Instant Download Think Python 1st Edition Allen B. Downey PDF All Chapters
Instant Download Think Python 1st Edition Allen B. Downey PDF All Chapters
com
https://ebookname.com/product/think-python-1st-edition-
allen-b-downey/
OR CLICK BUTTON
DOWNLOAD EBOOK
https://ebookname.com/product/think-stats-exploratory-data-
analysis-second-edition-allen-b-downey/
https://ebookname.com/product/think-java-how-to-think-like-a-
computer-scientist-1st-edition-allen-b-downey/
https://ebookname.com/product/computing-handbook-computer-
science-and-software-engineering-3ed-edition-allen-b-tucker/
https://ebookname.com/product/the-geometry-of-special-
relativity-1st-edition-tevian-dray/
Music in the Holocaust Confronting Life in the Nazi
Ghettos and Camps Oxford Historical Monographs Gilbert
https://ebookname.com/product/music-in-the-holocaust-confronting-
life-in-the-nazi-ghettos-and-camps-oxford-historical-monographs-
gilbert/
https://ebookname.com/product/the-three-dimensional-navier-
stokes-equations-classical-theory-1st-edition-james-c-robinson/
https://ebookname.com/product/photoelectrochemical-materials-and-
energy-conversion-processes-1st-edition-richard-c-alkire/
https://ebookname.com/product/mindfulness-1st-edition-heidegger/
https://ebookname.com/product/where-to-retire-7th-edition-globe-
pequot-press/
Within the Frame The Journey of Photographic Vision 1st
Edition 2009 David Duchemin
https://ebookname.com/product/within-the-frame-the-journey-of-
photographic-vision-1st-edition-2009-david-duchemin/
Download from Wow! eBook <www.wowebook.com>
Allen B. Downey
Think Python
Think Python
by Allen B. Downey
Copyright © 2012 Allen Downey. All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America.
Published by O’Reilly Media, Inc., 1005 Gravenstein Highway North, Sebastopol, CA 95472.
O’Reilly books may be purchased for educational, business, or sales promotional use. Online editions are
also available for most titles (http://my.safaribooksonline.com). For more information, contact our corporate/
institutional sales department: 800-998-9938 or corporate@oreilly.com.
Editors: Mike Loukides and Meghan Blanchette Proofreader: Stacie Arellano
Production Editor: Rachel Steely Cover Designer: Karen Montgomery
Interior Designer: David Futato
Illustrators: Robert Romano and Rebecca Demarest
Nutshell Handbook, the Nutshell Handbook logo, and the O’Reilly logo are registered trademarks of O’Reilly
Media, Inc. Think Python, the image of a Carolina Parrot, and related trade dress are trademarks of O’Reilly
Media, Inc.
Many of the designations used by manufacturers and sellers to distinguish their products are claimed as
trademarks. Where those designations appear in this book, and O’Reilly Media, Inc., was aware of a trade
mark claim, the designations have been printed in caps or initial caps.
Think Python is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 3.0 Unported License.
The author maintains an online version at http://thinkpython.com/thinkpython.pdf.
While every precaution has been taken in the preparation of this book, the publisher and authors assume
no responsibility for errors or omissions, or for damages resulting from the use of the information contained
herein.
