatic recording
mechanism have been invented, but the only really successful one is
the telegraphone.
This instrument is the invention of Waldemar Poulsen, whose
apparatus for wireless telegraphy we shall speak of in the next
chapter. The telegraphone performs at the same time the work of a
telephone and of a phonograph. In the ordinary type of phonograph
the record is made in the form of depressions or indentations on the
surface of a cylinder of wax; these indentations being produced by a
stylus actuated by vibrations set up in a diaphragm by the act of
speaking. In the telegraphone the same result is obtained entirely by
electro-magnetic action. The wax cylinder of the phonograph is
replaced by a steel wire or ribbon, and the recording stylus by an
electro-magnet. The steel ribbon is arranged to travel along over two
cylinders or reels kept in constant rotation, and a small electro-
magnet is fixed midway between the cylinders so that the ribbon
passes close above it. This magnet is connected to the telephone
line, so that its magnetism fluctuates in accordance with the
variations in the current in the line. We have seen that steel retains
magnetism imparted to it. In passing over the electro-magnet the
steel ribbon is magnetized in constantly varying degrees,
corresponding exactly with the variations in the line current set up by
the speaker’s voice, and these magnetic impressions are retained by
the ribbon. When the speaker has finished, the telephone line is
disconnected, the ribbon is carried back to the point at which it
started, and the apparatus is connected to the telephone receiver.
The ribbon now moves forward again, and this time it acts like the
speaker’s voice, the varying intensity of its magnetic record
producing corresponding variations in the strength of the magnet, so
causing the receiver diaphragm to reproduce the sounds in the
ordinary way.
The magnetic record made in this manner is fairly permanent,
and if desired it may be reproduced over and over again. In most
cases, however, a permanent record is of no value, and so the
magnetic impressions are obliterated in order that the ribbon may be
used to take a new record. This can be done by passing a
permanent magnet along the ribbon, but it is more convenient to
have an automatic obliterating arrangement. This consists of another
electro-magnet fixed close to the recording magnet, so that the
ribbon passes over it before reaching the latter. The obliterating
magnet is connected with a battery, and its unvarying magnetism
destroys all traces of the previous record, and the ribbon passes
forward to the recording magnet ready to receive new impressions.
For recording telephone messages the telegraphone is attached
to the telephone instrument, and by automatically operated switches
it is set working by a distant speaker. It records all messages
received during the absence of its owner, who, on his return,
connects it to his receiver, and thus hears a faithful reproduction of
every word. By speaking into his instrument before going out, the
owner can leave a message stating the time at which he expects to
return, and this message will be repeated by the telegraphone to
anybody ringing up in the meantime. The most recent forms of
telegraphone are capable of recording speeches over an hour in