ISBN: 978-1-449-33072-9
[LSI]
Table of Contents
Preface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
iii
Exercises 21
3. Functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Function Calls 23
Type Conversion Functions 23
Math Functions 24
Composition 25
Adding New Functions 25
Definitions and Uses 27
Flow of Execution 27
Parameters and Arguments 28
Variables and Parameters Are Local 29
Stack Diagrams 30
Fruitful Functions and Void Functions 31
Why Functions? 32
Importing with from 32
Debugging 33
Glossary 33
Exercises 35
iv | Table of Contents
Recursion 53
Stack Diagrams for Recursive Functions 54
Infinite Recursion 55
Keyboard Input 55
Debugging 56
Glossary 57
Exercises 58
6. Fruitful Functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Return Values 61
Incremental Development 62
Composition 64
Boolean Functions 65
More Recursion 66
Leap of Faith 68
One More Example 68
Checking Types 69
Debugging 70
Glossary 71
Exercises 72
7. Iteration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Multiple Assignment 75
Updating Variables 76
The while Statement 76
break 78
Square Roots 79
Algorithms 80
Debugging 81
Glossary 81
Exercises 82
8. Strings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
A String Is a Sequence 85
len 86
Traversal with a for Loop 86
String Slices 87
Strings Are Immutable 88
Searching 89
Looping and Counting 89
String Methods 90
The in Operator 91
Table of Contents | v
String Comparison 92
Debugging 92
Glossary 94
Exercises 95
vi | Table of Contents
Exercises 133
A. Debugging. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
C. Lumpy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Table of Contents | ix
Preface
xi
My first version was rough, but it worked. Students did the reading, and they understood
enough that I could spend class time on the hard topics, the interesting topics and (most
important) letting the students practice.
I released the book under the GNU Free Documentation License, which allows users
to copy, modify, and distribute the book.
What happened next is the cool part. Jeff Elkner, a high school teacher in Virginia,
adopted my book and translated it into Python. He sent me a copy of his translation,
and I had the unusual experience of learning Python by reading my own book. As Green
Tea Press, I published the first Python version in 2001.
In 2003 I started teaching at Olin College and I got to teach Python for the first time.
The contrast with Java was striking. Students struggled less, learned more, worked on
more interesting projects, and generally had a lot more fun.
Over the last nine years I continued to develop the book, correcting errors, improving
some of the examples and adding material, especially exercises.
The result is this book, now with the less grandiose title Think Python. Some of the
changes are:
• I added a section about debugging at the end of each chapter. These sections present
general techniques for finding and avoiding bugs, and warnings about Python
pitfalls.
• I added more exercises, ranging from short tests of understanding to a few sub
stantial projects. And I wrote solutions for most of them.
• I added a series of case studies—longer examples with exercises, solutions, and
discussion. Some are based on Swampy, a suite of Python programs I wrote for use
in my classes. Swampy, code examples, and some solutions are available from http://
thinkpython.com.
• I expanded the discussion of program development plans and basic design patterns.
• I added appendices about debugging, analysis of algorithms, and UML diagrams
with Lumpy.
I hope you enjoy working with this book, and that it helps you learn to program and
think, at least a little bit, like a computer scientist.
—Allen B. Downey
Needham, MA
xii | Preface
Acknowledgments
Many thanks to Jeff Elkner, who translated my Java book into Python, which got this
project started and introduced me to what has turned out to be my favorite language.
Thanks also to Chris Meyers, who contributed several sections to How to Think Like a
Computer Scientist.
Thanks to the Free Software Foundation for developing the GNU Free Documentation
License, which helped make my collaboration with Jeff and Chris possible, and Creative
Commons for the license I am using now.
Thanks to the editors at Lulu who worked on How to Think Like a Computer Scientist.
Thanks to all the students who worked with earlier versions of this book and all the
contributors (listed below) who sent in corrections and suggestions.
Contributor List
More than 100 sharp-eyed and thoughtful readers have sent in suggestions and correc
tions over the past few years. Their contributions, and enthusiasm for this project, have
been a huge help. If you have a suggestion or correction, please send email to feed
back@thinkpython.com. If I make a change based on your feedback, I will add you to
the contributor list (unless you ask to be omitted).
If you include at least part of the sentence the error appears in, that makes it easy for
me to search. Page and section numbers are fine, too, but not quite as easy to work with.
Thanks!
• Lloyd Hugh Allen sent in a correction to Section 8.4.
• Yvon Boulianne sent in a correction of a semantic error in Chapter 5.
• Fred Bremmer submitted a correction in Section 2.1.
• Jonah Cohen wrote the Perl scripts to convert the LaTeX source for this book into beautiful HTML.
• Michael Conlon sent in a grammar correction in Chapter 2 and an improvement in style in Chapter
1, and he initiated discussion on the technical aspects of interpreters.
• Benoit Girard sent in a correction to a humorous mistake in Section 5.6.
• Courtney Gleason and Katherine Smith wrote horsebet.py, which was used as a case study in an
earlier version of the book. Their program can now be found on the website.
• Lee Harr submitted more corrections than we have room to list here, and indeed he should be listed
as one of the principal editors of the text.
• James Kaylin is a student using the text. He has submitted numerous corrections.
Preface | xiii
• David Kershaw fixed the broken catTwice function in Section 3.10.
• Eddie Lam has sent in numerous corrections to Chapters 1, 2, and 3. He also fixed the Makefile so
that it creates an index the first time it is run and helped us set up a versioning scheme.
• Man-Yong Lee sent in a correction to the example code in Section 2.4.
• David Mayo pointed out that the word “unconsciously” in Chapter 1 needed to be changed to
“subconsciously.”
• Chris McAloon sent in several corrections to Sections 3.9 and 3.10.
• Matthew J. Moelter has been a long-time contributor who sent in numerous corrections and sug
gestions to the book.
• Simon Dicon Montford reported a missing function definition and several typos in Chapter 3. He
also found errors in the increment function in Chapter 13.
• John Ouzts corrected the definition of “return value” in Chapter 3.
• Kevin Parks sent in valuable comments and suggestions as to how to improve the distribution of the
book.
• David Pool sent in a typo in the glossary of Chapter 1, as well as kind words of encouragement.
• Michael Schmitt sent in a correction to the chapter on files and exceptions.
• Robin Shaw pointed out an error in Section 13.1, where the printTime function was used in an
example without being defined.
• Paul Sleigh found an error in Chapter 7 and a bug in Jonah Cohen’s Perl script that generates HTML
from LaTeX.
• Craig T. Snydal is testing the text in a course at Drew University. He has contributed several valuable
suggestions and corrections.
• Ian Thomas and his students are using the text in a programming course. They are the first ones to
test the chapters in the latter half of the book, and they have made numerous corrections and
suggestions.
• Keith Verheyden sent in a correction in Chapter 3.
• Peter Winstanley let us know about a longstanding error in our Latin in Chapter 3.
• Chris Wrobel made corrections to the code in the chapter on file I/O and exceptions.
• Moshe Zadka has made invaluable contributions to this project. In addition to writing the first draft
of the chapter on Dictionaries, he provided continual guidance in the early stages of the book.
• Christoph Zwerschke sent several corrections and pedagogic suggestions, and explained the differ
ence between gleich and selbe.
• James Mayer sent us a whole slew of spelling and typographical errors, including two in the con
tributor list.
• Hayden McAfee caught a potentially confusing inconsistency between two examples.
xiv | Preface
• Angel Arnal is part of an international team of translators working on the Spanish version of the
text. He has also found several errors in the English version.
• Tauhidul Hoque and Lex Berezhny created the illustrations in Chapter 1 and improved many of the
other illustrations.
• Dr. Michele Alzetta caught an error in Chapter 8 and sent some interesting pedagogic comments
and suggestions about Fibonacci and Old Maid.
• Andy Mitchell caught a typo in Chapter 1 and a broken example in Chapter 2.
• Kalin Harvey suggested a clarification in Chapter 7 and caught some typos.
• Christopher P. Smith caught several typos and helped us update the book for Python 2.2.
• David Hutchins caught a typo in the Foreword.
• Gregor Lingl is teaching Python at a high school in Vienna, Austria. He is working on a German
translation of the book, and he caught a couple of bad errors in Chapter 5.
• Julie Peters caught a typo in the Preface.
• Florin Oprina sent in an improvement in makeTime, a correction in printTime, and a nice typo.
• D. J. Webre suggested a clarification in Chapter 3.
• Ken found a fistful of errors in Chapters 8, 9 and 11.
• Ivo Wever caught a typo in Chapter 5 and suggested a clarification in Chapter 3.
• Curtis Yanko suggested a clarification in Chapter 2.
• Ben Logan sent in a number of typos and problems with translating the book into HTML.
• Jason Armstrong saw the missing word in Chapter 2.
• Louis Cordier noticed a spot in Chapter 16 where the code didn’t match the text.
• Brian Cain suggested several clarifications in Chapters 2 and 3.
• Rob Black sent in a passel of corrections, including some changes for Python 2.2.
• Jean-Philippe Rey at Ecole Centrale Paris sent a number of patches, including some updates for
Python 2.2 and other thoughtful improvements.
• Jason Mader at George Washington University made a number of useful suggestions and corrections.
• Jan Gundtofte-Bruun reminded us that “a error” is an error.
• Abel David and Alexis Dinno reminded us that the plural of “matrix” is “matrices”, not “matrixes.”
This error was in the book for years, but two readers with the same initials reported it on the same
day. Weird.
• Charles Thayer encouraged us to get rid of the semi-colons we had put at the ends of some statements
and to clean up our use of “argument” and “parameter.”
• Roger Sperberg pointed out a twisted piece of logic in Chapter 3.
• Sam Bull pointed out a confusing paragraph in Chapter 2.
Preface | xv
• Andrew Cheung pointed out two instances of “use before def.”
• C. Corey Capel spotted the missing word in the Third Theorem of Debugging and a typo in
Chapter 4.
• Alessandra helped clear up some Turtle confusion.
• Wim Champagne found a brain-o in a dictionary example.
• Douglas Wright pointed out a problem with floor division in arc.
• Jared Spindor found some jetsam at the end of a sentence.
• Lin Peiheng sent a number of very helpful suggestions.
• Ray Hagtvedt sent in two errors and a not-quite-error.
• Torsten Hübsch pointed out an inconsistency in Swampy.
• Inga Petuhhov corrected an example in Chapter 14.
• Arne Babenhauserheide sent several helpful corrections.
• Mark E. Casida is is good at spotting repeated words.
• Scott Tyler filled in a that was missing. And then sent in a heap of corrections.
• Gordon Shephard sent in several corrections, all in separate emails.
• Andrew Turner spotted an error in Chapter 8.
• Adam Hobart fixed a problem with floor division in arc.
• Daryl Hammond and Sarah Zimmerman pointed out that I served up math.pi too early. And Zim
spotted a typo.
• George Sass found a bug in a Debugging section.
• Brian Bingham suggested Exercise 11-10.
• Leah Engelbert-Fenton pointed out that I used tuple as a variable name, contrary to my own advice.
And then found a bunch of typos and a “use before def.”
• Joe Funke spotted a typo.
• Chao-chao Chen found an inconsistency in the Fibonacci example.
• Jeff Paine knows the difference between space and spam.
• Lubos Pintes sent in a typo.
• Gregg Lind and Abigail Heithoff suggested Exercise 14-4.
• Max Hailperin has sent in a number of corrections and suggestions. Max is one of the authors of the
extraordinary Concrete Abstractions, which you might want to read when you are done with this
book.
• Chotipat Pornavalai found an error in an error message.
• Stanislaw Antol sent a list of very helpful suggestions.
xvi | Preface
• Eric Pashman sent a number of corrections for Chapters 4–11.
• Miguel Azevedo found some typos.
• Jianhua Liu sent in a long list of corrections.
• Nick King found a missing word.
• Martin Zuther sent a long list of suggestions.
• Adam Zimmerman found an inconsistency in my instance of an “instance” and several other errors.
• Ratnakar Tiwari suggested a footnote explaining degenerate triangles.
• Anurag Goel suggested another solution for is_abecedarian and sent some additional corrections.
And he knows how to spell Jane Austen.
• Kelli Kratzer spotted one of the typos.
• Mark Griffiths pointed out a confusing example in Chapter 3.
• Roydan Ongie found an error in my Newton’s method.
• Patryk Wolowiec helped me with a problem in the HTML version.
• Mark Chonofsky told me about a new keyword in Python 3.
• Russell Coleman helped me with my geometry.
• Wei Huang spotted several typographical errors.
• Karen Barber spotted the the oldest typo in the book.
• Nam Nguyen found a typo and pointed out that I used the Decorator pattern but didn’t mention it
by name.
• Stéphane Morin sent in several corrections and suggestions.
• Paul Stoop corrected a typo in uses_only.
• Eric Bronner pointed out a confusion in the discussion of the order of operations.
• Alexandros Gezerlis set a new standard for the number and quality of suggestions he submitted. We
are deeply grateful!
• Gray Thomas knows his right from his left.
• Giovanni Escobar Sosa sent a long list of corrections and suggestions.
• Alix Etienne fixed one of the URLs.
• Kuang He found a typo.
• Daniel Neilson corrected an error about the order of operations.
• Will McGinnis pointed out that polyline was defined differently in two places.
• Swarup Sahoo spotted a missing semi-colon.
• Frank Hecker pointed out an exercise that was under-specified, and some broken links.
• Animesh B helped me clean up a confusing example.
Preface | xvii
• Martin Caspersen found two round-off errors.
• Gregor Ulm sent several corrections and suggestions.
xviii | Preface
CHAPTER 1
The Way of the Program
The goal of this book is to teach you to think like a computer scientist. This way of
thinking combines some of the best features of mathematics, engineering, and natural
science. Like mathematicians, computer scientists use formal languages to denote ideas
(specifically computations). Like engineers, they design things, assembling components
into systems and evaluating tradeoffs among alternatives. Like scientists, they observe
the behavior of complex systems, form hypotheses, and test predictions.
The single most important skill for a computer scientist is problem solving. Problem
solving means the ability to formulate problems, think creatively about solutions, and
express a solution clearly and accurately. As it turns out, the process of learning to
program is an excellent opportunity to practice problem-solving skills. That’s why this
chapter is called, “The way of the program.”
On one level, you will be learning to program, a useful skill by itself. On another level,
you will use programming as a means to an end. As we go along, that end will become
clearer.
1
The advantages are enormous. First, it is much easier to program in a high-level lan
guage. Programs written in a high-level language take less time to write, they are shorter
and easier to read, and they are more likely to be correct. Second, high-level languages
are portable, meaning that they can run on different kinds of computers with few or no
modifications. Low-level programs can run on only one kind of computer and have to
be rewritten to run on another.
Due to these advantages, almost all programs are written in high-level languages. Low-
level languages are used only for a few specialized applications.
Two kinds of programs process high-level languages into low-level languages:
interpreters and compilers. An interpreter reads a high-level program and executes it,
meaning that it does what the program says. It processes the program a little at a time,
alternately reading lines and performing computations. Figure 1-1 shows the structure
of an interpreter.
Figure 1-1. An interpreter processes the program a little at a time, alternately reading lines
and performing computations.
A compiler reads the program and translates it completely before the program starts
running. In this context, the high-level program is called the source code, and the
translated program is called the object code or the executable. Once a program is com
piled, you can execute it repeatedly without further translation. Figure 1-2 shows the
structure of a compiler.
Figure 1-2. A compiler translates source code into object code, which is run by a hardware
executor.
The chevron, >>>, is the prompt the interpreter uses to indicate that it is ready. If you
type 1 + 1, the interpreter replies 2.
Alternatively, you can store code in a file and use the interpreter to execute the contents
of the file, which is called a script. By convention, Python scripts have names that end
with .py.
To execute the script, you have to tell the interpreter the name of the file. If you have a
script named dinsdale.py and you are working in a UNIX command window, you type
python dinsdale.py. In other development environments, the details of executing
scripts are different. You can find instructions for your environment at the Python web
site http://python.org.
Working in interactive mode is convenient for testing small pieces of code because you
can type and execute them immediately. But for anything more than a few lines, you
should save your code as a script so you can modify and execute it in the future.
What Is a Program?
A program is a sequence of instructions that specifies how to perform a computation.
The computation might be something mathematical, such as solving a system of equa
tions or finding the roots of a polynomial, but it can also be a symbolic computation,
such as searching and replacing text in a document or (strangely enough) compiling a
program.
The details look different in different languages, but a few basic instructions appear in
just about every language:
input:
Get data from the keyboard, a file, or some other device.
output:
Display data on the screen or send data to a file or other device.
math:
Perform basic mathematical operations like addition and multiplication.
conditional execution:
Check for certain conditions and execute the appropriate code.
repetition:
Perform some action repeatedly, usually with some variation.
What Is a Program? | 3
Believe it or not, that’s pretty much all there is to it. Every program you’ve ever used, no
matter how complicated, is made up of instructions that look pretty much like these. So
you can think of programming as the process of breaking a large, complex task into
smaller and smaller subtasks until the subtasks are simple enough to be performed with
one of these basic instructions.
That may be a little vague, but we will come back to this topic when we talk about
algorithms.
What Is Debugging?
Programming is error-prone. For whimsical reasons, programming errors are called
bugs and the process of tracking them down is called debugging.
Three kinds of errors can occur in a program: syntax errors, runtime errors, and se
mantic errors. It is useful to distinguish between them in order to track them down more
quickly.
Syntax Errors
Python can only execute a program if the syntax is correct; otherwise, the interpreter
displays an error message. Syntax refers to the structure of a program and the rules
about that structure.For example, parentheses have to come in matching pairs, so
(1 + 2) is legal, but 8) is a syntax error.
In English readers can tolerate most syntax errors, which is why we can read the poetry
of e. e. cummings without spewing error messages. Python is not so forgiving. If there
is a single syntax error anywhere in your program, Python will display an error message
and quit, and you will not be able to run your program. During the first few weeks of
your programming career, you will probably spend a lot of time tracking down syntax
errors. As you gain experience, you will make fewer errors and find them faster.
Runtime Errors
The second type of error is a runtime error, so called because the error does not appear
until after the program has started running. These errors are also called exceptions
because they usually indicate that something exceptional (and bad) has happened.
Runtime errors are rare in the simple programs you will see in the first few chapters, so
it might be a while before you encounter one.
Experimental Debugging
One of the most important skills you will acquire is debugging. Although it can be
frustrating, debugging is one of the most intellectually rich, challenging, and interesting
parts of programming.
In some ways, debugging is like detective work. You are confronted with clues, and you
have to infer the processes and events that led to the results you see.
Debugging is also like an experimental science. Once you have an idea about what is
going wrong, you modify your program and try again. If your hypothesis was correct,
then you can predict the result of the modification, and you take a step closer to a
working program. If your hypothesis was wrong, you have to come up with a new one.
As Sherlock Holmes pointed out, “When you have eliminated the impossible, whatever
remains, however improbable, must be the truth.” (A. Conan Doyle, The Sign of Four)
For some people, programming and debugging are the same thing. That is, program
ming is the process of gradually debugging a program until it does what you want. The
idea is that you should start with a program that does something and make small mod
ifications, debugging them as you go, so that you always have a working program.
For example, Linux is an operating system that contains thousands of lines of code, but
it started out as a simple program Linus Torvalds used to explore the Intel 80386 chip.
According to Larry Greenfield, “One of Linus’s earlier projects was a program that would
switch between printing AAAA and BBBB. This later evolved to Linux.” (The Linux
Users’ Guide Beta Version 1).
Later chapters will make more suggestions about debugging and other programming
practices.
Semantic Errors | 5
Formal and Natural Languages
Natural languages are the languages people speak, such as English, Spanish, and French.
They were not designed by people (although people try to impose some order on them);
they evolved naturally.
Formal languages are languages that are designed by people for specific applications.
For example, the notation that mathematicians use is a formal language that is partic
ularly good at denoting relationships among numbers and symbols. Chemists use a
formal language to represent the chemical structure of molecules. And most
importantly:
Programming languages are formal languages that have been designed to express
computations.
Formal languages tend to have strict rules about syntax. For example, 3 + 3 = 6 is a
syntactically correct mathematical statement, but 3+ = 3$6 is not. H 2O is a syntactically
correct chemical formula, but 2 Zz is not.
Syntax rules come in two flavors, pertaining to tokens and structure. Tokens are the
basic elements of the language, such as words, numbers, and chemical elements. One of
the problems with 3+ = 3$6 is that $ is not a legal token in mathematics (at least as far
as I know). Similarly, 2 Zz is not legal because there is no element with the abbreviation
Zz.
The second type of syntax error pertains to the structure of a statement; that is, the way
the tokens are arranged. The statement 3+ = 3 is illegal because even though + and =
are legal tokens, you can’t have one right after the other. Similarly, in a chemical formula
the subscript comes after the element name, not before.
Exercise 1-1.
Write a well-structured English sentence with invalid tokens in it. Then write another
sentence with all valid tokens but with invalid structure.
When you read a sentence in English or a statement in a formal language, you have to
figure out what the structure of the sentence is (although in a natural language you do
this subconsciously). This process is called parsing.
For example, when you hear the sentence, “The penny dropped,” you understand that
“the penny” is the subject and “dropped” is the predicate. Once you have parsed a sen
tence, you can figure out what it means, or the semantics of the sentence. Assuming that
you know what a penny is and what it means to drop, you will understand the general
implication of this sentence.
Although formal and natural languages have many features in common—tokens, struc
ture, syntax, and semantics—there are some differences:
People who grow up speaking a natural language (everyone) often have a hard time
adjusting to formal languages. In some ways, the difference between formal and natural
language is like the difference between poetry and prose, but more so:
Poetry:
Words are used for their sounds as well as for their meaning, and the whole poem
together creates an effect or emotional response. Ambiguity is not only common
but often deliberate.
Prose:
The literal meaning of words is more important, and the structure contributes more
meaning. Prose is more amenable to analysis than poetry but still often ambiguous.
Programs:
The meaning of a computer program is unambiguous and literal, and can be un
derstood entirely by analysis of the tokens and structure.
Here are some suggestions for reading programs (and other formal languages). First,
remember that formal languages are much more dense than natural languages, so it
takes longer to read them. Also, the structure is very important, so it is usually not a
good idea to read from top to bottom, left to right. Instead, learn to parse the program
in your head, identifying the tokens and interpreting the structure. Finally, the details
matter. Small errors in spelling and punctuation, which you can get away with in natural
languages, can make a big difference in a formal language.
This is an example of a print statement, which doesn’t actually print anything on paper.
It displays a value on the screen. In this case, the result is the words
Hello, World!
The quotation marks in the program mark the beginning and end of the text to be
displayed; they don’t appear in the result.
In Python 3, the syntax for printing is slightly different:
print('Hello, World!')
The parentheses indicate that print is a function. We’ll get to functions in Chapter 3.
For the rest of this book, I’ll use the print statement. If you are using Python 3, you will
have to translate. But other than that, there are very few differences we have to worry
about.
Debugging
It is a good idea to read this book in front of a computer so you can try out the examples
as you go. You can run most of the examples in interactive mode, but if you put the code
in a script, it is easier to try out variations.
Whenever you are experimenting with a new feature, you should try to make mistakes.
For example, in the “Hello, world!” program, what happens if you leave out one of the
quotation marks? What if you leave out both? What if you spell print wrong?
This kind of experiment helps you remember what you read; it also helps with debug
ging, because you get to know what the error messages mean. It is better to make mistakes
now and on purpose than later and accidentally.
Programming, and especially debugging, sometimes brings out strong emotions. If you
are struggling with a difficult bug, you might feel angry, despondent or embarrassed.
There is evidence that people naturally respond to computers as if they were people.
When they work well, we think of them as teammates, and when they are obstinate or
rude, we respond to them the same way we respond to rude, obstinate people (Reeves
and Nass, The Media Equation: How People Treat Computers, Television, and New Media
Like Real People and Places).
Preparing for these reactions might help you deal with them. One approach is to think
of the computer as an employee with certain strengths, like speed and precision, and
particular weaknesses, like lack of empathy and inability to grasp the big picture.
Your job is to be a good manager: find ways to take advantage of the strengths and
mitigate the weaknesses. And find ways to use your emotions to engage with the prob
lem, without letting your reactions interfere with your ability to work effectively.
Glossary
Problem solving:
The process of formulating a problem, finding a solution, and expressing the solu
tion.
High-level language:
A programming language like Python that is designed to be easy for humans to read
and write.
Low-level language:
A programming language that is designed to be easy for a computer to execute; also
called “machine language” or “assembly language.”
Portability:
A property of a program that can run on more than one kind of computer.
Interpret:
To execute a program in a high-level language by translating it one line at a time.
Compile:
To translate a program written in a high-level language into a low-level language
all at once, in preparation for later execution.
Source code:
A program written in a high-level language before being compiled.
Object code:
The output of the compiler after it translates the program.
Executable:
Another name for object code that is ready to be executed.
Prompt:
Characters displayed by the interpreter to indicate that it is ready to take input from
the user.
Script:
A program stored in a file (usually one that will be interpreted).
Interactive mode:
A way of using the Python interpreter by typing commands and expressions at the
prompt.
Glossary | 9
Script mode:
A way of using the Python interpreter to read and execute statements in a script.
Program:
A set of instructions that specifies a computation.
Algorithm:
A general process for solving a category of problems.
Bug:
An error in a program.
Debugging:
The process of finding and removing any of the three kinds of programming errors.
Syntax:
The structure of a program.
Syntax error:
An error in a program that makes it impossible to parse (and therefore impossible
to interpret).
Exception:
An error that is detected while the program is running.
Semantics:
The meaning of a program.
Semantic error:
An error in a program that makes it do something other than what the programmer
intended.
Natural language:
Any one of the spoken languages that evolved naturally.
Formal language:
Any one of the languages that people have designed for specific purposes, such as
representing mathematical ideas or computer programs; all programming lan
guages are formal languages.
Token:
One of the basic elements of the syntactic structure of a program, analogous to a
word in a natural language.
Parse:
To examine a program and analyze the syntactic structure.
Print statement:
An instruction that causes the Python interpreter to display a value on the screen.
Exercises | 11
CHAPTER 2
Variables, Expressions, and Statements
Not surprisingly, strings belong to the type str and integers belong to the type int. Less
obviously, numbers with a decimal point belong to a type called float, because these
numbers are represented in a format called floating-point.
>>> type(3.2)
<type 'float'>
What about values like '17' and '3.2'? They look like numbers, but they are in quo
tation marks like strings.
>>> type('17')
<type 'str'>
>>> type('3.2')
<type 'str'>
They’re strings.
When you type a large integer, you might be tempted to use commas between groups
of three digits, as in 1,000,000. This is not a legal integer in Python, but it is legal:
13
>>> 1,000,000
(1, 0, 0)
Well, that’s not what we expected at all! Python interprets 1,000,000 as a comma-
separated sequence of integers. This is the first example we have seen of a semantic error:
the code runs without producing an error message, but it doesn’t do the “right” thing.
Variables
One of the most powerful features of a programming language is the ability to manip
ulate variables. A variable is a name that refers to a value.
An assignment statement creates new variables and gives them values:
>>> message = 'And now for something completely different'
>>> n = 17
>>> pi = 3.1415926535897932
This example makes three assignments. The first assigns a string to a new variable named
message; the second gives the integer 17 to n; the third assigns the (approximate) value
of π to pi.
A common way to represent variables on paper is to write the name with an arrow
pointing to the variable’s value. This kind of figure is called a state diagram because it
shows what state each of the variables is in (think of it as the variable’s state of mind).
Figure 2-1 shows the result of the previous example.
Exercise 2-1.
If you type an integer with a leading zero, you might get a confusing error:
>>> zipcode = 02492
^
SyntaxError: invalid token
Can you figure out what is going on? Hint: display the values 01, 010, 0100 and 01000.
76trombones is illegal because it does not begin with a letter. more@ is illegal because it
contains an illegal character, @. But what’s wrong with class?
It turns out that class is one of Python’s keywords. The interpreter uses keywords to
recognize the structure of the program, and they cannot be used as variable names.
Python 2 has 31 keywords:
and del from not while
as elif global or with
assert else if pass yield
break except import print
class exec in raise
continue finally is return
def for lambda try